Atrhiv~~s c?f i lcl~rrtrr l hirloty 33 I I ): 146-158. 2006 0 L.C. Kc>olimaal;er, P.A. klorris. I.E. Glenn & P.J. klulldy 2006.

The ornithological cabinet of Jean-Baptiste Becoeur and the secret of the arsenical soap

4 The Grange, 1,owc.r C~ilclecotc., Bigleswade. Beclfordshire SG 18 9ET. CTK (e-mail: rliincl@rool\nlaahc.r. frcc'ser\ P .CO.LI~ ) (cclr-re\lxlnding authorl. " \Vest l~luina. Lonclon Road. Ascot S15 7DG. LIE;. ' Centre for Filrn and htledia Studie4. Universily 01' Ci~pe Tc)wn. South Africa. D Dcpartniznt ol' Forest Resources and Wildlife hIana_genic.~i~. Nalional University of Scierlcs arid Tcchnolo_ry. PO Box .4C 939, Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT: The u\e of arsenical soap to rcliably prcscrve hird \bins was orlc of the most \ipniticant ad\ance\ in tlie development of ornithology. but the inventor of this material ncver published the szcret of its coniposition :and remains largely ~lnhnown. .lean-Baptistc BCcocur 117 18-17771. plinl-macist in klelr t France), Iiad u cabinet of European birds. u;hich was only generally described during liis lifetime. The collection was sold to Duke Karl 111 of Zcvcibriichen to he incorporated in the cabinct in Knrlsbe~p. Although specimens [nay have been tl-a~~sfeirecl to \~ la i i~~hei i i~ or Met7 around 1795. none can no\+( be recosni7ed. Rt5coeur experimented with a variety of chclnical!, to discover a \+il\; to stop insect atlacks on the $kins. Believing to have succeeded in 17-13. he tsicd to advertiw tlie efficacy of his method tq di\tributing treated bird skins to the Jardin des Plan~cs in Paris and wme influential cabiller owners. He died without publiqhing tlie recipe of the arcenical soap. I t appeared again early in the nineteenth century in publications by Daudin and Dufresnc. who wcre connected with the MusOum d'I-Iistoire Nstul-elle in Paris. It is a~rgued L1131 Bkcoei~r's methad was guarded hy Franqnis Lcvaillarlt I 1753-1828). who sold the recipe together cvilh his collection LO the French government in 1797.

KEYWORDS: tasidcnny - prescrvativc - Levaillanl - k l e t ~ - Mannheim - cabinets

INTRODUCTION

Although cabinets of natural history were growing exponenrially both in 11umbe1- arid in size ciuring the eighteenth century. there was were no suilable reliable metliodc to protect bird skins and -Eeathelas li.om attacks by insects. For instance. Rkaurnur (1738) complained that to collect birds was all but a waste of time, dcspite the intrinsic beauty of their plumage. "having had the L/lortification to see them every Day destroyed hy ravenous lnsec~s." A solution to this vexing probleill was found in the 1740s by Bicoei~l., a pharmacist living in klctr. who had a great interest in nalurul histal-y and collected birds from an early age. Iie de\:ised a preparation, incol-porating white :u-\enic (arsenic trioxide: arse~iioit s oxidc ), that served as both a skin preservative ailcl an effective insecticide. The formul:~ remained unpublished during liis life-tiriie. then re:lppeal-ecl qudde111y with proper attribution at the I3eginning of the nineteenth century. and has bee11 used succe~sfully in mu\eum collections around the world at least until very recently (Morris, 1993). Although tlie name of Rkcoeur- ic know11 LO many ornithologists and taxidermists as Ihc inventor of this arsenical soap. details of his biography are only found in a few I-ather inaccessible papers by Duharnel ( 1861) and by Dorve:iilx (19231, 1923b. 1924). The imporlance of the arsenical qoap was placed in a historical context by Farbel- ( 1977).

THE LIFE OF BECOEUR

Jean-Baptiste R6coeul- was born to a f;lmily of' pharm:lcists settled i n the town OS h,lct/, north-eaqtern France. Hi\ parents, Francpis Bicoeur and Anne Vaucremont, were ~iiai~ied in 17 14 and had two children, Jean-B~~priste (born 16 April 17 1 8 ) and his younsur- brother Fra~iqois, who cliecl i n the 1760\ leailing six chilcfren (Flcur. 1936). Jean-Baptiste was sent to a Jejuit school in his home totvn. but performed poorly and ~s::is then apprenticed in his father'\ shop ah a teenager. After obtaining his Mastership in Pharmacy on 1 December 1738. he spent three year\ at the Jarclin des Plantes in Paris to study tlic art of' taxidermy. On his return to Met/ in 174 1. hc tiia~.riecl h;ladeleinc Bkcharnps and bought ph~u-macy near the Cathedral Saint-Etienne. On a visit to Metz i n August 1744. King Louis XV suddcnly fell ill ancl \\:as cured with the assist:ince 01' Bicoeur, whicli made his narne known thl.ou,ohour the country (Dorveaus. 19 1-31.

Bicoeur was intel-e\ted i n tlic science\. e\pecially in natur:~l history. In 1757 a new scientilic society was Sorined i n k'Ic17. [he SocietC. d ' ~ t i ~ c l r de\ Sciences et des .Arts. which later evolved into the Academic de \!let/. A\ this had a mo\tly clerical menibel-ship, Becoeur did not join. In\tead, hc associ:lted hioisclf fro111 the outset with a small p:lrallel society started on l7 August 1759 called the Sociktk des Philntti?nes. I-le usually attended its meetings and read rlilie papers between 176 1 ;ind 1773 on subjects ranging fro111 the study of mathematics and chemistry to a description o f a cabinet of natur:ll hi\tory and :I method to display birds; all of these remaining unpublished (Anonymous. 1875: Dorveaux, 1934: 10). In the 1760s. Bicoeur tried o n 5ever:ll occasion\ to tind employment as a tasidermisr or "conser\'ateur" in the Royal Cabinet i n Paris, but his attcmptq \v.vcre in v:lin. He tliereforc re~nainccl in h?let/ until he died. after long sickness, on 15 December 1777.

B~?COEUR'S CABINET OF BIRDS

Bkcocur had started to bc interested i n tlic anirnal kingdom :lt an early agc, "dks mon enfance". as he hi~tiseli said i n a letter writlet1 to the Jo~o. i tcr l erlc:\wloj~6cli(/11e which contained a few autobiographical recollections (Becoeur. 1774a: 149). I t is recorded that he often made excursions into the counrryside to obsei-ve and collect tlic local species o f birds and insect5 (Dorveaux, 1924: 6). I n this way he cv:~s rible to assemble an extensive cabinet of natural history, exhibiting a selection of mounted birds. probably rliostly European \pecies. besides insects ancl a few other animals (Iluhai-t~cl, 1804: 272; Do[-vcaus, 1924: 21 ). Althoilgh BPcoeur allowecl visitors to see his cabinet, only a few contemporary descriptions of its contents have been found. hidden in obscure books about natural history i n the region. Pierre Joseph Buc 'ho~ ( 173 1 - 1 807). physici;~n i n I\;lct~ and proliiic author of mainly botanical worlcs. iri 177 1 gave the following eye-witness account of the collection assembled by Bicoeur in a chaptel- on cabinets in Lorraine (Buc'ho~, 177 1 : 165-1 66):

The third Cabinet is that of \;Ir Bdcoeur, apolliecary in hlelz. whicll only includes 7oological ~pecirncns. The hiril?; are the rnoit inlcrcsting and alrilosr all kinds found in thir country arc represented. There are nlso a feiv foreign species, including the Ha~ni~igo, (hc swan. several colibris and humming birds, a gallinule, a night he~.c>ri, a small husrarcl and a penguin. One especially atlmire~ tlrc liead O S lhc cardinal bird and beaks and thrwats of the toucan. The cabinet irlsu has a s~nall collection of eggs and nests. Frorn 4letz I received an egg. \vhich showed the tipurc of a clock on its shell. but it was not complete Iqec ihc Mkmoires of the Acade~ily nbout the forniution of illis egg].

TIlc birds in Becoeur's cahinet arc very well mour~ted in thcir riatural attitudes. 'l'hc method ernplnyeJ by

this nuturali>t guarantees that the bird5 arc frcc f~.orn attack I>y inrects anrl are pmtectcd against clccay. even when thcy are exposecl to air. There are birils ill tlie cabincl which w e e p~.efer.vecl twc~ity years ago ;incl are still a i fresh as on the lirst day. One t\.ould \\-is11 that UCcocu~ ~.c.\:ealecl this secret, \vliich \i*oi~lcl ~i i i~ch ohligc other niltul-ali.;ts. The cabinet also cnritains a ctollection t11'local insects and a fe\v li~rcipn ipccies. like tlie large Indian stag-beetle. tlic 2reat fireily, tlie Antillcan phalangiil. [lie Italian dung-beetle. Italian centipeclcs. [h? lar,oe millipede ancl the American ivoodboring beetle. 'l'licre are only u k w quaclr-upeds. includiri~ a badger. a young roe-deer. \vhite and \ i l i Id hares.'

Soori after Bkcoe~lr's death. Bernardin Pien-on in a curious poelii published in both French ancl Latin o n facing pages, gave another insight into the contents of thir cabinet. In a I'ootnote, lic mentioned that thc apottiec:l~.y had cliecl in 1777 and tliat an obituary hacl been read by Do~niniclue Nicolas Hyacinthe Louis Bardou Duharnel ( 1734-1 8 I 1 ) at the Academy in hletz. He was awiu-e that B6coeur hat1 guarded a secret to cotlserve birds in u superior f;\sliion (Pit.~.ron. 1779: 1-39) and this prolxhly cv:ix common Iitlowleclge locally. His artistic description of the cahinet may be quotecl here (Pierron. 1779):

I-lad Bicocur lived in ages past, hc would hnvc heen accuseil of witchcraft and enchantment. What \sronders has this excellent natu~.i~lirt ncll hecn able t o unilc in his cuhinet. These are trul? im~nortal a n i ~ ~ ~ a l s . Tlie dog bark4 (or a o i t scems:l. 111e nonk key cli:uiges posture. [lie licclgehog hides below its spines, tlie tiriiid hare lifts its ear to listen. the >loth fears to move in searcli 01' hod. tlie Indian stag-hectle hrcaks the sugarciine. the lantern-fly 4heds a soft lisht in tlis darkness of tlie nielit. the butterfly Ilutters here and there or rests on the Ilowers. the 114' recklessly tlies into thc web which 11ie s11idc.1- has woven for it. The birds soar or play with tlieir feathers painted in a t h o ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ i l l difi'erent colours. Tliey are mar\lelously assorrecl i n the hircl of paradise, ti.hii.h ha> a golden head. a Freen ci)llar. a bright red back and \vingc; equal to the rainllow in heauty: yet. it is riot inferior to the humming-bird whew lively brightneis surl1asvi a11 mr~stcrpieces af iirt. The fe:rther, of the cock-of-the-vock seem to compete with the tirst lays ol' rla\vn. The toucan with it> curved hcuk, the cardinal. the American blackbird - hut 1 \ \ ~ ) i ~ l d strug_sle ill vain to mention id1 the birds cvliich 13ecoeur asscmhled. The11 a hideo~~, snake with bristling scales is re;~dy to bite with poisonous I'tngs. and a scorpion. with its learful >tin?. stay, hidden. Elsewhere the tl~rentula ~enil\ its vveh. ancl if that spider happens t o bite you. only music and dance can counteract the singulr~r effect, of the poison.

The envy which li)llo\i;s all g ~ . e ~ ~ t lnen coi~lil not Icavc I3iccrcur ;rl(lnc: hut Ilic cloud will soon puss. The Hame of the truth \ i f i l l ilissipatc the ~ I O L I ~ S of tlic' lie: posterity will do justice to the merit ot'tllis ?real naturalist. Pari, \still hc~iioan. exp lien i t is too late. that it never took the sxc.r\:ice of this estimable citizen.?

Tlie cabinet was also mentionecl in the list of FI-encli collections of natural history found i n Dizallisr d'A~*genville ( 1780: 1: 276). bill only very liriefly with refa-etice to the description of Buc'lioz. A tiiial eulogy was published hy his pupil and friend Franqois Levaillant. who lived in Met/, as a teenager after r~triving with his parents from Surinam i n 1763, and learned much from R6coeitr. Levaillant must have 5pent tiiany hours in tlie cabinet. which lie later called the lnost comprehensive collection of European birds (Levaillant. 1790: xx; 1801 )."

TIHE FATE OF BECOEUR-S CABINET

Bicoeur ( 1774a: 15 1 ) himself' st:lted that he pave rome of his duplicate specimens to the Comte de B c ~ e it1 1756. which were still i t1 superb condition it1 1774. This may have becn [lie Abbk de Besse. canon of the cathedral in Metz, \vliose cabinet surpassed that o f B6coeur if we are to believe the description in Buc'hor ( 177 1 : 163). copied by Di~rillier d'A~.geriville ( 1780: 1: 376). Althoi~gli there probably were similar donations of spare rpecimens to friends and benefrlclors. the bulk of the cabinet nssemblecl by Bicoeur was intact at the time of his death in December 1777. According to Le\;;iilla~it ( 1801 ). the collection was bought seven years after his death (hence in 1781) by Karl I11 August Christian. Duke of Pfal7-Birkenfeld-

B~COEI!R ASD ARSENICAL SOAP 149

Zweibriicken (1746-1795). Soon ai'ter the start of hi\ reign in 1775. the duke built a neu chateau, the K:trlsbel-g near Hoii~httig in Saal.lanci, which lie occupied fi-orn 1778 onwards. I t contained a library. a magnificent collection of painting5 and other works of :lit, and a ~iienagc~-ic, as well as a cabinet of natural 1listot.y (Pctry, 1937: Bender ancl Kleher; 1993).

Tlie director of both cabinet ancl menagetie was Frangois Holandre. who in 1785 published a catalogue of the birds available a1 the tiriie in the cahinel. The list identities 1 , l 87 specimens representing about ;l thousancl species (Hartsrt. 1923 ). In his intt-eduction. Holandre ( 1 785) stated that tlie collection \\:as formcd rhl-ougli the per~onnl inrerest of thc duLc and was based o n the cabinet of Piei-re-Jcan-Etienrie nilauduyt de la Varenne ( 1 730-1 792). Although Bkcoeur's name did not appe:ir in Hol:~ndrels enit~-nenition, it is unlikely that Le\;:lillant was \vrong - rnaybe tlie birds were only ;idded in 1785 after [lie catalogue had gone to pres5. We have been unable to retrieve any latcr description of this cabinet. Kar-lsberg was cotnpletely destroyed on 38 July 1793 when [lie French re\:olutionury army invttded the di\trict. The books :~nd art treasures had been moved to \afet>. but the cabinet of natural history remained in the bttilding in pacliing cascs. There is a general inventory of the itenis in the cabinet said to be plundered or destroyed, which don? with a few iiidividual pieces lists "the entire cabinet of birds" (Recker, 1934; Petty. 1937).

Althou,oh it has generally been : ~ \ s u ~ ~ i e d that none of the birds in the cabinet at Karlsbers survivecl the French attack (H;lrtel.(. 1923; Streseniann, 195 1 : 104). tliel-e are indication$ that some of the \pecimens wcrs rcmo\-ed from the castle at the time. One trail leads to hl~innhcim. Weber ( 1987: 355) arg~~ccl, hased on n conteri1pora1.y diary, th:ic at least \ome of the 1,200 bird\ in tlie collectiori were packed just before the invasion :ind transported vi:i Kaiscrlautern to the duke1\ properties i l l Illannhei~n. This 11+:1il ends het-c, but there is a second one leading to h4etz. Hol:lndre retul-nsd to Fiance, where he was in chal-se ol' a "Cubincl d'Histoire Naturelle" i n Mctz 1'rom 1 806 to 1840. Previou\ to rlie L'oitndation of thi\ museum on 5 Br-uriiaire Ycar 4 (26 October 1795). the I-evolutionary army had deposircd in 11Iet;l some boxes wirh natural history specimens, which had come from [he Kar-l\berg (Holandre. I 840. 1 845: b'eber. 1987). Tlie early history of the Muske d' Histoire Naturelle in Met/. is Sound in LI notice signed "Holandre", which was not tlie prcviou\ director of the Karlsbers cabillet, but the 1ibr:lrian of the town and ariir~rcur natur:~list, Jean Joseph Jacquss I-Iolandi-c ( 1778-1 857). who contributed a number of' papcrs on tlie local avifauna as well as on fo\sil bones ol' the elephant to the journal\ of the Acad61nic cle h'letz (Vaillant, 1857). Holandre (1840. 1845) confirmed that some specimens fr~)111 the collection of the duke of Ziveihriicken were deposited in the building then called tlic Palais de Justice. However, as no ~u-rangemcnts were m:ide foi- their conwrvatiori. most of' the ol?jects disappeared: "whole trays of exotic butteri'lie\ were destroyed just to make hairpins of' them" (Holxndrc. 1 840).J There are no specimens attributed ro B6coeur or the clukc in rl summary of the contents of the mnseum in Metz provided by h4allie1-be ( 1 857).

The :hove account of the possible fate of B6coeilr's private cabinet is an example of many si~iiilar queries about the fate ol'individu~tl specimens through tlie years. Details about eschanges. sales or :~uctions of the smaller. collections :ue usually insufficient to folio\\: a trail from one cabinet to another. I n this ca\e. we have shown that \oinr: of [lie birds originally ~iiounteci by Bkcoeur sirrvi\~ecl the French Revolution and may have been incorporated in museums in l;la~inlieirn or ,C.Ielz. It ir unlikely, however. t h t any can still be recognizcti.

BLC'OEC~IZ AND ARSEhlCAL SOAP -

THE INVEKTION OF ARSENICAL S<)AP

B6coeur not only perfected a ~nethocl to mount birds in :I nutu~-al w:~y, he al\o tricd to tincl :I solution to [lie problem of destructive illsecis. 11 was nol-mat practice in the first pm1 of the eighteenth century for bird &ins to be preserved using various substance\, rangins fi-om tobacco and spices to po\vderecl siilpl~i~r, alum ancl oil uf turpenti tie, none of which proved whollj. effecti\:e. particularly against the ravases of insects. In 1738, B2coeu1- started to experinlent with SO differ-cnt chemicals to detel-lnine which were 111ost effective. He used each chemical on different specimen. which \vns left open to the air. After three ycars, only eight birds were still in reasonable condition, runcl after waiting anothcs year lie \+:as able to conclude that four of the chemicals applied inclividually kept the inwcts away. f-lowe\~er: when he coiisequcntly found that onc of tlicse bird\ was still urtackecl by mites, hc decided to colnbine rill four elements into a single 111-epx";ltion (B6coeur. 17741: 149-150). This later became known a\ arsenic:il soap.

I n order to ad\:erti\c his invention without div~~lging the ingredierirs of his secret recipe, Becoeur sent a selection of birds to the hlus6um daHistoil-e Naturelle in Paris. where the efficacy of hi\ method could be testecl objectively i n u public i~~s t i t~~ t ioo . The tlircctor, Geolge- Louis Leclcrc de Buffon (1707-1788). wrote him :I letter in Febi-uary 1755 to acknou:ledge the receipt 01' these specimens (Dol.teauu, 1924: 16):

I find your birch wry ~ c l l prep;ired. Tho\e set L I ~ bp rhc hest ta\idcrmi\ts ,~rcn't any better. .lnd their birds only hcep li~r Ihrrc or foul. year\. a1 lea\[ \vhen they are hcpt in a \'ocuum Ila\h. 1 uill Iea\e your\ eupo\c~l to the air. In casc t l l q hcep \\ell. I M i l l intor111 you. In M ~ I I I C I I CBW u e H O L I I C I like to rccei\r. many others.'

He must 11:lve been overjoyed ivhen Burfon wrote to him three ycars lilter, on 7 Janu:u-\; 1758, that in fact the birds were still in good st~lte of preservation, despite an adverse report by Buc'hoz: "I don't know why Buc 'ho~ told you lhat the birds w~liicli y o u senl to tlic Cabinet du Roi would not be well-preserved. I can assure you that they are in excellent condition. ... YOLI WOLIICI do iile a great pleasi1r.e by \ending me other bil-ds" iDorve;lux, 1924: I O)." Bkcoeur could hal-dly have wished for a better ~~esult, all the more so because visitors to the museuln in Paris were often shown h i \ birds as prime ex:lmplcs of sood preparations (Bicoeur. 1773b: 5 19).

In 177 1 , B6coc~11- gave a few birds pscse~-vecl r~ccordins to his methot1 to hllauduyt dc la Varennt.. Possibly to discoi~er the secret of the recipe. \~i:~udiiyt ( 1773) sent a letter to the ./o11n1~11 (Ie ~ I I ~ ' . c ~ ~ I I I ~ discu\sing the various linown inethod5 by ~+:Iiich birds could be preserved. I-fe deplorecl that there still wcre n o ct'fective measures to kzep skins in p o d condition over a period of time, c~u-iously ~nnlting ~ l o illlusion :it all to Bicoeur's invention. The latter had to register his protest in anorher. lettel-, thils starting a polemic which was to last ~rritil 1775 (Dorveaus. 1924: 17- 18; Fat-ber. 1977; \ee Bkcoeur. 17741, 1774b. 1774c, 177%. 1775b: b,lauduyt. 1774). Bicoeul- was at a di\aclv:tntage, because he had to show the usefulness of his method without providing a clue as to which ingredients were actually used. Both parties gave L I ~ ai'ter sonie time. ancl B6cocur- apparently wen1 to his grave without di\;ulging his secret recipe.

THE REDISCOVERY OF .L\RSENICAL SOAP

Years pas\ed without further allusions to thc preparation invenled by B6coeur to safeg11:ird mourited bircis l'roni inwct attacks. Tlicn, i ~ ~ ~ c ~ p e ~ t c d l y , it si~~-f;lccd in n book on ornithological

BECOEUII AKD ARSENICAL SOAI'

TA X I D E R M I E

.%at DE PREPARER ET DE COSSERVER LA D ~ P O U I ~ L E DE

TOYS LES ANIr-UUX POUR N C S ~ , LES CABINETS

~ h l r n o l ~ ~ NATUIiELLE , ETC;

PAR L. D U F R E S N E , A&-xaturalisie et chef des travanr zoologlques au jaran

EU noi ; Membre de 13 Socie'te d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. de 1'Acadfmie des Sciences et A:ts de Bordeaux, de ceUe de Lille , etc.

( C I I A L i L'TILI A L I 7 I R I C Y X L I QUI L ' U C ~ T P L ~ T ~ i ' f l l ~ T 0 1 1 ) : ) I A I L I I C L L C .

I ~ I I T d r l a sccondr Edition d u Nouv:au Dictionnaire d'Hir:oire

lu'aturclle , publie'c par 3.-L.-F. DETER\'ILLE.

A P A R I S ,

DETERYLLLE, Libraire , rue Haatefeuille, n.O 8,

De ltIn;primcrie d ' b r ~ z LACOE ; rac dc la Harpr , 78.

1830.

Figure 2. Tille-page of Louis Dufrc\ne'\ book on ~axidermy, p~lblished a4 a 4ep~irate title in 1810.

proce~lures wt-i tlcn i n 1 800 by Franqois-M~~r-ic Da~rdin ( 1774-1 804). with propel- at tribution, as the arsenic;ll soap of Becoeur: "One should also lma\ie a sufficient quantity of the preservative which was i~lverlted about 20 years ago hy B6cocur. then apothecary in hlet/,. and narnecl afier him, the arsenical soap of Becoeut" (Dauclin. 1800: U 5 ) . 7 He proceeded to list the ~nain ingredients (camphor, ground arsenic, soap, potassium carbonutc and poudered calcium hy droxidc ) and to describe rile melhocl to 1~'oduce and apply the rnix1111.e (Rookniartker cJt crlii, 3004: 26: GIcnn. 2005) (Fisurt: 1 ). Three years I;~ter this arsenical soap was given a \%rider audierlce by Lollis I>ill'resne ( 1752-1 8321, lie ~axiclclmlist at the museum in Paris, in an article on taxidernmy l'our~d in one OS the wientitic dictionaries popular at the time (.Dul'resne. 1803). A I-cvised tevt \$:as p~lblished 16 years later in the \cconil edition of the dictionasy (Dufiesne. 1519). This later test was also is\ued as a separate publication. with a new1 litle-page and new pasinat ion, wlliich \vas sold as an instruction manual of t~txidermy (Duf'resne. 1 820) (Figi11.s 2). l-[ere DuSresnc ( 18 19: 559) cl:~imecl rh:~t he had cvrirtsn thc wction o n taxiclermy in Daudin'\ I x x ~ k o f 1800, where the ~u-senic~il \oap \va\ first made public. Dufresne was n friend of Levaillant and had a conbidet-able personal cabinet (Roohmaakcr, 1989). It has been a puz~ le how. as Farher ( 1982: 54) l~ut i t , the hnowleclge about the ~~rsenical soap "somehow p:lssed to the blus~um". Dor\eaux ( 1931: 22) thought i t was throu~h one of' B ~ C O C L I ~ ' S I~CPI I~WS, but he wa4 1111:lble to (1111 :l name to him.

Po~~trait of l-ranqois Lc\~ai l la~t . fricrid of \vho included the secret of the arsenicol s;iIe to the French go\~rrnmsnt in 1797

Evidencc has now been Souncl that i t was Franqois Levaillant ( 1753-1 8281, who kept the secret of thc :~t-senical soap and pawed it on to the autliorities in France (Figure 3 ) . Lev~~illant ura\ acquainted with Bkcoeur in hletz from 1763, moved to Paris in 1779, explorcd the interior of South AI'I-ica from 1780 to 1784 ancl ~-cturned ~o pur\ne his o~+nithological \tudies in Paris and Lunkville (Rookmaaker. 1989; Rookmaa1;er c ~ l i i . 3001). In tho wake of the French revolution, Lcvaillant actively tl-icd to sell his collection. comprising birds, insects and the skin of a giraffe. to the French government. In the process, his applications and the ensuing reports were discussed in a number of meetings by the relevant go\.srnmental committees.

On 1 0 March 1 794. the Comi tc! d' l nstructio~l Publiquc considered Levai l lant.5 proposal ~o \ell his cabinet together with his rnetliods to consel-\:e and prep:lre bird skins iGuill;~~lrne, 1901: ?-IS).' 011 15 M : L ~ 1791. whil\t documents were pawed between depart~iient\. again there is reference to the secret kept by Lcvaillant: "The Cornit6 cl'lnstr~~ction Publiclue returns to the Comnlission [des Arts] a letter by Fmnqois V~illant in which he offers to the nation his cabinet of nati~ral 11isto1.y togethcr with the sect-et which he possesses of the method to prepare and conserve birds" (Guillaume. 190 1 : 656)." The ne~otiations :tbout the sale continued for :~lmost three more years. but eventually Lc\:aillant's proposal was accepted and his collection passed to the MusCurn d'H istoirc N;~ t~~re l lc in Paris. where ~.eceipt LVLLS confirmed on 37 Febl-uary 1797 (Roohmaaker et crlii. 3004). Thc \ect-et of B6coeur's recipe was not mentioned i n rhe later documents. but there is littlc douht that Lcvaillatlt was true to his word and taught the taxider~nisls at the Museum :ill th:lt he knew about bird 111-eservation,

THE SPREAD OF ARSENICAL SOAP

The publication of RCcoe~~l-'\ I-ecipc by Dufrcsne ~vould prolxthly have e\capc;d notice oi~tside Francs, at least for a tirne, had i t not been for the efforts of Thornas Eclward Bowdich ( 1 79 1 -1 824) and Captain Thoniac Brown ( 1 785- 1 862). Both vi\ited rhe Paris h:luseum in 1 820 and seemingly obtr1inc.d :I copy of Du1.1-esne's manual of 1820. They subsequently puhli\hecl their own hooks. thi4 time in English. incorporating large elements of Dufresnc'\ work (in tr:~nsl;~tion) virtually wol-d-for-~vorcl. This included acivocuting the use of ancnical soap and thus bringing its composition to the notice of tlie English-speaking world. As Bowclich liimwlf was busy translating other works into English. his wifc S:~rah ( 1 791-1856) tinished the job ot' preparing the taxidermy olume. which included only :l 1ninirn:il I-el'erence ~o Dufrcsne's work (Beavcr. 1999). It was publi\hed in London. anonymously at first ([Bowdich]. 1820). and ran to six editions. the last of which wa\ published in 1843. with S:uah (now m;lr-ried to Robert Lee) taking ffilll credit ~ O I - nutho~.ship (Lee, 1843). This book was the tirst rn;lnu;tl of taxider-rny published in English and bec:ims widely adopted a\ the leading text in the mid-nineteenth century. I t \ I-ecipe for urwnical 5oap was then copied into several other nineteenth ccntur-y taxidcl-my manirals. Brown's book seems to be substantially a verhatim tr-anslation of Dufresnc ( 1 820). :lltllo~~gh i n his preface he had the efli-ontcry to claim hi~nself as the ;tutho~-. "...being lirmly of t l~e opinion that no man should publish on a subject which he is ashamcd to acl\nowled~e" (Brown. 1833) - this was pres~~mably :I swipe at Bocvdich, whose anonymously published book would appear similar ~o Brown's since both were

Arsenic-Dry Powdered I

I lb. (no t niailable) by exprv.;s ollly. . . . . $0.35 5 Ibs. (not ~nnil;iblc.) by cxprcss only. . . . . 1.50

10 Ibs. (not mailablc) by express orily. . . . . 2.90

Arsenical Soam4Not Mallable) - . Chieftain Bri~nd. Taxidcr- mists claim o u r Chieftail1 .5) --<J~,,* Brand is thv finest and most satisfactory arsenical paste on the e~ i t i rc rnarkrt. 1 1 1 - I t is uscd for n~ount ing aci- mals, game hcads and birds. Is ready [r)r t ~ s r and easily applied w ~ t h a small brush.

1 Pint. by r ,xptc -s only. . .60 I Quart, by *..uprr.ss only 1.00

y2 Gallon, by t.xprc-ss only 1.75 1 Gallon, by cxprcss only 2.90

Figure l. Fro~n a S;IIC\ C ; I ~ ; I ~ O ~ L I C ' 'I\SLIC'LI by J.W. Elwood iri

Omctha. Kebraxha. US.4. in the 1950\ offer-irlg his \pocial bran~l ol' al-senical so;~p.

154 BI?COE[ J R AND ARSENICAL SOAP

derived horn thc same source. The signilic:lncc of Brown's work i l l tlic present context is that i t was rep]-inted Illany times, unchanged. witli a twenty-seventh edition as late as 1876. h:Ioreover. several versions also appeared in tlie USA and Brown's work. witli BCcoeur's rccipe for ursenical soap as the prime bird skin preservative. thus became wide1 y adoptecl by co~nmercial, amateur and museum taxidermi\ts o n both sides ol' the Atlantic.

Large sections of' Brown's text. i~icluding instructions to use arsenic, were even I-eproduced in Thc I~~tlic~,r ~rrtri~rrcrl of trr-i, :L "\elf te:ichel. in all br:tnches of decorative art" (Anonymous. 1890). wi tho~t ;111y note of caution to the artistic ladies of Amel-ica. The use of xsenical wap was i'urthcl. di\semirinted by various American taxidermists and au~liors. notably by J. \V. El\\;oocl's Northwestern School of Taxiclermy in Onlaha. Nebr;l\ka. established in 1903. The school offered a correspondence course i n taxidcrniy. linked to 11 mail order cat:ilogue from which tlie neccssal-y supplics could be ohtuilicd. Arsenical soap was included in the sale\ catalogues for decildes (Figure 1). and was still on offer in issue no. 101, probably ciating from the 1950s (Elivood. about 1950). By this time, the School'\ publicity brochure clainicd to havc e~irolled more than 300,000 an1:lteur taxidermist\, cvorldwide. all of urholii were taught to use arsenical soap as :i ski11 p~.eser\;;iti~e.

Through thu centuries. poisonous substance\ like arsenic had 10 be u\ctl with caution and substitutes like borax or other non-toxic sitbstjtutes Iiavc been suggestetl. Today, health and safety considerations mean that arsenical compounds :Ire difficult to obtain and no longer pet-mittcd in taxidermy workshops. ~vitli safer non-toxic illsecticides such as synthetic pyrethroicls being used instead. Nevertheless. arsenical compounds were still being advocated in print as I:tte as 1976 (Harrison. 1976). Despite tlie suppo\ed dangers of arsenic. many taxidermists \vho used i t enjoyed a longer-than-ave~~ilge lifsp:~n (Morris. 1982) rrnd the less liazardous alternatives frequently resulted i n a high proportion of \pecimens being destroyed bp insects. The1.e is a particular advantage of using arsenic in tasitlerniy, which appears not to have been comnientecl on p~.eviously and liiay have esc;iped the notice of B6cocur hirnself. Many specimens preserved ivith ;trsenical soap were sealed in glaw cases and later stored in damp concli~ions. Under thew circu~nslances (perhaps aided by futigal or microbial decay). the arsenic sseliis to decompose and procluce small amounts of volatile :mine. This can often be smelt when old cases of taxiclermy are opened after many years in a store. Thus, the xsenical soap also created a poisonous r~trnospliere inside glass cases. and tlie specimcn was il l effect self-fumigating.

The arsenical sorip of BCcoeur has been in use i n museums around the world for almost two centuries. Jean-Baptistc BCcoeur invcnted it i n 1743 and while he h~id struggled to convince his peers of it:, usefi~l~iess. i t beca~nz conitnon usage in Paris from the earl\ years of' the nineteenth century through the intul-vention of Franqois Levaillant. The recipe was published in articles by Louis Dufreslie, I'rom where thc wol.cl sl>t.ead to English-spe'akingg countries.

\Ye arc gratefill to I'atrik Schunk for intbr~nation on Karlsberg. We also thank the li>llowillg librarians for supplyin? information or pliotocclpies of rare litlrs i l l their collections. We received nssistance from the ~VZIICOII~C Library for the History and Understaridinp of 1,lcdicine in I-onclun, the Bihlioth&quc Intcruniversitaire de Pharmacie in Paris and thc BibliothPque hlunicipale. Vills dc Sancy. Alison Harding. Assistant Librarian o f the Ornithology & Rothschild L-ibrarics at [he Niitural History hluseum in l r ing providcd inl'orm;rrion on Hol;~ndr.r's catalogue. Dr Florence Pieters and Elaheth Zwart helprcl ~ v i t l ~ details on the 12io~~~.ea~r c1ictioritzrrir.c. in the Anis Library. Univessir o f .Amsicrdam. Iiolland.

R~?COEL~K AND ARSENIC,C SOAP

NOTES

I The original of the clcscription of BCcoeur'4 cabinet by Ruc'hoz ( 177 1 : 165-1 66) reads:

Le trc>isiPme Cabinet est celui du sieur Becocur. .L\pothiciiire 21 13letz. i l ne renfernie que Ie regne anim:~l: la partie des oiseaux cst la plus intCresiante, elle comprend presque tuus ceus qui sc trouvent cl;rna le Pays. On v en 1.cmarque encore plusisurs Ptrangcrs; Ics plus cu~~icux sont le Flarn;~ncI, le Cigne. cluelclucs Colibris 24 Oiseatlx-Mouclie$. LIIIC P o ~ ~ l e Sultalie, U I ~ Nicticoh;~~. i111c petite Outarde, un Pinguin. On y admire sur-tout urie tStc de Cardinal Capucin. des hecs &i gorges dc Ihtlci~n. Outre ces Oiscuux, i l y a dans cc Cahinet une cnllcctivn commcnqante dVocu1's & de nids. On m'a envoy6 de h l e t ~ irn oeuf qui rcpr2sentoit \ur sa coiluillc un cadri111; rnaix noils n'avons pus et1 l'avant;ige de I'avoir entier: colihultez Irs kldmoires dc I'AcadCmie sur la forlniilion de CCI oeuf. Les Oiseaux tlu Cithinel dc M. 13ccocur, solit t~Ps-bicn c1nbaum6s ilans leur attituilc na~urclle. La m2tIiodc qu'emploic ce Saturaliste. yuri~ntir les Oiseaux airisi embaumt;s d r tout insecte, & Ies met i~ I'abri de la corruption. quuiquqexpost5 ir I'air. On \;clit dans ce Cabinet des Oiseaux embnumPs depuis vingt ;ills. nussi sitins que le premier jour: i l serciit b \o~rliaiter que hl. Becoeur voulilt bien nous coinniuniquer cc sscrcr, ICS N;lltl~.;~li.;tes I L I ~ ;ti~roie~it de gr;~ncle.; obligi~tions. On rrouvc aussi d~rns ce Cabinet de ce Curicux. une collection d'insectes du pays & quelqi~es dtrangers, lels que la grirntlc Riclie dcs Indes, la grande hlouclic- ;-feu, la I'lialange des Antilles. le Pillulaire d'ltnlic. tics Scolopcndres aussi cl'ltalie, La gleitnde Iule, & le Joli-Richard d'A~nt:rique. Le4 ~lil;~dn~pedes son1 en petit non~bre dans ce Cabinet: il s'y trouve un Blaireau, un firon dc Cliev~uil . un Lihrrc hlanc B un ~LII I -e k i ~ ~ v c .

' The original French test by Picrrcln (1779: 148-1551 reads:

Si 13ecocur avoit \;2cu dans des sikcles plus recults. on I'auroit accus0 de rortilCge 6i d'encliuntement. Quc de prodiges cc't excellent Nat~rriilistc' n'a-t-il pas r i ~ ~ ~ e ~ i i h l f ~ dans son cabinet';' C'est-Ii qut' Ics animaux sent immo~.tcls. Le Cliicli ahoie: I \poi~s le croirici. iltr muins). I .e Singe change de posturc: le HCrisson se couvre dc ses pointes: le Liki're craintif drcssc une oreillc attenlive: Ic Paresseux osc h pei~ic se remuer pour chercher sa

nourriture: la Biclic des Indes brise la canne ii suers: Is Porte-lantsrne rt2pand uric t1011ee lumiere au milieu clcs ombres de la nuit; le Papillon erre sa 6i 15, 011 ss ~.r.pofc sur les tleurs; lu Mouclie va se jetter imprudemriienr dan, Ics Iilct~ quc I'AraigliPc lui a tendus. I.es 0ise;rux voltigent ou sc joi1e111 LIVCC 1eu1.s i \ j le~ peinte\ dc niillc couleurs cliI'f'41.entes. Lcur mSlangc cst iirlmirablc clans I'Oiseiiu de Paruclis; ha tOte est clort5c. son collicr vert, son dos d'un rouge 6clatant. 8: ses ailcs Pgulent cn beau12 les couleurs dc I'arc-en-ciel: cependant i l 11s I'cmporte pas sur Ie Colihri. don1 Ie vif Cclat .\lII.PXiFP to~ls les chefs-d'oeuvre ile I'art. Le pluniage du Coil cle r o c k semhle Is dixl~uter aux r i ipns de I'iit~rore. Le Toucan au bee recourh6, Ie Carclinal. Ie Carot~ge ... ~nais j'entrc~rendois c11 \uin dc vous nunimer tous ICS O~SC;ILIX ililc Becoeur ;I rasscn~bl6s. Li. un Serpent affreux & Iiirissi d'icailles \lornit son venin. 8: iln Scorpion. dunt Ie dnrd est si redoutable. se tient cachC. Ici. la Tarentule tend ses filels; si par hazard cetrc ars igde \,ous inord. i l n'y a que 1i1 rnusique & I;I danse clui puibsen~ obvier aux eltkts singi~licrs qile produit son poixon. Uenvie cllri poursuit toi~jours: Ies gnmd.; hommes. ne n1;unilua pas ~I'irrulcluer Hecocur: mais Ic nilage sera bic11161 disxipc!: le flambcau de la VS-rile 6car-teru Ics 12iiChres 1111

mznsonge: la posiPrit6 renilra justice au n.rdrite de cc S;~\~iinr Naturuliste. & Paris ~ i m i r a , mais trop tard, cle n'avoir pas possCdt5 cet estiriiable citoyen.

' In the words of Lcv;rillant (1790: 1x1 about the cahinel of' BCcoeur: "il offroit, pour I'ornitliologic d'Eur.cipc. la collectio~l 1;1 plus nclmhreu\e et I;I mieux con';ervPe LIUC .i':~ye j;ini;iis ~'elicontrie."

- Holandre I 1840: 14 1 1: "On a v11 nii?rne de\ persolines d2truire drs cadres cntiers de papillon\ Gtrangers pour en avoir Ick Ppinglcs!"

' Ruffon wrote to Bt5coeur in Februar-y 1755 (Ilorveaux. 1924: 16):

Je trouvc vos oisci~ux tres bicn pr6paris. I.cs plus hiihil~s ne font pus mieux: mniq leurs oisciiux ne tiurcn~ que trois ou quatrc ;ins. h moins qu'on rie Ies mclte daris line boire hcrrnt3iqueme1it i ennk . .lc vais laisser Ics v6tres exposis. S'ils durent, jc voub :n infor-nicrai: nous puurron<. danh cc cus, vaus en demander b e a ~ ~ c o i ~ p d'3ut1.c~.

Wn 7 Jani~ary 175S, Buffhn wrote to BCcueul. (Dr>r~t.au.\r. 1921: I h):

Je ne sqais pourcluoi .\.I. Buc'hoz vous a dit clue Ics oiscaus quc \vus avez cnvoyCs au Cabinet du Roy nc sr sont pas bicn conscrv2s. Je pui4 vous ~ S S L I ~ C ~ qi~'ils sent er1 trki h011 Ct;11. . .. VOUS nc pouvez me faire plus ds plaisir que de m'cn envoyer encore.

' Dautlin ( 1800: 445 I tvrote: ".\yez nussi unc iluantil2 slll'lisante du pl-Pservatil' invcntC il y :I eln\firon vingr ;Ins par Bicocu~: alors Apothicaire 9 fvletz, et nomm6. i cduse clc cela. Savon arsenical dc R6coeur".

' The minutes of the meeting of the Conlit6 iI'Ins~ru:tion f'ublique on 10 hlarcli I'iC)4 referred to "la proposition du citclyc!l V:~illant tlc cPder i lu niition le cahincr d'hisloirc natt~relle qu'il :I form?. ct cl'indiquer les moyen5 clunr

i l se {ert pour la con\er\aticln et la prPpara1ion des oiseaux. e\i rerivo\.dc ;I la \eciion de /oolo;ie" (Guillaurns. 1901: 24s).

" On 15 h'lay 1794. [lie government ol'ficials in I',lris said t l i ~ r ~ .'Le C'omitC d'l~i\tructinr~ l'uhliquc rcr~voic i Id Comn~~\\itrn Ldc4 .Art\] UIIC lcttre de 1;r;11iqoi\ V;lill;rnt par laquelle cc particulic~. offre 1 1;) nation \on cabinet J'lii\toire n,rturslle abet Ie zccrel qu'il po\\;tde 41.11 la manic"rc de prEparcr et con\r.ri4er le\ oi\caux" (Guill,rume. 1901: 6561.

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I'trgric-rtl~rrru~ I*/ i r I'c;c~or~o~iric* rrrrtrlc ~ I ~ I I I I L ~ \ / ~ L / I I C , il 111 r~r~;Clicirre~, ptrr i r t /c l .\o('ic;/c; (I(* I I ~ I / I I I P I ~ ~ \ / ~ ~ \ et ( / ' ~ ~ ~ I - ~ C - I I / I I ~ I I ~ \ . ! V ~ I I I ~ P I I ~ ~ t;(/i/iorr. I) IY.Y(~I I '~ir/ iPr~*rr~c~rrt i~~forrtlrrr c/ cnntidc~rcrhlrr71t~i11 o/r,~,vrrc~rr/Pc. 32. I'ilris: DC~e~.\~illc..

DUFRESNI<. L.. 1831 Iir.vitlc~~.~i~ic~, 011, / 'or ( t l i ~ pr-Cpcrrer LT tk co~~.\c~r\~c~r. let i l & / ~ t ) ~ r i l / ~ clc* 1011.\ /l1,\ i t r~ i r~ l i~rr .~, porrr- IcT,~ I I I I ~ . Y ~ c ~ , ~ , Ic3\ ~ Y I / ) ~ I I ~ * I , Y t l ' l r i ~ ~ o i r t ~ / r t ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ c ~ l l c ~ . O r r ~ ~ r c ~ g ~ ~ lr/jlc> i r / r . t ~)c~i-, \o~rr~c~\ qlii .S 'ot. t*rr~~c~r~i cI'lri\roir(~ t ~ ~ i / ~ r r c ~ / I ~ . Paris: D6~cr\~illc.. Pp i , 103.

DUHX\IEI,, D. S . I--I. L. 13:211110U. 1 S64 Notice \us Jem-Bapti4te B ~ C O C L I ~ , c6libre apot1iicail.c et \a\iunt na~u~ali\te. ,+Ic:~iroir.c~ rip 1'.4c~rrtl~;rrrir~ r l c ~ ,\!c/; 45: 769-277.

ELWOOD. J. W.. [c. 19501 S i i / ~ p l i e ~ fo r f(r.~irk'rrrtr.~rs: curalogrr~ 110. 101. 0ni:iIia. Ncbra\ha: Korthwe\tcrn School of Taxidel-lily. Pp 40.

FARRER. P. L... 1977 Tlic ilc~clopmcnt ol' taxidetmy and rhe history of otnitholoyy. 1%;) 68: 550-566.

FARBER. P. L.. 1982 'Ill(. c1ri~c~rgcrrc'c orrrirl~crlog~ c13 a sclcvlfjfic cli\c.i/~lir;c.: 1760-ISSO. Durdrecht. Boston 6r London: 11. Rcidcl. Pp \\i . l111.

FLEUR. E.. 1926 Quclclue\ mats hur BPcozur. Br~l l~. t i r l d r /c7 Socic;td cI'Hi\/oir.c~ clr / ( I P11crt~trrtrc.ic (Apr i l~ : 72s-73 1.

GLENN. I. l!.. 100.5 I;ru~lc,.ois Le\.aillant: Africa's Audut?on'l ,4ji.ic.tr birds nrltl hirr1irr.q (I'ct~ruury ): 52-56.

GUILLAUME, M. J.. I 'I0 I /-'r.oc.i..\-r~rrl~rrrr.~ i111 coi~ritci c/'ir~.s/nrc.iiori prrhliyrrc (li) Itr Cbrr~.c~rr~ion i~cr/iorrrrlr. 4. Paris: Imprimelie Nationiile. l'p I siv. 1 024.

HARRISON. S. N.. IC)7h /Sir(/ /cr.ritlc1rrir~. Second edition. Ne\iJton Abbot: Davicl cYr Charlcs. Pp s\rii, 07.

H.4KTEIZ1: I-:.. 1913 I:inc hedeutende Li~gcla;~mmlung dei 1 S. .latnrhu~~~iel-~s. O~.r~i/lrologi.s~./rc~ 1210irr~/~bc~ri~~lrrc 31: 73-75.

1-IOLANDRE. l'., 1755 (ir/ologrrc c/e\ oi\t1trrr.\- clrli c.or~~l)osrr~r Itr c.ollrc'tiorr c/(> Sorr i\l/c,.\\(~ .\c;r.c;rri\.sir~~c~ !\ior~,srigrlrrrr. /c> 1'1.irrc~c~ l ~ ~ l t i f i i r I)r11* I->.VII(~I?I ~10s Dc~rr.t-Por~r,\. [ I ) e i ~ s - P ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ : no pt1hIisl1cr.1 Pp iv. 163.

HOLANDIZI, [J . J, J.1. IS10 Norice UII- le WlusCe dSHistoirc Naturelle dc h.lc~/. Iic11-lrc~ rl'itrr\fro,ic~ 1S4O: 141-144.

HOLANDllL. ( J . .l. S.!, I S45 Notice sur. Ic h.li1s2e d'Histoire Naturclltl tle h l s t ~ . !llirlroir-e.\ cl(. 111 Soc.ic;rP ti 'Hi.\~oiw htrturcllc t l r r Dc~l~trrrrrrrt~rrr cl(. Icr !\losrllc 1 ( I ): 25-3 [identical to Holanclrc. 1840].

LEE. Satah, 1843 l'ii.tit/c*i.rt~y: o r ~ I I C (1rt of collecrir~p. pr-eperri~rp orrtl ~rrorrrrtrrig ol,je~c.f\ (g' r~crtlir(~l hisror:~. Sixth edition. Lundon: Long~nan. Pp i\ . 244.

LEVAILLtlST. E. 1790 \i)yagr L I ~ Al. Le \ i r i l lcrt~~ ~1~r~1.s I ' i i~ fPr~c '~ i r cir l';l/ritlrrc. l ~ t r r /c> Cell) tle Uorrrr~~-E\pr;rrrrrc~~. c l e r r z ~ / P T ~I I I I I ( ;~ ' .Y 1780. S / . 82. 83, (W, & (S-5. Pin>: Lerny. 9_ volumes.

LEVAILL.?\NT. F.. I SO I l,ii pie-grieche blcue. Hisroirc ncrrrrrrlle e/c~r oisrcrrrv cl'.-tfi.irlrrc2. 2 ( l i \ raiwn 13. nct. 72). Paris: J.J. Euch\. Pp 19 1.

\IALHERBE. A.. 1857 lZc\.uc dck collec~ions sornpos~nt. en 1857. le h4u\2urn d'Hisiu~re haturellc dc 1.1 V~lle de \*lct~. BirIlc~/ir~ tle> It/ .So(*iC/c; c1'Hi~toir.t~ ~!'(rf~irc~/Ic~ ( i l i Dc;pcir-te~ire~~/ dc> l(( . ~ l o w ~ I l c ~ 7: 2 l 1-23.

11XClDUY'I' 1114 1 A VAIZIINKE, P. .I. C.. 1773 Lettre 5 I'auleur J e ce receuil. \ur lii 111;11ii?re clc ccln\er\lcr les animaux dca\kcliP\. O/~.\c~r~vrt iort.~ S I ~ I . /er / ~ l i j ~ . \ i ( / ~ ~ e . sur /'liis/(?irct ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r i r ~ c ~ l l c ~ $111. /c,\ (rr/.v 2: 3cj041 2.

kl.IAUDUY'I' D12 I A \AlZliSNl-.. P. J. C.. 1774a R6pon\c 2 une letrre tie 11. 136cocur.. .lorir~rtr/ t ~ ~ r ( : \ . ( ~ I o ~ ~ k ~ i : i l i ~ / ~ ~ c ~ I June): 523-533.

hl,L\UDUYl' Dt: LA VAlZl<NNE. l? J. C., 1 7 7 4 RGponse :I la sccondt. criticluc tlc h.1. I32cocur. O / ~ A ~ ~ I . I L I I ~ O I ~ S \rrr Itr pl?\\iclrr(,, .\rrr 1'1ris1oi1.c~ ~rcr~rriullr car {rrr Irs trr-/.$ 1: 397190.

3IORRIS, I? A.. I9S2 Slt~l'ling l i ~ r 1ongc.i ily. :Vol. .scin~ti.sr 95 ( 1320 I: 575.

MORIZIS. P. A.. 1993 -211 hi\torical review cif bird taxidermy i n Bril,rin. ,-Irc.lri\~~\ (!/ rrrrrrirci/ I~i\rory 20: 241- 255.

PETlZY. CV.. I937 Einc h c ~ l c i ~ t ~ ~ ~ d c ' \~ogeIsa1111111ung dt's l S. Sahrti~~ndcrt\. Or. i r i / l i r~ logi~ i~I r~~ ~ ~ I o I I ( I I . T ~ c ~ ~ c I ~ ~ ~ ~ 45: 157-162.

PIERRON, J. B.. 1779 'Ii~rrrplrrnt rr~ererrvibiis stri-I-rrrir, cannerl; I r terirplc c1c.t rrrc\.~irr.\, l)ol;irrr~. \let/: Jean-Raphe Collignon. Pp X \ i. 32 1 . (lieprinted 1878, Saint-Sicolas et Nancy: X. Collin).

158 1 3 6 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ AND AKSENICAL SOAP

REXLIXIUR. R. A. FERCH.ALU-T DE. 1748 Ditcrh mean5 for presc.r\ iny t i s m corruption dead bi~ds. inte~i~iecl I U

be \ent to remote countries. \o t i i ~ t they may arrive rherc in a good condition. Plrilosophiccrl r~urr.\rrction.c of rhe h'oycrl .Sor.iclj of L011d011 11: 304-320.

R00KJlAAKF.R. L. C.. 19S9 Tlrc :oologic.c~l r.\l~lor-~~tinr~ of ,solrrllo-rr Aft'iccr 1650-1790. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkemu. I'p xvi. 368.

1100KhlAAKER. I,. C.. h1UNL)Y. P. .I.. GLllNN, I . E. cl SP:~II'I'. E. C.. 3001 Frtrirgois La~~c~illtrirr aid rlr~ hi~.tl.\ of'.\fiic.tr. Johannesburg: Rrenthur$t Prcw. 1'17 u i i . 184.

STRESEh.1 ANN. E.. l95 1 Die Et~rr~.ichllr~r,q L I P / . O n ~ i i l ~ ~ I o g i ~ ~ 1.011 ;\ ~.i.\fofc>lc~~ hi.^ : U I . G P ~ , o L , I I I I . ( ~ ~ I . Berli~i: F. CC). Peter\. Pp h\'. 43 1.

VAII.I.ANT. [:'l, 1 S57 \loft do 14. I Iolandrc, mrmhre dc la SociStC Franq,~i\e ~l'.bchEolnpie. i Met/. R~rlleti~l ~llotl~ur~et~r(rl 33: 598-399.

M'ERER. W.. 19x7 Sthlvss I iar l she~, Le,qc~rrclc~ 1r11c1 \iTlfIicllXeit: die. I ~ ' I ' I ~ E I s ~ ( I c I I E ~ SCIIIOSS~LIII~PII ; i l l Hc~o,yrl/i~l I~~irl:-Z1c~ci61~iic~Xi~~1. Homburs: Ermer. 1'11 x\ i. 607.

Received -30 March 3005. .4cceptc.d 23 May 3005.