LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITIONJane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

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Lectures by

Erin Barley

Kathleen Fitzpatrick

The Origin of Species

Chapter 24

Overview: That “Mystery of Mysteries”

• In the Galápagos Islands Darwin discovered

plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth

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• Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory

• Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations evolve

• Microevolution consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time

• Macroevolution refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level

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Animation: Macroevolution Right-click slide / select “Play”

Concept 24.1: The biological species

concept emphasizes reproductive isolation

• Species is a Latin word meaning “kind” or

“appearance”

• Biologists compare morphology, physiology,

biochemistry, and DNA sequences when

grouping organisms

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The Biological Species Concept

• The biological species concept states that a

species is a group of populations whose members

have the potential to interbreed in nature and

produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed

successfully with other populations

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Figure 24.2

(a) Similarity between different species

(b) Diversity within a species

Reproductive Isolation

• Reproductive isolation is the existence of

biological factors (barriers) that impede two

species from producing viable, fertile offspring

• Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between

different species

• Reproductive isolation can be classified by

whether factors act before or after fertilization

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Figure 24.3_a

Prezygotic barriers

HabitatIsolation

TemporalIsolation

BehavioralIsolation

MechanicalIsolation

GameticIsolation

Reduced HybridViability

Reduced HybridFertility

HybridBreakdown

Individuals of

differentspecies

MATINGATTEMPT FERTILIZATION

VIABLE,FERTILE

OFFSPRING

Postzygotic barriers

(a) (c) (e)

(d)

(b)

(g)

(k)

(h) (i)

(j)

(l)(f)

• Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from

occurring by:

– Impeding different species from attempting to mate

– Preventing the successful completion of mating

– Hindering fertilization if mating is successful

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• Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each

other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy

different habitats, even though not isolated by

physical barriers

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• Temporal isolation: Species that breed at

different times of the day, different seasons,

or different years cannot mix their gametes

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Western Spotted Skunk

delayed implantation – mating in Sept – Oct

fertilized eggs free float until March – April

Eastern Spotted Skunk

mating March – April

7-14 day implantation

• Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other

behaviors unique to a species are effective

barriers

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• Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences

can prevent successful mating

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ex: bushbaby

• Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences

can prevent successful mating – plants, too.

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black sage white sage

• Gametic Isolation: Sperm of one species may not

be able to fertilize eggs of another species

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important in broadcast spawners

isolation at the molecular level

• Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote

from developing into a viable, fertile adult:

– Reduced hybrid viability

– Reduced hybrid fertility

– Hybrid breakdown

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• Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different

parent species may interact and impair the

hybrid’s development

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• Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are

vigorous, they may be sterile

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• Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids

are fertile, but when they mate with another

species or with either parent species, offspring of

the next generation are feeble or sterile

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Limitations of the Biological Species Concept

• The biological species concept cannot be

applied to fossils or asexual organisms

(including all prokaryotes)

• The biological species concept emphasizes

absence of gene flow

• However, gene flow can occur between

distinct species

– For example, grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce “grolar bears”

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Figure 24.4Grizzly bear (U. arctos)

Polar bear (U. maritimus)

Hybrid “grolar bear”

Other Definitions of Species

• Other species concepts emphasize the unity within

a species rather than the separateness of different

species

• The morphological species concept defines a

species by structural features

– It applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria

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• The ecological species concept views a species

in terms of its ecological niche

– It applies to sexual and asexual species and emphasizes the role of disruptive selection

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Scrub Jay

insects, fruit in summer

nuts in winter

Pinyon Jay

social

primarily pine nuts

Concept 24.2: Speciation can take place

with or without geographic separation

• Speciation can occur in two ways:

– Allopatric speciation

– Sympatric speciation

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Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation

• In allopatric speciation, gene flow is

interrupted or reduced when a population is

divided into geographically isolated

subpopulations

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The Process of Allopatric Speciation

• The definition of barrier depends on the ability of a

population to disperse

– For example, a canyon may create a barrier for small rodents, but not birds, coyotes, or pollen

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Harris Antelope Squirrel White Tailed Antelope Squirrel

Figure 24.8

A. formosus

Atlantic Ocean

A. nuttingi

Isthmus of Panama

Pacific Ocean

A. panamensis A. millsae

• Regions with many geographic barriers typically have more species than do regions with fewer barriers

• Geographic isolation is followed by reproductive isolation.

• Reproductive isolation between populations generally increases as the distance between them increases

– For example, reproductive isolation increases between salamanders that live further apart

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Figure 24.10 EXPERIMENT

RESULTS

Initial populationof fruit flies(Drosophila

pseudoobscura)

Some flies raisedon starch medium

Mating experimentsafter 40 generations

Some flies raised onmaltose medium

Female

Starch Maltose

Male

Malt

ose

Sta

rch

Number of matingsin experimental group

22 9

8 20

Female

Starchpopulation 1

Male

Sta

rch

po

pu

lati

on

2

Number of matingsin control group

18 15

12 15

Starchpopulation 2

Sta

rch

po

pu

lati

on

1

Figure 24.10a

EXPERIMENT

Initial population

of fruit flies

(Drosophila

pseudoobscura)

Some flies raised

on starch medium

Mating experiments

after 40 generations

Some flies raised on

maltose medium

Figure 24.10b

RESULTS

Female

Starch Maltose

Male

Malt

ose

Sta

rch

Number of matings

in experimental group

22 9

8 20

Female

Starch

population 1

Ma

leS

tarc

h

po

pu

lati

on

2Number of matings

in control group

18 15

12 15

Starch

population 2

Sta

rch

po

pu

lati

on

1

Increased separation (time and/or distance) increases reproductive isolation and results in increasingly distinct speciation.

• In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place

in geographically overlapping populations

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Polyploidy

• Polyploidy is the presence of extra sets of

chromosomes due to accidents during cell division

• Polyploidy is much more common in plants than in

animals

• An autopolyploid is an individual with more than two

chromosome sets, derived from one species

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• An allopolyploid is a species with multiple sets of

chromosomes derived from different species

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Figure 24.11-4

Species A2n = 6

Species B2n = 4

Normal

gamete

n = 3

Meiotic error;chromosome number not

reduced from 2n to n

Unreduced gametewith 4 chromosomes

Hybrid with

7 chromosomes

Unreduced gamete

with 7 chromosomes

Normalgamete

n = 3

New species:viable fertile hybrid(allopolyploid) 2n = 10

Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can

result from changes in few or many genes

• Many questions remain concerning how long it takes for

new species to form, or how many genes need to differ

between species

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Patterns in the Fossil Record

• The fossil record includes examples of species

that appear suddenly, persist essentially

unchanged for some time, and then apparently

disappear

• Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the

term punctuated equilibria to describe periods of

apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change

• The punctuated equilibrium model contrasts with a

model of gradual change in a species’ existence

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• The interval between speciation events can range

from 4,000 years (some cichlids) to 40 million

years (some beetles), with an average of 6.5

million years

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