The Nutrition Society of Australia

Proceedings of

The Nutrition Societyof

Australia

Volume 25

Twenty-fifth Anniversary Annual Scientific Meeting

Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 3–5 December, 2001

2001, The Nutrition Society of AustraliaISSN-0314-1004

Sponsors of the 25th Anniversary Annual Scientific Meeting

Gold SponsorsMeat & Livestock AustraliaThe NutraSweet Company

Goodman Fielder

Other SponsorsClover Corporation Limited

Goodman FielderKellogg (Australia) Pty Ltd

Maltron Body Composition Analysers

The Nutrition Society of Australia(incorporated)

Office Bearers 2001

President Professor Dave Roberts

Vice-President Ms Wendy Morgan

Honorary Secretary Dr Dianne Volker

Honorary Treasurer Dr Bob Gibson

Honorary Editor Associate Professor Jennie Brand-Miller

Group Chairpersons Dr Maria Makrides (Adelaide)

Dr Leigh Ward (Brisbane)

Associate Professor Karen Cashel (Canberra)

Dr Neil Mann (Melbourne)

Elizabeth Ellis (Newcastle)

Dr Colin White (Perth)

Dr Samir Samman (Sydney)

Dr David Woodward (Regional Tasmania)

Dr Barbara Meyer (Wollongong)

Editorial Board Professor E.F. Annison Dr K.I. Baghurst

Professor D.R. Fraser Dr H. Dove

Professor K. O’Dea Professor D.C.K. Roberts

Dr S. Samman Professor A.J. Sinclair

Dr B. Wood Professor A.S. Truswell

Additional Reviewers Dr S. Holt Dr P. McVeagh

Dr P.M. Wall Dr P. Williams

Dr P. Sutherland Dr D. Chisholm

Ms J. Bryson Dr D. Topping

Dr J. Muir

Business Manager Ms Elisabeth Eaton

Local Organising Committee25th Anniversary Annual Scientific Meeting

Canberra, 2001

Associate Professor Karen Cashel

Dr Hugh Dove

Ms Vicki Deakin

Dr Geoffrey Annison (until August 2001)

Ms Lara Malcolm (Conference Manager)

Ms Elizabeth Medley (Local Conference Liaison)

National Program CommitteeMs Wendy Morgan (Chair)

Dr Hugh Dove

Associate Professor Karen Cashel

Dr Geoffrey Annison

Dr David Woodward

Dr Neil Mann

Professor Dave Roberts

Associate Professor Jennie Brand-Miller

Dr Dianne Volker

Conference ManagementFestival City Conventions Pty Ltd

PO Box 949

Kent Town SA 5071

Phone: 08 8363 1307 Fax: 08 8363 1604

Email: [email protected]

Nutrition Society of Australia Website: www.nsa.asn.au

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia

The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia is published annually toincorporate papers read at the Society’s Annual Scientific Meeting. Papersread at plenary sessions and symposia are by invitation. Contributed papersare mostly one page in format, and are presented at the meeting as either oralor poster communications. Invited papers and contributed papers have beenpeer reviewed.

Every attempt is made to edit all papers to conform to the Society’s‘Instructions to Authors’, subject to the constraints imposed by the necessityto publish the Proceedings in time for distribution at the Scientific Meeting.

Enquiries regarding the Nutrition Society of Australia Inc. should be madeto:

NSA Inc. National SecretariatPO Box 949Kent Town SA 5071AUSTRALIAEmail: [email protected]: www.nsa.asn.au

Fellows of The Nutrition Society of Australia

Fellowship is awarded to persons, who in the opinion of Council, haverendered eminent service within the field of interest of the Society.

Ian Wilbur McDonald elected 18 August 1980Eric John Underwood elected 18 August 1980*Reginald John Moir elected 1 December 1986Michael Vincent Tracey elected 24 November 1987Ernest Frank Annison elected 8 December 1991Basil Stuart Hetzel elected 8 December 1991Paul John Nestel elected 9 May 1993Richard Miln Smith elected 9 May 1993Arthur Stewart Truswell elected 26 September 1995Ivor Eustace Dreosti elected 3 December 2001Kerin O’Dea elected 3 December 2001

* Deceased

Honorary Members of The Nutrition Society of Australia

Honorary Membership is awarded to persons, who in the opinion ofCouncil, have rendered meritorious service to the Society.

John Roland Lindsay elected 8 December 1991Graham John Faichney elected 26 September 1995

2000 NSA/KELLOGG STUDENT PRIZES

The 2000 NSA/Kellogg student prize for best oral presentation went to

Dorota Pawlak

Department of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW

Pawlak, D, Denyer, GS, Brand-Miller, JC. Long term feeding with high glycemic index starch leads to obesity in mature rats.

Proc Nutr Soc Aust 2000; 24:215

The 2000 NSA/Kellogg prize for best poster went to

Mohammad-Reza Zarrinkalam

South Australian Research and Development Institute, PPPI, Roseworthy Campus, Adelaide University, SA

Zarrinkalam, MR, Tivey, DR, Hughes, RJ, Black, JL, Choct, M, van Barneveld, RJ.Characteristics of starch granules influence energy digestion in wheat and barley for pigs

and poultry. Proc Nutr Soc Aust 2000; 24:251

PROGRAM

Monday 3rd December 2001

9.00 am Opening Session Bradman TheatretteMs Dawn Casey, Director, National Museum of Australia

9.20 am Symposium: Nutrition at the edge of the earth Bradman TheatretteNutrition and metabolism during prolonged Earth orbitLane, HW

10.10 am Resident humans under polar conditionsO’Dea, K, Lugg, D, Niall, M

11.00 am Morning tea Foyer

Symposium: Nutrition at the edge of the earth Bradman Theatrette11.30 am Nutritional ecology of reindeer/caribou and their interaction with humans

White, RG, Russell, DE, Holand, Ø, Griffith, B, Cameron, RD, Kofinas, G, Nobmann, ED, Kruse, J

12.20 pm Nutrition and trans-Antarctic trekkingForbes-Ewan, CH

1.00 pm Lunch Foyer

2.00 pm Concurrent Sessions–3.30 pm Session 1: Lipids and Metabolism Bradman Theatrette

Antarctic bacteria: a new source of polyunsaturated fatty acids for humans?Nichols, DS, Sanderson, K, Smith, M, Nichols, PD, Lewis, T, McMeekin, TA

Influence of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure and some physiologicalparameters of female rats fed with a diet high is saturated fat and saltJayasooriya, AP, Armitage, JA, Weisinger, HS, Weisinger, RS, Burns, P, Purcell, B, Mathai, M,Morris, M, Vingrys, AJ, Sinclair, AJ

Raw onion consumption inhibits in vitro lipoprotein oxidation in plasmaGabler, NK, Ostrowska, E, Sterling, SJ, Jones, RB, Tatham, BG, Eagling, DG, Dunshea, FR

Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency on fatty acid composition of brain phospholipidclasses in ratsLi, D, Loh, CY, Sinclair, AJ

Dietary fish oil supplementation increases the in vitro contractility of rat ileumPatten, GS, McMurchie, EJ, Abeywardena, MY, Jahangiri, A

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP1 Omega-3 intake of cardiac patients: how much do they consume and are there any disadvantages?

Sivarajah, G, Davis, C, Talbot, P, Samman, S, Sullivan, D

P2 Health benefits of macadamia nuts in borderline hyperlipidaemic male volunteersGarg, ML, Rudra, PK, Blake, RJ, Wills, R

2.00 pm Concurrent Sessions Menzies Theatrette–3.30 pm Session 2: Determining nutrient content and requirements

A method for determining the amino acid and glucose requirements of new lines of pigTeleni, E, Singh, D, Martin, DG, Reid, CE

Effect of changing amino acid concentration on urea and glucose release in sheep liverAli, AM, Engelbrecht, H, Van der Walt, JG

Using faecal measurements to estimate fermentation and acid accumulation in the caecum and colonClayton, EH, Sherwood, NS

Relative validity of dietary self-report in an intervention trial for Type 2 diabetes mellitusMartin, GS, Tapsell, LC, Batterham, MJ, Calvert, GD

Comparison of dietary analysis methods for human folate bioavailability studiesde Ambrosis, AE, Arcot, J, Paterson, J, Shrestha, AK, Haber, P

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP3 Determination of folate contents in vegetables

Iwatani, Y, Arcot, J, Shrestha, AK

P4 Skeletal muscle triglycerides and central visceral adiposity predict insulin sensitivity in lean, young,healthy subjects from two ethnic groupsDickinson, S, Ward, J, Brand-Miller, JC, Petocz, P, Thompson, C

2.00 pm Concurrent Sessions–3.30 pm Session 3: Communication and behaviour Nicholls Theatrette

The role of dietary glutamate in food perceptions and preferencesPrescott, J

A new food labelling program for the glycemic indexBrand-Miller, JC, Barclay, AW, Irwin, T

Consumers lack understanding of functional foods – a survey in an Australian university populationNicholas, L, McNamara, E, Stanton, J, Roberts, DCK

A comparison of food choice patterns in the usual diets of a sample of women with and withoutgestational diabetes mellitusGillen, LJ, Tapsell, LC, Martin, GS, Daniells, S, Moses, RG

Gateway for student dietitians into the information superhighwayEdwards, CA

The impact of dominance hierarchy, salivary pheromones and saliva contamination on feedpreference in grower pigsLansdowne, R, Van Koesveld, M, Gallagher, NL, Sclater, J, Collins, DP, Giles, RL, Wynn, PC

3.30 pm Afternoon Tea Foyer

4.00 pm Special presentations Bradman Theatrette

5.00 pm Sessions End

6.00 pm Welcome Reception – National Museum of Australia

Tuesday 4th December 2001

8.30 am Symposium: Nutrition at the edge of man – Companion and work animals Bradman TheatretteNutrition of working animalsPearson, RA

9.20 am Canine and feline nutrition at the edgeCosta, ND


10.40 am Nutrition and horse racing: feeding racehorses Bradman TheatretteBryden, WL, Owens, EA, McMeniman, NP

11.20 am Against the odds – a jockeys ‘lot’Moore, JM

12.00 pm NSA AGM

12.30 pm Lunch Foyer

1.30 pm Concurrent Sessions–3.45 pm Session 4: Food Intake and digestion Bradman Theatrette

Fermentation of fibers by cat fecal microflora: evaluation of six novel fibre sources, twonon-digestible oligosaccharides and two gelling agentsGiffard, CJ, Butterwick, RF, Batt, RM

Comparison of isoflavone absorption from soybean extract and red cloverNestel, PJ, Pomeroy, S, Tsunoda, N

Evaluation of cottonseed meal for grower pigs between 20 and 50 kg liveweightSingh, DN, Perez-Maldonado, R, Blight, GW, Magee, MH

Upper limits of inclusion of canola meal and cottonseed meal in diets formulated on a digestibleamino acid basis for chicken meat productionPerez-Maldonado, RA

Brain sialic acid concentration: comparison of breast-fed vs formula-fed infantsWang, B, Brand-Miller, JC, Petocz, P, McVeagh, P

Commodity consumption average in Mediterranean countries (1962–1998) compared with AustraliaNoah, A, Truswell, AS

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP5 Dietary predictors of survival amongst Greeks in Melbourne

Darmadi, I, Kouris-Blazos, A, Wahlqvist, ML

P6 Degradation of canola and lupin meals in the rumenBaker, SK, Henry, DC, Klein, L, Mills, HR, Pimm, CL, Store, LA

P7 Water consumption by rusa stags Yape Kii, W, Dryden, GMcL

P8 Uptake of N-acetylneuraminic acid-6-14C (sialic acid) into the brain of neonatal pigletsDowning, JA, Wilkinson, SJ, Wang, B, Brand-Miller, JC, Bryden, WL

1.30 pm Concurrent Sessions Menzies Theatrette–3.45 pm Session 5: Meat Science, Food Composition and Preparation

Role of muscle phospholipids in reducing carcass fatness and improved tenderness of meat in lambsPonnampalam, EN, Egan, AR, Hosking, BJ, Leury, BJ, Sinclair, AJ

Cooking attenuates the ability of high amylose meals to reduce plasma insulin concentrations in ratsBrown, MA, Higgins, JA, Brown, IL, McLennan, PL, Storlien, LH

Distribution of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in different edible portions of the blue swimmer crab(Portunus pelagicus)Sullivan, M, Su, XQ, Li, D

A role for polyunsaturated C18 free fatty acids in the toughness of cooked beefBeveridge, SJ, Wold, CA

Growth of goats for meat production: effect of breed and castrationMurray, PJ, Sumarmono, J, Pratiwi, NMW, Taylor, DG

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP9 Carcass composition of entire and castrated full blood improved Boer bucks

Sumarmono, J, Pratiwi, NMW, Murray, PJ, Taylor, DG

P10 Physical traits of goat meat: A comparison between meat from castrated and entire Boer bucksPratiwi, NW, Sumarmono, J, Murray, PJ, Taylor, DG

P11 Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of canned meats commonly available in AustraliaLi, D, Mansor, M, Zhuo, SR, Woon, T, Anthony, MA, Sinclair, AJ

P12 The effect of storage and cooking on lipid oxidation of raw and cooked beef and goat meatWidayaka, K, Setyawardani, T, Sumarmono, J

P13 Seasonal variations of total lipid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in two Victorianfarmed abalone speciesSu, XQ, Antonas, KN, Li, D

P14 The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of commonly available green vegetables in AustraliaLi, D, Pereira, C, Sinclair, AJ

P15 Biobalanced livestock feeding systemsDingle, JG, Henuk, YL

1.30 pm Concurrent Sessions–3.45 pm Session 6: Diet-related health issues Nicholls Theatrette

Progress in the elimination of iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage by the year 2000Hetzel, BS

Raw brown onion consumption reduces plasma triglycerides and has other health benefitsOstrowska, E, Gabler, NK, Tatham, BG, Sterling, SJ, Jones, RB, Eagling, DR, Dunshea, FR

Monosodium glutamate and asthma – what is the evidence?Woods, RK

Time course of incorporation of 1-14C-α-linolenic acid into various rat tissuesAttar-Bashi, NM, Sinclair, AJ

Blood pressure and dietary sodium reduction in normotensive subjectsNowson, CA, Morgan, TO, Gibbons, C

Sodium intake and self-efficacyWoodward, DR, Ball, PJ, Beard, TC

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP16 Fat distribution and blood pressure: a twin study

Nowson, CA, Pritchard, JE

P17 Effects of the glycemic index on the insulin-like growth factor systemLiu, VR, Baxter, RC, Brand-Miller, JC

P18 The acute effect of resistant starch on postprandial satiety in an overweight populationNgai, HHY, Brenninger, VL, Tapsell, LC, Brown, IL

P19 Dietary vitamin E modulates immune responses to Salmonella typhimurium in chickensMuir, WI, Husband, AJ, Bryden, WL

P20 Effect of monounsaturated fat in the diet on the serum lycopene levelsAhuja, KDK, Ball, MJ

3.45 pm Afternoon Tea Foyer

4.15 pm NSA Celebration – 25 years of excellence Bradman Theatrette

5.00 pm Presentation of other awards

7.30 pm Conference Dinner – Mt Stromlo Observatory

Wednesday 5th December 2001

8.30 am Symposium: Nutrition at the edge of the gene Bradman TheatretteAn overview of gene-nutrient interactionsStrain, JJ, Downes, CS

9.20 am Folate, gene expression and genomic stabilityFenech, M

10.00 am Nutrition as an evolutionary forceFoley, WJ


11.10 am Concurrent Sessions–1.00 pm Session 7: Nutrition and vulnerable groups Bradman Theatrette11.10 am Refugee camps - a food security, livelihood and childhood nutrition assessment at Sinje, Cape Mount

Country, Liberia, West AfricaStevens, D, Bencke, AJ

Consumption of bangun-bangun leaves (Coleus amboinicus Lour) to increase breast milkproduction among Batakneese women in North Sumatra Island, IndonesiaDamanik, R, Damanik, N, Daulay, Z, Saragih, S, Premier, R, Wattanapenpaiboon, N,Wahlqvist, ML

Compliance with the dietary regimen in a five-year trial of the primary prevention of asthmaYiu, A, Mihrshahi, S, Webb, K, Pear, JK, Marks, GB, Leeder, SR

Calculating resting energy expenditure in men with HIV/AIDSBatterham, MJ, Morgan-Jones, J, Greenop, P, Garsia, R, Gold, J

Malnutrition in children with cancer in PakistanAtta-ur-Rehman, Q

Food insecurity in Somali women living in AustraliaBurns, C

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP21 Supplement usage in women entering the menopausal transition in Brisbane

Hanna, KL, Williams, R, O’Neill, S, Khoo, SK, McIntosh, R, Patterson, C, Lyons-Wall, P

P22 An investigation into the association between eating environment and food intake of residents withdementia at an aged care facilityFendick, AM, Konz, LM, Vandervliet, LE, Roberts, DCK

P23 Depression in malnourished children with cancerKiran, I, Atta-ur-Rehman, Q

11.10 am Concurrent Sessions–1.00 pm Session 8: Foods with functional properties Menzies Theatrette

Short and long term black tea consumption reverses endothelial dysfunction in patients withcoronary artery diseaseDuffy, SJ, Keaney, JF, Holbrook, M, Gokce, N, Swerdloff, PL, Frei, B, Vita, JA

Regular ingestion of tea does not inhibit in vivo lipid peroxidation in humansHodgson, JM, Croft, KD, Mori, TA, Burke, V, Beilin, LJ, Puddey, IB

The impact of xenoestrogens in the diet: feminizing agents or functional foods?Thomson, BM, Cressey, PJ, Shaw, IC

Dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids alter the molecular species profile of avian breast musclephospholipidsNewman, RE, Bryden, WL, Fleck, E, Storlien, LH, Downing, JA

Diet containing cocoa powder with flavanols and procyanidins inhibits platelet functionMurphy, KJ, Fassoulakis, AK, Singh, I, Francis, MA, Pike, MJ, Turner, AH, Mann, NJ,Sinclair, AJ

Lycopene concentration and antioxidant capacity after consuming tomatoes with olive oilFielding, JM, Li, D, Stockmann, R, Sinclair, AJ

Are probiotics effective?Playne, MJ

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP24 The intestinal microflora in Australian breast-fed and formula-fed infants

Napoli, JEAC, Brand-Miller, JC, Agus, H, Romeo, M

11.10 am Concurrent Sessions Nicholls Theatrette–1.00 pm Session 9: Health issues related to dietary fats and calcium intake

The effect of two years milk supplementation on bone mineral accretion in Chinese adolescent girlsZhu, K, Greenfield, H, Du, X, Fraser, DR

Do differences in nutrient intake predict differences in bone mass in boys: aco-twin control studyIuliano-Burns, S, Hopper, JL, Seeman, E

Rumen protected conjugated linoleic acids: effects on milk composition in dairy cowsGulati, SK, McGrath, S, Wynn, PC, Scott, TW

High carbohydrate and high monounsaturated fat dietary targets produce similar outcomes in themanagement of Type 2 diabetes mellitus with concomitant reduced saturated fat intakesTapsell, LC, Calvert, GD, Martin, GS, Batterham, MJ, Denmeade, SL

Saturated fat intake linked to risk of inflammatory bowel disease – results of a case control studyBencke, A, Roberts, DCK, Batey, R

How effective is the “low fat” message?Droulez, V, Eden, B, Anderson, S, Noakes, M

Posters: Short Overview of Key AspectsP25 Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term adverse effects on bone mass: a twin study

Nowson, CA, Paton, LM, Alexander, JL, Margerison, C, Frame, MG, Kaymakci, B, Wark, JD

P26 Increased dietary saturated fat intake decreases the ratio of thromboxane/prostacyclin in healthy male subjectsLi, D, Habito, R, Angelos, G, Sinclair, AJ, Ball, MJ

P27 Influence of dietary stearic acid enrichment on individual platelet phospholipid fatty acidcompositionKelly, FD, Mann, NJ, Turner, AH, Li, D, Sinclair, AJ

P28 Relationship between platelet phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids and dietary intake of fish,meat and polyunsaturated fat in male Melbourne Chinese and CaucasianLi, D, Zhang, H, Hsu-Hage, BHH, Wahlqvist, ML, Sinclair, AJ

1.00 pm Lunch Foyer

2.00 pm Forum: Food Insecurity in a changing world Bradman TheatretteThe demographic dimension: past and futureCaldwell, JC

2.30 pm Prospects for the Third Horseman in an environmentally stressed biosphereMcMichael, AJ

3.00 pm The impact of changing world resources on food securityWahlqvist, ML

3.30 pm Discussion

4.00 pm Closing Session

Table of Contents

Nutrition and metabolism during prolonged Earth orbit S1HW Lane

Resident humans under polar conditions S2K O’Dea, D Lugg, M Niall

Nutritional ecology of reindeer/caribou and their interaction with humans S3RG White, DE Russell, Ø Holand, B Griffith, RD Cameron, G Kofinas, ED Nobmann, J Kruse

Nutrition and trans-Antarctic trekking S5CH Forbes-Ewan

Antarctic bacteria: a new source of polyunsaturated fatty acids for humans? S6DS Nichols, K Sanderson, M Smith, PD Nichols, T Lewis, TA McMeekin

Influence of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure and some physiological parameters of female rats fed with a diet high in saturated fat and salt S7AP Jayasooriya, JA Armitage, HS Weisinger, RS Weisinger, P Burns, B Purcell, M Mathai, M Morris,

AJ Vingrys, AJ SinclairRaw onion consumption inhibits in vitro lipoprotein oxidation in plasma S8

NK Gabler, E Ostrowska, SJ Sterling, RB Jones, BG Tatham, DG Eagling, FR DunsheaEffect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency on fatty acid composition of brain phospholipid classes in rats S9

D Li, CY Loh, AJ SinclairDietary fish oil supplementation increases the in vitro contractility of rat ileum S10

GS Patten, EJ McMurchie, MY Abeywardena, A JahangiriOmega-3 intake of cardiac patients: how much do they consume and are there any disadvantages? S11

G Sivarajah, C Davis, P Talbot, S Samman, D SullivanHealth benefits of macadamia nuts in borderline hyperlipidaemic male volunteers S12

ML Garg, PK Rudra, RJ Blake, R WillsA method for determining the amino acid and glucose requirements of new lines of pig S13

E Teleni, D Singh, DG Martin, CE ReidEffect of changing amino acid concentration on urea and glucose release in sheep liver S14

AM Ali, H Engelbrecht, JG Van der WaltUsing faecal measurements to estimate fermentation and acid accumulation in the caecum and colon S15

EH Clayton, NS SherwoodRelative validity of dietary self-report in an intervention trial for Type 2 diabetes mellitus S16

GS Martin, LC Tapsell, MJ Batterham, GD CalvertComparison of dietary analysis methods for human folate bioavailability studies S17

AE de Ambrosis, J Arcot, J Paterson, AK Shrestha, P HaberDetermination of folate contents in vegetables S18

Y Iwatani, J Arcot, AK ShresthaSkeletal muscle triglycerides and central visceral adiposity predict insulin sensitivity in lean, young, healthy subjects from two ethnic groups S19

S Dickinson, J Ward, JC Brand-Miller, P Petocz, C ThompsonThe role of dietary glutamate in food perceptions and preferences S20

J PrescottA new food labelling program for the glycemic index S21

JC Brand-Miller, AW Barclay, T IrwinConsumers lack understanding of functional foods – a survey in an Australian university population S22

L Nicholas, E McNamara, J Stanton, DCK RobertsA comparison of food choice patterns in the usual diets of a sample of women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus S23

LJ Gillen, LC Tapsell, GS Martin, S Daniells, RG MosesGateway for student dietitians into the information superhighway S24

CA EdwardsThe impact of dominance hierarchy, salivary pheromones and saliva contamination on feed preference in grower pigs S25

R Lansdowne, M Van Koesveld, NL Gallagher, J Sclater, DP Collins, LR Giles, PC WynnNutrition of working animals S26

RA PearsonCanine and feline nutrition at the edge S27

ND CostaNutrition and horse racing: feeding racehorses S28

WL Bryden, EA Owens, NP McMenimanAgainst the odds – a jockeys ‘lot’ S29

JM Moore

Fermentation of fibers by cat fecal microflora: evaluation of six novel fibre sources, two non-digestible oligosaccharides and two gelling agents S30

CJ Giffard, RF Butterwick, RM BattComparison of isoflavone absorption from soybean extract and red clover S31

PJ Nestel, S Pomeroy, N TsunodaEvaluation of cottonseed meal for grower pigs between 20 and 50 kg liveweight S32

DN Singh, R Perez-Maldonado, GW Blight, MH MageeUpper limits of inclusion of canola meal and cottonseed meal formulated on a digestible amino acid basis for chicken meat production S33

RA Perez-MaldonadoBrain sialic acid concentration: comparison of breast-fed vs formula-fed infants S34

B Wang, J Brand-Miller, P Petocz, P McVeagh Commodity consumption average in Mediterranean countries (1962–1998) compared with Australia S35

A Noah, AS TruswellDietary predictors of survival amongst Greeks in Melbourne S36

I Darmadi, A Kouris-Blazos, ML WahlqvistDegradation of canola and lupin meals in the rumen S37

SK Baker, DC Henry, L Klein, HR Mills, CL Pimm, LA StoreWater consumption by rusa stags S38

W Yape Kii, GMcL DrydenUptake of N-acetylneuraminic acid-6-14C (sialic acid) into the brain of neonatal piglets S39

JA Downing, SJ Wilkinson, B Wang, JC Brand-Miller, WL BrydenRole of muscle phospholipids in reducing carcass fatness and improved tenderness of meat in lambs S40

EN Ponnampalam, AR Egan, BJ Hosking, BJ Leury, AJ SinclairCooking attenuates the ability of high amylose meals to reduce plasma insulin concentrations in rats S41

MA Brown, JA Higgins, IL Brown, PL McLennan, LH StorlienDistribution on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in different edible portions of the blue swimmer crab(Portunus pelagicus) S42

M Sullivan, XQ Su, D LiA role for polyunsaturated C18 free fatty acids in the toughness of cooked beef S43

SJ Beveridge, CA WoldGrowth of goats for meat production: effect of breed and castration S44

PJ Murray, J Sumarmono, NMW Pratiwi, DG TaylorCarcass composition of entire and castrated full blood improved Boer bucks S45

J Sumarmono, NMW Pratiwi, PJ Murray, DG TaylorPhysical traits of goat meat: a comparison between meat from castrated and entire Boer bucks S46

NMW Pratiwi, J Sumarmono, PJ Murray, DG TaylorOmega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of canned meats commonly available in Australia S47

D Li, M Mansor, SR Zhuo, T Woon, MA Anthony, AJ SinclairThe effect of storage and cooking on lipid oxidation of raw and cooked beef and goat meat S48

K Widayaka, T Setyawardani, J SumarmonoSeasonal variations of total lipid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in two Victorian farmed abalone species S49

XQ Su, KN Antonas, D LiThe n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of commonly available green vegetables in Australia S50

D Li, C Pereira, AJ SinclairBiobalanced livestock feeding systems S51

JG Dingle, YL HenukProgress in the elimination of iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage by the year 2000 S52

BS HetzelRaw brown onion consumption reduces plasma triglycerides and has other health benefits S53

E Ostrowska, NK Gabler, BG Tatham, SJ Sterling, RB Jones, DR Eagling, FR DunsheaMonosodium glutamate and asthma – what is the evidence? S54

RK WoodsTime course of incorporation of 1-14C-αα- linolenic acid into various rat tissues S55

NM Attar-Bashi, AJ SinclairBlood pressure and dietary sodium reduction in normotensive subjects S56

CA Nowson, TO Morgan, C GibbonsSodium intake and self-efficacy S57

DR Woodward, PJ Ball, TC BeardFat distribution and blood pressure: a twin study S58

CA Nowson, JE PritchardEffects of the glycemic index on the insulin-like growth factor system S59

VR Liu, RC Baxter, JC Brand-MillerThe acute effect of resistant starch on postprandial satiety in an overweight population S60

HHY Ngai, VL Brenninger, LC Tapsell, IL Brown

Dietary vitamin E modulates immune responses to Salmonella typhimurium in chickens S61WI Muir, AJ Husband, WL Bryden

Effect of monounsaturated fat in the diet on the serum lycopene levels S62KDK Ahuja, MJ Ball

An overview of gene-nutrient interactions S63JJ Strain, CS Downes

Folate, gene expression and genomic stability S64M Fenech

Nutrition as an evolutionary force S65WJ Foley

Refugee camps – a food security, livelihood and childhood nutrition assessment at Sinje, Cape Mount County, Liberia, West Africa S66

D Stevens, AJ BenckeConsumption of bangun-bangun leaves (Coleus amboinicus Lour) to increase breast milk production among Batakneese women in North Sumatra Island, Indonesia S67

R Damanik, N Damanik, Z Daulay, S Saragih, R Premier, N Wattanapenpaiboon, ML WahlqvistCompliance with the dietary regimen in a five-year trial of the primary prevention of asthma S68

A Yiu, S Mihrshahi, K Webb, JK Peat, GB Marks, SR LeederCalculating resting energy expenditure in men with HIV/AIDS S69

MJ Batterham, J Morgan-Jones, P Greenop, R Garsia, J GoldMalnutrition in children with cancer in Pakistan S70

Q Atta-ur-RehmanFood insecurity in Somali women living in Australia S71

C BurnsSupplement usage in women entering the menopausal transition in Brisbane S72

KL Hanna, R Williams, S O’Neill, SK Khoo, R McIntosh, C Patterson, P Lyons-WallAn investigation into the association between eating environment and food intake of residents with dementia at an aged care facility S73

AM Fendick, LM Konz, LE Vandervliet, DCK RobertsDepression in malnourished children with cancer S74

I Kiran, Q Atta-ur-RehmanShort and long term black tea consumption reverses endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease S75

SJ Duffy, JF Keaney, M Holbrook, N Gokce, PL Swerdloff, B Frei, JA VitaRegular ingestion of tea does not inhibit in vivo lipid peroxidation in humans S76

JM Hodgson, KD Croft, TA Mori, V Burke, LJ Beilin, IB PuddeyThe impact of xenoestrogens in the diet: feminizing agents or functional foods? S77

BM Thomson, PJ Cressey, IC ShawDietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids alter the molecular species profile of avian breast muscle phospholipids S78

RE Newman, WL Bryden, E Fleck, LH, Storlien, JA DowningDiet containing cocoa powder with flavanols and procyanidins inhibits platelet function S79

KJ Murphy, AK Fassoulakis, I Singh, MA Francis, MJ Pike, AH Turner, NJ Mann, AJ SinclairLycopene concentration and antioxidant capacity after consuming tomatoes with olive oil S80

JM Fielding, D Li, R Stockmann, AJ SinclairAre probiotics effective? S81

MJ PlayneThe intestinal microflora in Australian breast-fed and formula-fed infants S82

JEAC Napoli, JC Brand-Miller, H Agus, M RomeoThe effect of two years milk supplementation on bone mineral accretion in Chinese adolescent girls S83

K Zhu, H Greenfield, X Du, DR FraserDo differences in nutrient intake predict differences in bone mass in boys: a co-twin control study S84

S Iuliano-Burns, JL Hopper, E SeemanRumen protected conjugated linoleic acids: effects on milk composition in dairy cows S85

SK Gulati, S McGrath, PC Wynn, TW ScottHigh carbohydrate and high monounsaturated fat dietary targets produce similar outcomes in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus with concomitant reduced saturated fat intakes S86

LC Tapsell, GD Calvert, GS Martin, M Batterham, S DenmeadeSaturated fat intake linked to risk of inflammatory bowel disease – results of a case control study S87

A Bencke, DCK Roberts, R BateyHow effective is the ‘low fat’ message? S88

V Droulez, B Eden, S Anderson, M NoakesPregnancy and lactation have no long-term adverse effects on bone mass: a twin study S89

CA Nowson, LM Paton, JL Alexander, C Margerison, MG Frame, B Kaymakci, JD WarkIncreased dietary saturated fat intake decreases the ratio of thromboxane/prostacyclin in healthy male subjects S90

D Li, R Habito, G Angelos, AJ Sinclair, MJ Ball

Influence of dietary stearic acid enrichment on individual platelet phospholipid fatty acid composition S91FD Kelly, NJ Mann, AH Turner, D Li, AJ Sinclair

Relationship between platelet phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids and dietary intake of fish, meat and polyunsaturated fat in male Melbourne Chinese and Caucasian S92

D Li, H Zhang, BHH Hsu-Hage, ML Wahlqvist, AJ SinclairThe demographic dimension: past and future S93

JC CaldwellProspects for the Third Horseman in an environmentally stressed biosphere S94

AJ McMichaelThe impact of changing world resources on food security S95

ML Wahlqvist

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia (2001) 25 S1

Nutrition and metabolism during prolonged Earth orbit

HW Lane

Space and Life Sciences, Johnson Space Center, National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationHouston, Texas, 77058, USA

There are many physiological adaptations that occur during exposure to microgravity and these have majornutritional considerations (1). Nutrition research has been conducted in U.S. long duration space flight programs including Skylab, Shuttle/Mir and International Space Station. Nutritional perturbations include psychological/behavior and performance especially the sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances, fluids andelectrolytes related to cardiovascular and renal functions, musculoskeletal changes including changes in bodycomposition and bone and muscle functions, neurosensory adaptations includes taste and odor sensitivities,and hematological changes related to blood volume and red blood cells.

Psychological health is provoked by stress, lack of sleep, and hunger. Fluid shifts include reduction ofplasma volume and extracellular fluids which reduces the blood volume that in term affects the cardiovascularsystem. The lack of gravity reduces muscle volume and bone mass. This is exacerbated by loss of appetite,reduced energy consumption, and consequently reduced protein synthesis. Total energy requirements duringspace flight are similar to the crew members total energy requirement on Earth. Bone changes include reduc-tion of bone formation and increased bone resorption as measured by bone metabolism markers. Counter-measures research on the bone and muscle losses include dietary calcium, sodium, potassium, Vitamin D, andVitamin K along with exercise protocols. Although antidotal, altered taste and odor sensitive have not beendocumented during space flight, but may explain some of the loss of appetite. Research is continuing to pro-vide high quality food without the availability of frozen or refrigerated foods. The types of foods most suc-cessful have been theromostabilized food products. Hematological changes include the decrease in red bloodcell synthesis due to decreased erythropoietin synthesis. There is an increased iron storage as ferritin andpotentially a decrease in iron gastrointestinal absorption. The interactions of the increased tissue iron levelsand radiation are topics for research.

The human body makes major physiological and psychological adjustments to microgravity and exposureto radiation, as well as the stress of living and working in very confined space. The astronauts make theseadjustments to have a productive stay in space. Nutrition research emphasizes the mitigation strategies to max-imize the astronauts’ productivity.

1. Lane HW, Schoeller DA (ed). Nutrition in Spacefight and Weightlessness Models. CRC Press, Baton Raton, Florida,2000.

Resident humans under polar conditions

K O’Dea1, D Lugg2, M Niall3

1Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin NT, 08112Australian Antarctic Division, Kingston, Tas, 70503Public Health Nutritionist, Melbourne, Vic, 3000

Examination of the history of Antarctic exploration food supplies reflects the advances in food technology, thechanging science of human nutrition, and the impetus given to the field by polar and space exploration. Scurvyand debilitation was suffered by Scott’s ill fated expedition, whereas Amundsen’s succeeded by plannedprovisioning including eating raw seal, the expedition dogs, B group vitamins and milk powder. Shackleton’sstranded party lived on marine life and birds until rescued.

Antarctic provisioning has been documented in a series of papers in the 1950’s. Many of the problems ofthe 1950s are still relevant in the present day, as most provisions are delivered in the short summer when theships can penetrate the pack ice, and must be stored over the long winter. Historically the vitamin C contentof the supplies was always well below the RDI due to lack of fresh produce.

The isolation of the Antarctic has provided an ideal opportunity for a range of different studies over manyyears: including examination of physiological adaptations to extreme environments, measurements of foodintake and nutritional status, and changes in body weight, lipids and blood pressure over time and in responseto dietary interventions.

Recent studies indicated an increase in energy intake over the winter months. This contrasts with earlierobservations (1955–57) where rapid increases occurred in the first 3 months, followed by a plateau as freshfood was used up. Fresh food is now available all year, despite some storage difficulties.

Dietary analysis of inventory, recipes, and individual intake at one base was correlated with blood levels ofcarotenoids, folate and homocysteine and shown to be adequate. The vitamin C content of the inventory,recipes and intake were all shown to be above the RDI in 1997–98. Redesign of the annual inventory improvedthe nutrient density of folate.

RDI for Vitamin C is 60 mg /day. The nutrient density supplied is 130 mg/day.Adequate antioxidants are provided in the annual food supply, not requiring supplementation, if the indi-

vidual expeditioner consumes adequate fruit and vegetables. Inventory analysis is a simple monitoring deviceto ensure nutrient quality. Provedore contracts with specifications of quality, handling and storage on thesupply vessel are an essential element of the food supply.

Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2001) 10 (Suppl)S2


Nutritional ecology of reindeer/caribou and their interaction with humansRG White1, DE Russell2, Ø Holand3, B Griffith1, RD Cameron1, G Kofinas4, ED Nobmann5, J Kruse6

1IAB, Univ Alaska Fairbanks, AK 99775 USA 2Canadian Wildl Serv, Whitehorse, YK, Y1A 5B7 Canada 3Dept Anim Sci, Agric Univ of Norway, Ås 1432, Norway

4IAS Dartmouth College, NH 03455 USA 5Alaska Native Health Serv, AK 99508 USA

6ISER, Univ Alaska Anchorage, AK 99508 USA

For arctic and subarctic animals, the availability and quality of food is highly seasonal. Indigenous herbivoreshave adapted behaviorally and physiologically to climatic extremes, shaping their nutritional and reproductivestrategies. Of particular importance is the availability of energy and protein, which are frequently uncoupled.Between-year weather variations, long-term climatic changes, and regional gradients in productivity combineto further alter annual distribution and seasonal migrations.

The historical distributions of native peoples coincide closely with their food resources. With primary depen-dence on a single species, welfare of the user is intimately tied to that food base. In circumpolar regions, rein-deer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus L), offer a good example. Reindeer herding by the nomadic Saami and othernative groups of northern Europe and Eurasia (1) and caribou hunting by the Gwich’in of Alaska and WesternCanada (2) have long traditions. In these cases, short- and long-term changes in the quality and quantity of veg-etation available to the herbivore could cascade through the food chain to the user (3).

The relative effects of energy and protein on individual female caribou result in five reproductive pathwaysthat control annual fecundity and nutritionally evoked mortality (4). When adjusted for natural mortality andhunting, level of nutrition strongly determines caribou population size (5). Factors affecting energy intake offemale Rangifer during summer influence the level of fatness attained by autumn, thereby controlling con-ception rate (6,7). In contrast, protein balance in spring influences weights at both birth at weaning, in turnaffecting survival. Access to nitrogen-rich forage during the first three weeks postpartum is especially impor-tant to maximize milk production and calf survival (5). Later in summer, maternal protein deposition becomesa priority, and if the female cannot deposit protein at 60 g/d, milk production ceases, and the calf will die (4).If the calf survives, however, nursing may continue until the autumn rut; but under poor nutritional conditions,females may wean early or forego breeding and suckle calves throughout winter (4).

Reindeer milk was traditionally stored for winter use (1). Reintroduction of milking could provide economicbenefits to Saami and stimulate research on maximizing milk production. Future husbandry practices mayfocus on the unique aspects of reindeer milk and the potential for marketing exotic cream and cheeses (8).

Until recently, diets of reindeer herders and caribou hunters were relatively high in protein and fat (2,9).Local red meat was supplemented with smoked fish and marine mammal products. Bone marrow, fish, andmarine mammal oils were sources of unsaturated fatty acids. Willow leaves and berries were stored in oils,preserving the vitamins, and eaten with meat and fish during winter. Apparently births were distinctly sea-sonal, attributable to a pulse in food availability. The diet is now higher in carbohydrates and comparativelylower in protein and fats, and the year-round availability of store-bought groceries has moderated the nutri-tional pulse (9). Changes in diet and exercise have occurred, as has increasing incidence of obesity and dia-betes (10). Ischemic heart disease has not declined among Alaska Natives, as it has among others in the US,and it may be increasing (11).

Nutritional challenges abound. Reintroducing components of the traditional diet that provide protectionfrom metabolic diseases is but one important goal, but success is elusive. Herding and hunting traditions assistin social well being, but monetary returns are low. Uncertainties about the future of the resource base, espe-cially in light of industrial development, tourism and climate change, also make for an uncertain future. How-ever, documenting native ways of knowing and combining western science with traditional knowledge andobserved ecological indicators are important new approaches for co-management of wildlife resources. Theserepresent important tools given the emergent politics of northern self-determination (12). Nevertheless, com-plex systems and diverse goals lead to conservative management schemes which, without thoughtful imple-mentation, will limit either the number of families or the extent to which individuals and families can retainthe basic elements of a subsistence lifestyle (13,14). This, in turn, will reduce the consumption of traditionalfoods, which are powerful tools for reducing and preventing the incidence of nutritionally based health issues.


1. Holand Ø, Aikio P, Nieminen M. Encyclopedia of Dairy Science 2001; (Submitted). 2. Wein EE, Freeman MMR. Arctic 1995; 48: 61–171.3. White RG. Oikos 1983; 377–384. 4. Russell DE, White RG. Rangifer 2000; Spec Iss No12: 67. 5. Griffith B, Douglas DC, Russell DE, White RG, McCabe TR, Whitten KR. In: Green RE, Harley M, Spalding M,

Zöckler C (ed). Impacts of climate change on wildlife. Cambridge: RSPB, 2001; 17–19. 6. Cameron RD, Smith WT, Fancy SG, Gerhart KL, White RG. 1993. Can J Zool 1993; 71: 480–486. 7. Gerhart KL, Russell DE, van de Wetering D, White RG, Cameron RD. J Zool Lond 1997; 242: 17–30.8. Holand Ø, Aikio P, Gjøstein H, Nieminen M, Hove K, White RG. Small Rum Res. 2001 (In press).9. Nobmann ED, Byers T, Lanier AP, Hankin JH, Jackson MY. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 55: 1024–1032.

10. Murphy NJ, Schraer CD, Thiele MC, Boyko, EJ, Bulkow, LR, Doty, BJ, Lanier AP. J Am Diet Assoc 1995; 95: 676–682.

11. Nobmann ED, Ebbesson SOE, White RG, Schraer CD, Lanier AP, Bulkow LR. Intl J Circumpolar Health 1998;57: 4–17.

12. Kofinas GP. Ph.D. Dissertation.Univ Brit Columbia, Vancouver. 1988; 471pp.13. http://www.taiga.net/sustain/14. http://www.rangifer.net


Nutrition and trans-Antarctic trekking

CH Forbes-Ewan

Defence Nutrition Research Centre, DSTO, Scottsdale, TAS, 7260

In 1911 Robert Scott and his four companions died in a heroic but failed attempt to be the first people to reachthe South Pole. At the same time, Roald Amundsen’s group trekked to and from the Pole, beating Scott com-fortably and returning without mishap. Although there were differences between the groups in equipment andmodes of transport, contrasting approaches to meeting nutritional requirements also contributed to the vastlydifferent outcomes. Stroud (1) reported that a re-enactment of Scott’s trek (the ‘Footsteps of Scott’ expedition,1985/86) involved a mean daily energy expenditure (EE) in the range 25–29 MJ. This is approximately fourtimes BMR, a power output that has been described as representing the ‘ceiling for performance in humans’ (2).Yet the members of the ‘Footsteps of Scott’ expedition used skis, while Scott’s group trekked mostly on foot(a less efficient means of locomotion), implying that the rate of EE by Scott’s group may have been evengreater than four times BMR. Stroud (1) concludes that lack of total food may have played a greater role thanpreviously realised in the demise of Scott and the other members of his expedition.

In addition to providing inadequate energy, the poor nutritional quality of Scott’s rations very likely alsocontributed to the failure of his group to survive. Apart from a small quantity of lime juice, his rations did notinclude a significant source of vitamin C. The ascorbic acid status of his men would also not have beenimproved by the 35,000 cigars he took to Antarctica for the overwintering period prior to the attempt on theSouth Pole.

Other early expeditions have illustrated different nutritional problems. For example, Douglas Mawson andhis companion ate their huskies, including the livers, when the third member of their group and most of theirsupplies fell down a crevasse. Husky liver is very rich in vitamin A. Hypervitaminosis A killed Mawson’s com-panion, and very nearly killed Mawson too.

Recent expeditions have thrown more light on the nutritional requirements and physiological effects oftrans-Antarctic trekking. They also indicate that it is virtually impossible to maintain weight, even when thediet provides for a daily intake of more than 20 MJ per day, with greater than 50% of energy derived from fat.For example, Stroud (3) reported on the effects of an unsupported trek by two men, involving man-hauling a220 kg (initial weight) sledge across Antarctica. Mean daily energy intake was 21.3 MJ, with ~57% of energyintake derived from fat and ~36% from carbohydrate. Despite this, both men lost more than 25% of theirinitial body weights. Mean EE for the two men varied widely, depending on the nature of the terrain beingcrossed. During the climb up the slopes of the Antarctic Plateau (10 days), EE averaged more than 40 MJ/day(6–7 times BMR) – the highest EE ever reported for such a prolonged period.

1. Stroud MA. Nutrition and energy balance on the ‘Footsteps of Scott’ expedition 1984-86. Hum Nutr: Appl Nutr 1987;41A: 426–433.

2. Westerterp KR, Saris WHM, van Es M, ten Hoor F. Use of doubly labeled water technique in humans during heavysustained exercise. J Appl Physiol; 61: 2162–2167.

3. Stroud MA. The nutritional demands of very prolonged exercise in man. Proc Nutr Soc 1998; 57: 55–61.


Antarctic bacteria: a new source of polyunsaturated fatty acids for humans?

DS Nichols1,2, K Sanderson1, M Smith1, PD Nichols2,3 T Lewis1, TA McMeekin1

1School of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania, TAS, 70012Antarctic CRC, University of Tasmania, TAS, 70013CSIRO Div Marine Research, Hobart, TAS, 7001

The production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) by bacteria has been firmly established forover two decades although it is still commonly ignored within the fields of marine ecology and biogeo-chemistry. A large proportion (up to 30%) of PUFA producing bacteria have been isolated from permanentlycold environments such as the deep-sea and Antarctic sea ice (1,2). Investigations of sea ice microbial com-munities (SIMCOs) from Antarctica have revealed a high diversity of bacterial taxa with the ability to producePUFA. These include members of the γ-Proteobacteria and the Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroides com-plex. The majority are psychrophilic (requiring low temperatures for growth) and halophilic (requiring thepresence of salts for growth) in contrast to the bacteria present in the underlying water (2,3).

PUFA-producing bacteria have gained recognition as an alternative source for human use. A significantadvantage is that bacteria contain only one long-chain PUFA component (usually eicosapentaenoic or docosa-hexaenoic acids) rather than the multiple components present in fish or algal oils (4). Hence bacteria representa naturally occurring source of certain PUFA which bypass the expensive purification of individual compo-nents.

Studies of PUFA-producing bacteria will be highlighted examining the role of PUFA in bacteria, their usein artificial food chains and the application of genetic technology for the production of functional foods usingbacterial PUFA genes.

1. DeLong EF, Yayanos AA. Biochemical function and ecological significance of novel bacterial lipids in deep-seaprokaryotes. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986; 51: 730–737.

2. Bowman JP, McCammon SA, Brown MV, Nichols DS, McMeekin TA. Diversity and association of psychrophilicbacteria in Antarctic sea ice. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997; 63: 3068–3078.

3. Bowman JP, Brown MV, Nichols DS. Biodiversity and ecophysiology of bacteria associated with sea ice. Antarc Sci1997; 9: 134–142.

4. Russell NJ, Nichols DS. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine Bacteria – a dogma rewritten. Microbiol 1999; 145:767–779.


Influence of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure and somephysiological parameters of female rats fed with a diet high in

saturated fat and salt

AP Jayasooriya1,2, JA Armitage1,3, HS Weisinger1,2, RS Weisinger1, P Burns1, B Purcell1,M Mathai1, M. Morris4, AJ Vingrys3, AJ Sinclair2

1Howard Florey Institute, 3Dept Optometry, 4Dept Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, VIC, 30102Dept Food Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, 3000

Many western diets, although nutritionally adequate in most respects, may be deficient in omega-3 fatty acids.Recent data from our group (Sinclair, unpub) shows reduced neural DHA levels in animals maintained on adiet high in saturated fat, a diet not dissimilar to that of western societies. Furthermore, diets high in salt andsaturated fats have been associated with elevated blood pressure in human populations and salt-loaded malestroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR-SP). Omega 3 PUFA are anti-hypertensive in these ratmodels (1). In the rats, the omega-3 PUFA were also associated with decreased kidney to body weight ratio,improved sodium excretion and retardation of the development of proteinuria.

We examined the effect of differing omega-3 fatty acid supply in a diet otherwise high in saturated fat andsodium, and in a non-hypertensive rat model. Female Sprague Dawley rats (n = 5/ group) were raised on oneof three different diets: high saturated fat, high salt (2% NaCl) with omega-3 fatty acid (HFHS+); high satu-rated fat, high salt without omega-3 fatty acid (HFHS-); low saturated fat, low salt with omega-3 fatty acid(C+). Diet was provided to the pregnant mothers from conception and to the female pups until 25 weeks ofage. The rats had free access to diet and water and were maintained in metabolic cages that allowed for thecollection of urine. Food and water intakes, blood pressure (tail cuff), and leptin levels (RIA) were measured.During experimental conditions, food was removed for 24 h and the intake of water and urine loss was deter-mined. Following the food deprivation period, food was returned and intake measured after 2 and 24 h.

HFHS animals weighed more than C+ rats (p < 0.05), although circulating levels of leptin were similar forthe 3 groups. Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) was similar in the three groups (HFHS –, 139 ± 5; HFHS +,136 ± 8, C+, 138 ± 5). During the food deprivation period, urinary excretion of sodium was higher (p < 0.05)in HSHF – than in the other 2 groups. Elevated level of protein excretion was found in a few animals, not spe-cific to any dietary group. Some pathological lesions were observed in the kidneys of rats that had the intenseproteinuria.

The results confirm that female hormones have a protective effect on salt-induced hypertension (2). Thedifference in urinary sodium excretion may be related to the changes in the glomerular capillary pressure andthen glomerular filtration rate (GFR), due to variation in renal eicosanoid metabolism. Reduced GFR mayhave favourable effects on kidney function.

1. Rayner TE, Howe PR. Purified omega-3 fatty acids retard the development of proteinuria in salt-loaded hypertensiverats. J Hypertens 1995; 13: 771–80.

2. Hinojosa-Laborde C, Lange DL, Haywood JR. Role of female sex hormones in the development and reversal of Dahlhypertension. Hypertension 2000; 35: 484–489.


Raw onion consumption inhibits in vitro lipoprotein oxidation in plasma

NK Gabler1, E Ostrowska1, SJ Sterling2, RB Jones2, BG Tatham1, DG Eagling2, FR Dunshea1

Natural Resources and Environment, 1Werribee, VIC, 3030, 2Knoxfield, VIC, 3176

Lipoprotein oxidation is thought to be a process linked to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Com-pounds found in onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum) have been shown to increase the overallantioxidant activity of plasma (1,2) as well as other putative health benefits. However, the effects of differentonion varieties and level of intake have not been studied. The aim of the present study was to evaluate thepotential antioxidant benefits of two onion varieties fed at two levels of intake, using the pig as a humanmodel.

Twenty-five female (Large White x Landrace) pigs (initial weight 41.5 ± 4.23 kg) were used in a 2×2+1factorial designed experiment. The treatments consisted of white onions (WO) grown in Queensland andbrown onions (BO) grown in Tasmania, fed at 10 or 24 g/MJ DE and no onion, respectively. Onions werehomogenised in a blender prior to being mixed with dry feed formulated to contain 16.7 MJ DE/kg and 10%(w/w) of tallow to simulate the saturated fatty acid content of a western human diet. Pigs were fed approxi-mately 90–95% of adlibitum (1.67 MJ DE/kg0.75) for 6 weeks. Blood samples were obtained by venipunctureimmediately before feeding at weeks 1, 2, 4 and 6 and at three hours post-feeding at weeks 4 and 6. An in vitroassay, which measures oxidative modifications of lipoproteins, was used to assess plasma antioxidant levelsfrom which the effective time (ET) taken to reach 25, 50 and 75% of maximum absorption at 234 nm weredetermined (in minutes).

BO at the lower intake (10 g/MJ) was a significantly (P < 0.05) better antioxidant than WO, and delayedthe time taken to reach ET25 and ET50. Pre-feeding ETs across all treatments were significantly (P < 0.05)higher than post feeding values. This can be explained by the increase in circulating blood lipids post feeding(data not shown), which resulted in an overall higher lipoprotein oxidation. Significant (P < 0.001) week toweek variation was seen but was not related to onion feeding. It is concluded that brown onion supplementa-tion increased resistance of LDL to be oxidised in plasma. This suppression of oxidative damage may accountfor a reduction in atherosclerotic activity in animals or humans consuming onions.

1. McAnlis GT, McEneny J, Pearce J, Young IS. Absorption and antioxidant effects of quercetin from onions in man.Eur J Clinical Nutr 1999; 53: 92–96.

2. Lau BHS. Suppression of LDL oxidation by garlic. J Nutr 2001; 131: 985S–988S.

g/MJ DE of BW 0.75 ET25 ET50 ET75

Control 0 107.2a 209.4a 406.0ab

WO 10 104.4a 192.3a 330.0a

24 119.5ab 217.9a 380.0ab

BO 10 137.0b 278.0b 479.0b

24 116.1ab 207.9a 477.0b

LSD 23.5 41.3 110.6

a,bmeans within the columns with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).


Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency on fatty acid composition ofbrain phospholipid classes in rats

D Li, CY Loh, AJ Sinclair

Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, 3000

A previous study found that n-3 PUFA deficiency will cause an increased blood pressure later in life inSprague-Dawley rats (1), decreased 22:6n-3 in neural membranes associated with changes in Na-K-ATPpasefunction, Na-channel action and prostaglandin production (2). The aim of this study was to investigate theeffect of n-3 diet rich in salt and saturated fat, with and without polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acidcomposition of brain phospholipid classes in rats.

Eighteen Sprague-Dawley dams were randomly divided into three groups of six animals at mating. Eachgroup of the dams were put onto one of three different diets A, B and C. which were supplied by Glen ForrestStockfeeders in Western Australia. Diet A was high saturated fat, high salt minus n-3 PUFA, diet B was washigh saturated fat, high salt plus n-3 PUFA, and diet C was a low saturated fat, low salt with n-3 PUFA. Alldiets were stored at 4°C. Pups were kept with their mothers till weaning at 21 days. All pups from each of thediets were put together for a few days and were fed the same diets and water ad libitum as their dams. A totalnumber of 6 pups per diet were then separated according to sex and boxed into four groups of 3 animals withtheir body weight matched. At 6 weeks post-weaning, the pups were boxed into groups of 2. The pups agedsix months were killed by decapitation and the brain frontal cortex was collected. Lipid was extracted by chlo-roform : methanol (2 : 1, v/v). Phospholipid classes was separated by thin liquid chromatography (20 × 20 cm,Silica Gel 60, Merck) with solvent system: chloroform : methanol : acetic acid : NH4OH (28%) : H2O(50 : 35 : 4 : 1 : 1). Individual phospholipid class was collected and fatty acid methyl esters were prepared bysaponification of using KOH (0.68 mol/L in methanol) followed by transesterification in BF3 in methanol.Fatty acids were identified GLC.

1. Weisinger HS, Armitage JA, Sinclair AJ, Vingrys PB , Weisinger RS. Perinatal omega-3 fatty acid deficiency affectsblood pressure later in life. Nature Medicine 2001; 7: 258-259.

2. Fenton WS, Hibbeln J, Knable M. Essential fatty acids, lipid membrane abnormalities, and the diagnosis and treat-ment of schizophrenia. Biol Psych 2000; 47: 8-21.

There was no effect of high saturated fat on the 22:6n-3 levels in the brain, however the diet deficient in n-3PUFA had significantly reduced levels of 22:6n-3 inPE, PC and PS and significantly increased levels of22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 in these fractions (P < 0.01). Themagnitude of 22:6n-3 loss was approximately 20%,which indicates how difficult it is to deplete this tissueof n-3 PUFA.


Dietary fish oil supplementation increases the in vitro contractility of rat ileum

GS Patten1, EJ McMurchie1, MY Abeywardena1, A Jahangiri1,2

1CSIRO Health Sciences and Nutrition, Adelaide, SA, 50002Department of Physiology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005

Supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) has been reported to promote gastrointestinaltract health by modifying anti-inflammatory mechanisms (1). However, n-3 PUFAs may also influence thecontractility properties of smooth muscle via direct and/or indirect mechanisms. This was investigated in thepresent study using isolated ileal and colon tissue from rats fed different fat supplemented diets. Rats nineweeks of age were fed synthetic diets ad libitum for four weeks consisting of 17% Sunola (80% oleic acid)(Control, n = 5), 7% Sunola/10% animal fat (SF, n = 8), and 7% Sunola/10% fish oil (FO, n = 7). For thecolon, there were no significant differences in the sensitivity (EC50) or maximal contraction between the threedietary groups induced by acetylcholine or 8-iso-PGE2. However, for the ileum, the FO group demonstratedsignificantly higher maximal contraction induced by acetylcholine and 8-iso-PGE2 (11.0 ± 1.6 and 8.9 ± 0.9 V/gtissue calculated as the mean ± SEM from n = 5-8 rats) compared to SF group (6.3 ± 0.7 and 5.0 ± 0.6 V/g)and Control group (5.7 ± 0.9 and 5.4 ± 0.5 V/g) (P < 0.05) respectively. The FO group also had significantlyhigher maximal contraction induced by PGE2 and PGF2α (9.9 ± 1.2 and 8.9 ± 0.7 V/g) compared to SF group(6.2 ± 0.8 and 5.8 ± 0.6 V/g) (P < 0.05) respectively. In contrast to tissue specific changes in contractility, theFO diet resulted in similar compositional fatty acid profiles in both ileum and colon tissues. Compared toControl group, the total phospholipid fraction of ileum and colon tissue of FO group had significantlyincreased levels of n-3 PUFAs (α-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid) with a con-comitant decrease in oleic and linoleic acid, while SF group had increased saturated fats myristic, palmitic andstearic acids with concomitant decrease in oleic and linoleic acids (P < 0.05).

These results suggest that dietary fish oil enrichment may influence gut contractility, particularly the smallintestine. However, the biochemical basis as well as the physiological relevance of the effect at the wholeanimal level needs to be further investigated.

1. Belluzzi A, Boschi S, Brignola C, Munarini A, Cariani G, Miglio F. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 339S-342S.

Effect of representative intestinal modulators (A) acetylcholine (B) 8-iso-PGE2 and (C) PGE2 on the contraction ofisolated rat ileum plotted as mean ± SEM generated from pooled data expressed as volts per g of tissue (V/g) for(µ) FO group, (υ) SF group and (σ) Control group. Significant differences for individual concentrations is indicatedby *, P < 0.05 for FO versus Control and SF in (A) and (B) and *, P < 0.05 for FO versus SF and #, P < 0.05 forFO versus SF and Control in (C).


Omega-3 intake of cardiac patients: how much do they consume and arethere any disadvantages?

G Sivarajah1, C Davis1, P Talbot2, S Samman1, D Sullivan3

1Human Nutrition Unit, Dept of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006Depts of 2Dietetics and 3Biochemistry, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW, 2050

The consumption of marine sources of omega-3 fatty acids is desirable through their triglyceride lowering,antithrombotic and antiarrhythmic properties. However, the extent of consumption is unknown in cardiacpatients. In addition there may be certain risks such as exposure to mercury.

The aim of this randomised cross-sectional population survey was to determine the omega-3 intake ofcardiac patients. We used a specifically designed food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) which we validatedusing 5-day food records and the distribution of omega-3 in erythrocyte membranes. A possible link betweenfish consumption and mercury exposure was also investigated.

A total of 103 patients were asked to complete the FFQ. A sub-sample of these patients was asked to com-plete 5-day food records and donate blood for the analysis of omega-3 fatty acids and mercury. The foodrecords indicated that the average intake of omega-3 fatty acids was 1.6 g/day with equal contribution fromplant and marine sources (table). The majority of patients (> 68%) was not consuming fresh fish and 1–10%were consuming fresh and canned fish at the recommended level of 2 times per week. A positive correlationwas observed between the content of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in erythrocyte membranes and the dailyEPA intake (r = 0.64, P < 0.05). There was also a correlation between blood mercury concentration and theEPA in erythrocyte membranes (r = 0.7, P < 0.05).

The study showed that cardiac patients required more nutrition education to increase their omega-3 intake.It also confirmed that erythrocyte EPA was the preferable bio-marker for measuring dietary omega-3 intake.However, the risk of possible mercury poisoning from high fish consumption needs to be investigated furtherusing a larger study population.

Mean ± SD (n = 14) Range

Mean daily nutrient intakeEnergy (kJ) 7447 ± 1891 4691–11716Fat (g) 60.3 ± 15.4 38.0–88.2Alpha Linoleic acid -ALA (g) 0.9 ± 0.8 0.3–3.4Eicosapentaenoic acid -EPA (g) 0.3 ± 0.2 0–0.7Docosahexaenoic acid -DHA (g) 0.4 ± 0.4 0–0.8Omega-3 and mercury in erythrocytesErythrocytesmembranesALA (%) 0.23 ± 0.16 0.12–0.73EPA (%) 1.33 ± 0.77 0.41–3.83DHA (%) 6.75 ± 1.35 4.39–9.49Mercury (nmol/L) 31 ± 40 3–154


Health benefits of macadamia nuts in borderline hyperlipidaemic male volunteers

ML Garg1, PK Rudra2, RJ Blake2, R Wills1

1Centre for Advancement of Food Technology & Nutrition, University of Newcastle, NSW2Discipline of Nutrition & Dietetics, School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW

Macadamia nuts are high in monounsaturated fats, plant sterols, fibre and polyphenol compounds. Their con-sumption can therefore be expected to have a lipid lowering effects in humans. This study was conducted todetermine the potential of macadamia nuts to modify favourably the biomarkers of heart health in borderlinehypercholesterolemic male individuals. Seventeen male volunteers (baseline plasma cholesterol of 6.1–7.5mmol/L and average age 54 years) were given macadamia nuts (40–90 g/day) equivalent to 15% energy intakefor a period of four weeks. Plasma cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, homocys-teine, thromboxane, prostacyclin and leukotrienes concentrations and fatty acid composition of plasma lipidswere determined prior to and following consumption of macadamia nuts. Nutrient intakes of volunteers wereanalysed at the baseline and prior to termination of intervention period by three-day food records.

As expected, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA, 16:1n-7, 18:1n-9 and 20:1n-9) were elevated in theplasma lipids of all volunteers following intervention with macadamia nuts. Saturated, n-6 and n-3 polyun-saturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of plasma were unaffected by macadamia nut consumption. Plasma levelsof total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol were reduced by 3.05% and 5.30% respectively and HDL-cholesterollevels increased by 7.9% following macadamia nut consumption. Plasma thromboxane (TXB2), prostacyclin(PGI2), TXB2/PGI2 ratio and leukotriene (LTB4) levels were significantly reduced following macadamia nutconsumption. Triglyceride and homocysteine levels were not affected regardless of the cholesterol status ofthe volunteers. Macadamia nut consumption was associated with significant increase in the intake of MUFAand a reduced intake of cholesterol, saturated and n-6PUFA.

This study demonstrates that macadamia nut consumption modifies plasma lipid profile favourably andalters eicosanoid levels to inhibit thrombosis, despite the diet being high in fat content. Macadamia nuts, aspart of a healthy diet, may play an important role in the prevention of coronary heart disease.

Baseline1 Post intervention1

Cholesterol (mmol/L) 6.51 ± 0.15 6.30 ± 0.15a

HDL Chol (mmol/L) 1.20 ± 0.11 1.28 ± 0.12a

LDL Chol (mmol/L) 4.49 ± 0.11 4.22 ± 0.11a

Chol/HDL-C Ratio 5.91 ± 0.37 5.37 ± 0.34a

Leukotriene (LTB4) (pg/mL) 876 ± 97 679 ± 116a

Prostacyclin (PGI2) (pg/mL) 192 ± 31 177 ± 26a

Thromboxane (TXB2) (pg/mL) 122 ± 23 90 ± 14a

TXB2 / PGI2 Ratio 0.82 ± 0.12 0.62 ± 0.10a

1 Mean ± SEMa p < 0.05


A method for determining the amino acid and glucose requirements of newlines of pig

E Teleni1, D Singh2, DG Martin1, CE Reid1

1School of Biomedical Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 48112QDPI Animal Research Institute, Yeerongpilly, QLD, 4105

Consumer market demand for lean meat continues to encourage research and development of lines of pigthat produce lean mass quickly and efficiently. With genetic changes would come changes in the amounts,and ratios, of absorbed amino acids and glucose that would be required by these pigs to meet their poten-tial for lean mass growth. This study was undertaken to examine the feasibility of using plasma concentra-tion of urea as a basis of a quicker method for determining the amino acid and glucose requirements of newlines of pigs.

Eight Large White weaner pigs (19–20 kg) were used to examine the changes in plasma concentrationsof urea and 14CO2 when [1-14C]Leucine (Leu) and different levels of amino acids and glucose were infusedintravenously. Each pig was installed with chronic indwelling catheters in the left and right jugular veinsand confined in individual cages, in a metabolism room maintained at an ambient temperature of 24°C, rel-ative humidity of approximately 60% and a 12 h/12 h light/dark lighting regime. The animals were exam-ined in two groups of four in a 4 (days) × 4 (rates of infusion) Latin Square design. On each of the four dayseach animal received for 6 h an intravenous infusion of a solution of glucose + amino acids that suppliedmetabolisable energy (ME) at a rate of 0.75 MJ/h but a Lysine (Lys) to ME ratio (g/MJ) of either 0.7, 0.8,0.9, or 1.0. The composition of amino acids in the infusates, except for Lys, which was varied, was similarto that in pig muscle. [1-14C]Leu was infused simultaneously, but for 4 h only.

It is clear from the data presented in the figures that significant changes (P < 0.05) in the concentrationof plasma urea would reflect changes in the rate of oxidation of dietary amino acids as these would be deter-mined by the ratios of amino acid to amino acid and amino acids to glucose. Both the changes in concen-tration of plasma urea and of blood 14CO2 were similar in pattern and indicate that a ratio of true digestibleLys to ME of 0.8 or between 0.8 and 0.9 would be optimal for protein synthesis and deposition in thesepigs. It is concluded that concentration of urea in plasma could be used as a basis of a quicker and reliablemethod for determining the amino acid and glucose requirements of new lines of pig.

This study was funded by ACIAR Project 9423.


Effect of changing amino acid concentration on urea and glucose releasein sheep liver

AM Ali, H Engelbrecht, JG Van der Walt

Dept of Anatomy and Physiology, Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa

Perfusing the ovine dorsal hepatic lobe with a physiological mixture of amino acids increases urea production,while inhibiting glucose production. Conversely, infusing glutamine or alanine alone increases glucose pro-duction by approximately 40%, while not significantly increasing urea production (1). In this study, we exam-ine the effect of adding extra glutamine, alanine or lysine to the physiological mixture of amino acids.

The isolated dorsal hepatic lobe (four wethers, 23–33 kg) was perfused with modified Krebs-Henseleitmedium (1). The following mixtures of amino acids were co-infused: Low Nitrogen (LN), High Nitrogen(HN = 3x LN), LN or HN plus either Ala, Lys or Gln. The concentration of arginine was kept at 0.08 mmole/Lin all treatments. The LN mixture reflected portal concentrations of amino acids in sheep fed a poor qualityprotein diet. Urea and glucose concentrations were determined in samples of effluent perfusate.

Glucose production was inhibited by 22% by the HN infusion, and by a further 20% by added Ala, Lys orGln. Urea release doubled in response to the latter treatments. The addition of Ala or Gln to LN or HN did notsignificantly affect urea release. While it is unlikely that the carbon deficit is due to the export of amino acidssuch as Gln, there is preliminary evidence that glucose was stored as glycogen during the HN infusion.

1. Ali AM, Rossouw HC, Silove M, van der Walt JG. Exp Physiol 2000; 85: 469–478.

Treatment Release (nmoles g–1 min–1) of

Glucose1 Urea1

LN 903.14 ± 89.51a 1011.84 ± 91.4b

LN + Ala 703.03 ± 139.14 1001.11 ± 138.42b

LN + Lys 656.77 ± 56.94 985.44 ± 148.23b

LN + Gln 639.83 ± 55.06 1098.54 ± 96.11b

HN 708.68 ± 79.00 1936.43 ± 180.83a

HN + Ala 573.50 ± 54.02b 1847.30 ± 187.63 a

HN + Lys 507.78 ± 86.9b 1917.99 ± 266.29a

HN + Gln 543.52 ± 47.20b 1881.73 ± 172.25a

1mean ± SEMa, bMean values within a column with unlike superscripts differ significantly, P < 0.05.

Using faecal measurements to estimate fermentation and acid accumulation inthe caecum and colon

EH Clayton, NS Sherwood

TLC Research, PO Box 50, The Oaks, NSW, 2570

Until recently, the only way to accurately assess hind gut fermentation and acid accumulation in the caecumand colon has been by the use of cannulation or autopsy. Faecal pH has previously been shown to be repre-sentative of pH in the caecum and colon (1). The relationship between pH and organic acid concentrations inthe caecum and faeces has not been explored in situations where the diet is changing. The aim of the currentexperiment was to examine the change in pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and lactic acid along the hind-gut ofsheep when changing from a diet promoting low levels of hind-gut fermentation to a diet promoting highlevels of hind-gut fermentation.

Twenty five Merino ewes were fed a basal diet consisting of Ewe and Lamb Pellets (12 MJ ME/kg DM,13% CP, Millmaster, NSW) and lucerne chaff (8.5 MJ ME/kg DM, 15% CP) fed at 600 and 200 g/hd per dayrespectively. Twenty animals were fed 800 g/hd of rolled barley in addition to the basal ration. Animals wereeuthanased for collection of gut contents, either 0, 3, 8, 12, 16, 24 or 41 hours after feeding 800 g barley(n = 5, 2, 5, 4, 3, 3 and 3 respectively). Samples of digesta from the rumen, caecum, proximal colon, distalcolon and rectum of each sheep were collected and analysed for pH and VFA and lactic acid concentration.

Caecal pH and faecal pH did not differ between sheep at 0, 3, 8, 12 or 16 hours after feeding (data notshown). Caecal pH was significantly (P < 0.05) lower at 24 hours and 41 hours after feeding barley (Figure1). Analysis showed that the intercepts of the regression lines were significantly (P < 0.05) differentbetween 0 and 24 or 0 and 36 hours after feeding barley (Table 1). Lactic acid and VFA analysis will becompleted and reported separately.

These data indicate that faecal pH can be used as an indicator of caecal pH when assessing hind-gutfermentation in a group of animals. However, when the diet is changing, care must be taken in the assessingthe pH relative to the time after introduction of the diet when trying to assess an absolute value for pH in thecaecum.

1. Clayton, EH. Predicting caecal pH. Rec Adv Anim Nutr Aust 1999; 23: 68.


Time after Line equation1 R2

feeding

0 hours y=0.78aLn(x)+6.85a 0.7324 hours y=1.06aLn(x)+6.41b 0.7941 hours y=1.07a2Ln(x)+6.26b 0.93

1Slopes or intercepts with different superscripts differ

significantly (P < 0.05)2Trend for 0 and 41 hour slopes (P=0.08)


Relative validity of dietary self-report in an intervention trial forType 2 diabetes mellitus

GS Martin1, LC Tapsell1, MJ Batterham1, GD Calvert1

1Smart Foods Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2522

All dietary assessment instruments produce inherent errors, which can be problematic for studies of diet anddiabetes control. We have previously reported on the validity of self-reported intakes, captured by the diet history interview (DH), in adults at risk for Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (1). The paper presented herereports on the relative validity of dietary self-report in adults diagnosed with T2DM who participated in a clin-ical intervention trial.

Methods: Fifty-six men and women, diagnosed with T2DM in the previous two years were recruited fromthe Illawarra Diabetes Service. Dietary data were collected by DH interviews and three-day food records (FR)every three months for one year. Self-reports from the DHs were then compared with the FR using paired t-tests, correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman analyses (2). Bias (DH-FR) was also examined longitudinallyusing a two way repeated measures analysis of covariance. The Goldberg cut-off limits were used to detect thepresence of underreporting of energy (EI) at each data collection point (3).

Results: There were no significant differences between paired data from the DH and the FR at baseline(Table1). A linear relationship was shown for energy, protein, carbohydrate and fat, but not for the individualfatty acids, which showed large variability over a narrow range of intakes. There were no trends in bias withmean intake of any variable or over time. Underreporting of EI was greater with the DH than with the FR atbaseline, but not during the trial.

Our results show that self-reported dietary intakes measured with a DH were relatively valid in adults withT2DM participating in a clinical intervention trial.

1. Tapsell LC, Pettengell K, Denmeade SL. Assessment of a narrative approach to the diet history. Public Health Nutri-tion 1999; 2: 61–67.

2. Bland JM, Altman DG. Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement.Lancet 1986; 1: 307–310.

3. Goldberg GR, Black AE, Jebb SA, et al. Critical evaluation of energy intake data using fundamental principles ofenergy physiology: 1. Derivation of cut-off limits to identify under-recording. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991; 45: 569–581.

Variable DH1 FR1 Bias1 Correlation coefficient

Energy (kJ) 7640.95 ± 1879.93 7802.89 ± 1921.72 –244.02 ± 1959.51 0.47*% Protein (% EI) 21.72 ± 3.58 21.08 ± 3.54 0.55 ± 3.86 0.42*% Carbohydrate (%EI) 44.31 ± 7.69 43.68 ± 6.26 0.86 ± 6.51 0.57**% Fat (% EI) 29.07 ± 7.37 29.73 ± 6.29 –0.88 ± 6.40 0.57**% Monounsaturated fat (% fat) 42.34 ± 5.36 41.47 ± 5.24 0.93 ± 6.51 0.16% Polyunsaturated fat (% fat) 18.59 ± 5.79 17.49 ± 4.72 0.75 ± 6.57 0.24% Saturated fat (% fat) 39.07 ± 6.57 41.03 ± 6.98 –1.47 ± 8.63 0.17

1mean ± SD *significant at P < 0.05 **significant at P < 0.01


Comparison of dietary analysis methods for human folate bioavailability studies

AE de Ambrosis1, J Arcot1, J Paterson1, AK Shrestha1, P Haber2

1Dept of Food Science & Technology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney2Drug and Alcohol Department, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney

Accurate folate analysis of foods is essential for bioavailability studies. Direct folate analysis may be too labo-rious for large-scale studies and the current data on the folate content of Australian foods is limited. Can theUK food composition tables be substituted in the absence of Australian data? This study was performed inorder to assess the validity of obtaining folate values in subject diets using UK food composition tables (1)and weighed food record sheets (method 1) compared to a food duplication method and direct folate analysis(method 2).

Healthy female subjects (n = 6) with no previous history of pregnancy or miscarriage were screened for thefollowing criteria: serum folate 6.0–30.0 nmol/L, red blood cell folate 360–1400 nmol/L and absence of certain prescribed drug use. Two double blind crossover trials were conducted using a test dose of pteroyl-glutamic acid (138 µg aqueous folic acid) in each case. In trial 1, the subjects were maintained on a low folatebasal diet (< 200 µg/day) for 48 hours by means of self-selection from a low folate food list in order to satisfya 24-hour collection of postdose urine and faeces. In trial 2, the subjects were maintained on the same basaldiet for 72 hours in order to satisfy a 48-hour collection of postdose urine and faeces. During both trials, thesubjects were asked to provide an accurate weighed food record of all foods eaten during the test period whilstalso being instructed to collect in a bag the same amount of all foods eaten during the test period. The folatecontent of the food samples was measured through a modified tri-enzyme extraction and L.casei micro-biological assay (2). This study revealed that direct chemical analysis of foods (method 2) in formulating alow-folate diet would be more reliable.

1. McCance RA, Widdowson EM. McCance and Widdowson’s the composition of foods. Cambridge: The Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1991.

2. Shrestha AK, Arcot J, Paterson J. Folate assay of foods by traditional and tri-enzyme treatments using cryoprotectedLactobacillus casei. Food Chemistry 2000; 71: 545-552.

Folate intake µg/daySubject number Trial 11 Trial 12 Trial 21 Trial 22

3 57 ± 14 116 140 ± 13 385 129 ± 7 63 144 ± 4 716 91 ± 20 110 119 ± 13 717 141 ± 22 133 85 ± 7 568 151 ± 14 91 222 ± 25 1069 56 ± 4 139 204 ± 26 45

1mean ± SEM from microbiological assay; 2average measured from weighed food record sheets and the UK foodcomposition tables


Determination of folate contents in vegetables

Y Iwatani, J Arcot, AK Shrestha

The Department of Food Science and TechnologyThe University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia

Folate is an important B group vitamin with significant nutritional functions within the human body, par-ticularly one-carbon metabolism. A deficiency of folate results in restricted cell division and elevated plasmahomocysteine concentration. These conditions increase the risk of neural tube defect-affected pregnancy andcardiovascular diseases. Deficiency is mostly caused by an insufficient intake of dietary folate. There is currently no Australian data available for folate content in foods. This study analysed vegetables particularlygreen leafy vegetables (which are generally considered as good sources of folate) for their folate contents. Thisstudy analysed folate contents in 22 different types of vegetables that are readily available in the Australianmarket. The foods were purchased from the local fresh markets or/and supermarkets and analysed micro-biologically according to the method outlined by Keagy (1) for deconjugated folate (total folate) by usingchicken pancreas conjugase. Recovery studies and analysis of reference standard material were carried outalong with the sample analysis for quality control.

Table 1 shows the total folate activities in the 22 vegetables. There were five green leafy vegetables con-taining more than 300 µg/100 g and three which had 200–300 µg/100 g. The regular consumption of theseleafy vegetables may ensure a reasonable level of folate intake. Mungbean, snow peas and alfalfa sproutscontained intermediate levels of folate. Only two vegetables had less than 100 µg/100 g (Spring onion andcabbage).

1. Keagy P. Folacin-Microbiological and animal assays. In Methods of Vitamin Assay (J Augustino, B P Klein, and P B Venugopal, eds) 4th edn. Chap. 18. Wiley Interscience Publication NY, 1985; 445–471.

Vegetables Total folate contents Vegetables Total folate contents(µg/100 g as is)* (µg/100 g as is)*

Chinese flowering cabbage 425 ± 14 (91) Ceylon spinach 180 ± 8 (93)Chinese chard 340 ± 25 (91) Broccoli 174 ± 14 (88)Shanghai Chinese chard 333 ± 13 (91) Chinese cabbage 170 ± 14 (94)Amaranth 332 ± 14 (87) Snow peas sprouts 169 ± 12 (90)Spinach 302 ± 17 (92) Chinese boxthorn 150 ± 8 (85)Silverbeet 290 ± 22 (90) Garlic chives 126 ± 5 (93)Watercress 280 ± 22 (87) Alfalfa 120 ± 8 (92)Mustard green 278 ± 15 (94) Flowering garlic chives 110 ± 8 (93)Water convolvulus 225 ± 19 (88) Asian basil 103 ± 10 (88)Mung bean sprouts 208 ± 7 (69) Spring onion 89 ± 8 (83)Coriander 196 ± 11 (87) Cabbage 68 ± 6 (92)

* Values in parenthesis indicate % moisture content.


Skeletal muscle triglycerides and central visceral adiposity predict insulinsensitivity in lean, young, healthy subjects from two ethnic groups

S Dickinson1, J Ward1, JC Brand-Miller1, P Petocz2, C Thompson1

1Human Nutrition Unit, Dept of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 20062Dept of Mathematical Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, 2007

It is becoming clear that relative insulin resistance is common in certain ethnic groups where the prevalenceof type 2 diabetes is higher than that of European Caucasians. Central obesity and skeletal muscle triglycerideshave been shown to be strongly associated with insulin resistance. The present study was designed to deter-mine if centrally distributed fat deposition (visceral/subcutaneous fat) and intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) wereable to predict differences in insulin sensitivity assessed by the euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp in young,lean, healthy subjects. The two groups (8 European Caucasians and 6 SE Asians: 7 male, 7 female) werematched for age (22.3 y ± 4.4) (mean ± SD), BMI (23.0 kg/m2 ± 1.7), waist circumference, birth weight (> 2.75 kg) and current diet. IMCL of soleus muscle was measured by proton magnetic resonance spectro-scopy (MRS) and abdominal fat by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the abdomen.

Insulin sensitivity (M value) determined by the clamp test averaged 1.44 ± 0.18 mmol/min/m2 (mean ±SEM) in the Caucasian group (n = 8) and 0.79 ± 0.11 mmol/min/m2 in the SE Asian group (n = 6). The Caucasian group was therefore 1.8 times more insulin sensitive than the SE Asian group (p = 0.012). A mul-tiple linear regression (where the independent variables were soleus IMCL, visceral fat area, gender and eth-nic group) showed that the M value could be predicted by ethnic group (p = 0.001), soleus IMCL (p = 0.015)and visceral fat area of the abdomen (p = 0.047). The model was able to explain 79% (R2) of the variance inthe M value. When we controlled for the effects of ethnic group in the model, soleus IMCL and abdominalvisceral fat accounted for 21% (p = 0.015) and 12% (p = 0.047) of the variance in the M value respectively.

Our study suggests that predisposition to insulin resistance is evident even in young, lean, healthy individ-uals of SE Asian origin and that while ethnic group appears to explain a large part of the variance in insulinsensitivity, both skeletal muscle triglycerides and abdominal visceral fat content may also play a significantrole. While the mechanisms responsible for this relationship remain unclear, these findings may lend supportto ethnically determined differences in insulin sensitivity and fat distribution even in young, lean, healthysubjects.

Figure 1. Relationship betweeninsulin sensitivity (M value)and soleus IMCL content intwo ethnic groups.


The role of dietary glutamate in food perceptions and preferences

J Prescott

Sensory Science Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

In addition to the commonly recognised basic tastes – sweet, salty, sour and bitter – there is now considerableevidence for the existence of a fifth basic taste, known as umami. This Japanese word, translated approxi-mately as ‘savoury deliciousness’, refers to the quality of foods containing significant amounts of naturally-occurring glutamate, its sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG), or 5’-ribonucleotides. Umami quality isubiquitous in cuisines throughout the world. The status of umami as a unique taste derives not just from thisquality being perceived as distinct from the other basic tastes, but also from evidence for the existence of bothglutamate receptors within the tongue’s taste cells, and cells within the brain which respond preferentially tothe umami taste.

The addition of glutamate to suitable foods almost always improves flavour acceptability (1). Recent stud-ies from our lab show that this effect is strong enough to be uninfluenced by attitudes towards MSG. Twogroups, each of 60 consumers, answered a questionnaire about attitude to MSG in foods, and tasted two soups,one with and one without MSG. Despite generally having negative attitudes towards the use of MSG in foods,acceptability ratings for foods containing additional MSG was consistently higher than those without addedMSG. This preference was uninfluenced by labels that indicated whether or not added MSG was present inthe food.

Such strong preferences may derive from the ability of glutamate to act as a dietary energy source, simi-larly to sugars and fats. Subjects (N = 44) were given novel food flavours, one of which was paired with glu-tamate on several occasions. Subjects who received the novel flavour plus glutamate showed increased likingfor the flavours, relative to no pairing, but only when the glutamate was consumed, suggesting the presenceof energy conditioning similar to that found for sugar (2) and fats (3). Thus, it may be that our preference foradditional glutamate in foods reflects the energy value that it provides, just as our preference for sweetnessdoes.

1. Bellisle F, Monneuse MO, Chabert M, Laure-Achagiotis C, Lanteaume MT, Louis-Sylvestre J. Monosodium gluta-mate as a palatability enhancer in the European diet. Physiol Behav 1991; 49: 869–874.

2. Zellner DA, Rozin P, Aron M, Kulish C. Conditioned enhancement of human’s liking for flavor by pairing with sweet-ness. Learn Motiv 1983; 14: 338–350.

3. Kern DL, McPhee L, Fisher J, Johnson S, Birch LL. The postingestive consequences of fat condition preferences forflavors associated with high dietary fat. Physiol Behav 1993; 54: 71–76.


A new food labelling program for the glycemic index

JC Brand-Miller, AW Barclay, T Irwin

Human Nutrition Unit, University of Sydney, NSW 2006 and Diabetes Australia NSW, 26 Arundel St,Glebe, NSW, 2037

The glycemic index (GI) is a system of ranking carbohydrate-containing foods according to their effect onblood glucose levels. Per gram of carbohydrate, foods with a low GI raise blood glucose levels more slowlythan foods with a high GI, and consequently have many potential benefits for people with diabetes or impairedglucose tolerance. Two new research studies published in 2001 demonstrate that lower GI diets are associatedwith significantly better long term glycemic control in type 1 diabetes (as indicated by lower HbA1c levels)and improved HDL-cholesterol levels. One of these studies also found that flexible low GI dietary adviceresulted in better quality of life for children with diabetes than those instructed using the traditional carbo-hydrate exchange system. Five studies have now confirmed a relationship between GI and HDL-cholesterollevels (higher GI, lower HDL). At least 17 studies have shown that low GI foods are associated with greaterfeelings of fullness and/or lower energy intakes at subsequent meals, suggesting benefits for weight control.

These recent findings support the United Nations WHO and the FAO’s recommendation that the ‘. . . glycaemicindex be used to compare foods of similar composition within food groups’ (1). The NHMRC Dietary Guide-lines for Older Australians specifically recommend the consumption of lower GI cereal based foods: ‘Eatplenty of cereals, breads and pastas, prefer high-fibre foods and those with a lower glycaemic index’ (2).

Despite the recommendations to the general public to use the GI when making food purchasing decisions,there is no uniform system of identifying the GI on food labels. At present, people rely on popular books andhandouts prepared by a variety of health services. There is a need to provide incentive for food manufactur-ers to produce foods, or modify existing foods, to achieve a wider range of lower GI choices in the market-place. A small number of food manufacturers have included GI values on food labels, but the informationprovided is not consistently presented nor necessarily obtained using standardised methodology.

To overcome these problems, the University of Sydney, Diabetes Australia and the Juvenile DiabetesResearch Foundation have developed a set of uniform labelling guidelines in the context of a Nutrition Func-tion Claim to encourage food manufacturers to place the GI on the labels of carbohydrate-containing foods.This program aims ensure that all consumers have access to up-to-date and reliable information at the pointof sale – the place where most purchasing decisions are made. Further information is available atwww.glycemicindex.com.

1. Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation. Carbohydrates in human nutrition. Report of a jointFAO/WHO report. Rome 14–18 April 1997. Paper 66, 1998. FAO Food and Nutrition. Department of CommunityServices and Health.

2. National Health and Medical Research Council. Dietary Guidelines for Older Australians. 1999, AusInfo, Canberra,ACT, 2601.


Consumers lack understanding of functional foods – a survey in an Australianuniversity population

L Nicholas1, E McNamara2, J Stanton2, DCK Roberts1

1School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW, 23082Nutrition and Dietetics Dept, Austin and Repatriation Medical Centre, Heidleberg West, VIC, 3084

Functional foods continue to emerge onto the Australian market. The Australia & New Zealand Food Author-ity (ANZFA) have preliminarily defined functional foods as ‘similar in appearance to conventional foods andintended to be consumed as part of a usual diet, but modified to serve physiological roles beyond the provi-sion of simple nutrient requirements’ (1). By this definition, Australia has many functional foods available toconsumers, however there is no evidence to suggest that this has been matched by a greater consumer under-standing of these products. Whilst Roze (1999) found 69% of consumers surveyed (n = 1200) had heard offunctional foods, it remains unclear whether consumers actually possess an understanding of functional foods(2). Goldberg (1994) suggests that if asked their view on functional foods, most consumers would respondwith ‘what is a functional food?’ (3). This study aimed to assess current consumer understanding of functionalfoods in a sample university population.

A self-completed questionnaire was distributed to 1187 general staff at the University of Newcastle, witha response rate of 52.6%. Data was analysed based on whole sample population responses and by age cate-gory comparisons. Sixty two percent of respondents did not know what a functional food was, and thoserespondents who thought they knew, had minimal knowledge and understanding. The majority of staff (51%)chose an American definition over ANZFA’s (17%), and less than 7% of respondents were able to correctlychoose all 5 functional foods from a list of 10 food items. Furthermore, when asked to identify a functionalfood purchased or consumed within the last 12 months, 59.2% identified a product that was not a functionalfood. Respondents in the 56–65 age category scored consistently lower than other age groups, despite beingsignificantly (P < 0.05) more likely to purchase functional foods if they claimed to improve their health. Fortyfive percent of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they would not purchase functional foods if theycontained genetically modified foods.

If the term ‘functional food’ is to be used, a consensus on an appropriate definition must be established andportrayed to consumers. In doing so, a clear distinction between the terms ‘genetically modified foods’ and‘functional foods’ needs to be addressed. Health claims may provide an avenue to increase the profile of func-tional foods in Australia, as they can disseminate information to consumers regarding their physiologicalbenefits. Marketing strategies targeting the 56–65 age group may be important, as this age group appears tobe the most likely to purchase functional foods, but are the least educated on these products.

1. National Food Authority. Functional Foods Policy Discussion Paper. Canberra: NFA, 1994.2. Roze A. Matching your message to your market place and increasing consumer share. IBC Conference. Melbourne:

Nutrients and Fortified Foods, 1999.3. Goldberg I. Functional Foods, Designer Foods, Pharmafoods, Nutraceuticals. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1994.


A comparison of food choice patterns in the usual diets of a sample of womenwith and without gestational diabetes mellitus

LJ Gillen1, LC Tapsell1, GS Martin1, S Daniells2, RG Moses2

1Smart Foods Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 25222Illawarra Diabetes Service, Wollongong, NSW, 2522

Rising insulin resistance, common in all pregnancies, results in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in 7.2%of pregnant women in the Illawarra region of NSW (1). Speculation that dietary differences may influence sus-ceptibility to insulin resistance in pregnancy is supported by evidence that dietary modification can improveglycaemic control. However, little has been reported on the actual diets of these women. Clinical trials usingdifferent types of carbohydrate (CHO) suggest that the type of CHO-rich foods may be important (2). Epi-demiological evidence further suggests patterns of whole food intake can indicate diet quality and predictsusceptibility to disease (3).

The aim of this study was to assess differences in food choice patterns in the usual diets of 16 women diag-nosed with GDM and a control group of 24 pregnant women. Data from diet history interviews were analysedfor total energy and macronutrient intakes. Foods were categorized according to core food groups and specificfood categories. The energy (kJ) and CHO (grams) contribution of these groups/foods to the total diet wasassessed.

In this sample, no significant differences were found between groups for reported total energy or macro-nutrient intakes, although there was a trend for the GDM group to report lower energy and CHO intakes. Thecontrol group reported significantly higher CHO intakes from pasta, fruit juice and milk products (P < 0.05),which are recognized to lower glycaemic load.

These results indicate that, compared to healthy pregnant controls, the GDM women appeared to restricttheir intakes of low GI CHO-rich foods. This may be an unnecessary response to the diagnosis of GDM andshould be considered in future dietary advice to this group.

1. Moses RG, Griffiths RD, McPherson S. The incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus in the Illawarra area of NewSouth Wales. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 34: 425–427.

2. Jenkins DJA, Jenkins LA, Wolever TMS, Vukson V Rao AV, Thompson LU, Josse RG. Low glycemic index: lentecarbohydrates and physiological effects of altered food frequency. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 706S–709S.

3. Flegal KM. Evaluating epidemiologic evidence of the effects of food and nutrient exposures. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69: 1339S–1344S.

Food Item GDM1 Control1

Bread 51.4 ± 5.6 56.5 ± 4.4Pasta 7.2 ± 1.4 13.7 ± 1.8*Fruit 34.0 ± 7.1 28.5 ± 4.8Fruit Juice 7.3 ± 3.1 24.4 ± 6.2*Vegetables 16.9 ± 10.0 20.2 ± 14.5Milk/Yoghurt 22.4 ± 3.4 33.1 ± 5.8Milk Products (other) 1.6 ± 0.6 5.0 ± 1.3*

1mean intake (g) ± SD *P < 0.05.


Gateway for student dietitians into the information superhighway

CA Edwards

Nutrition Unit, Dept of Public Health, Flinders University of South Australia, SA, 5042

BackgroundTertiary dietetic training encompasses a number of disciplines and requires attainment of a broad range ofskills in a short period of time. The knowledge attained by student dietitians is partly dependent upon theirability to find and access accurate, credible, timely and thought provoking information. To address this issuein an innovative way, a website has been developed for students in the Bachelor of Nutrition and Dietetics andMaster of Nutrition and Dietetics awards at the Flinders University of South Australia for the year 2001.

Project DescriptionThe goal of the project is to provide a gateway into hundreds of credible websites for student and qualifieddietitians. The website – www.nutd.homestead.com/home.html – offers users the following categories:

• Australian Nutrition Websites• Overseas Nutrition Websites• Public Health Nutrition• Food Science• Health Promotion and Community Nutrition• Sociology of Nutrition• Clinical Nutrition• Paediatric Nutrition• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health• Sports Nutrition and Physical Activity• Commercial Food Manufacturers• Online Scientific Journals• Miscellaneous Nutrition Websites

Expansion and development of the website is ongoing and will be determined by the needs of the students,staff and dietitians, all of whom are able to provide feedback via email facilities available at the website.Formal evaluation will be conducted at the end of the academic year.

ConclusionStudent dietitians should endeavour to embrace the Internet and become proficient in its use so as to accessreliable and up to date information. This website is anticipated to act as a common gateway for all student andqualified dietitians into the vast array of online nutrition information. The evolution and potential success ofthis project could mean that other nutrition and dietetic training institutes could employ the use of such awebsite.


The impact of dominance hierarchy, salivary pheromones and salivacontamination on feed preference in grower pigs

R Lansdowne1, M Van Koesveld1, NL Gallagher1, J Sclater1, DP Collins2, LR Giles2, PC Wynn1

1Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 25702NSW Agriculture, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, PMB 8, Camden, NSW, 2570

The rate of growth and efficiency of feed use by pigs raised in commercial group pens are well below theirgenetic potential and their performance if housed in single pens under ideal conditions. This difference relatesto the activation of sympathetic neural and endocrine stress mechanisms associated with psychosocial inter-actions within the dominance hierarchy of the herd. Between animal interactions are facilitated by steroidalpheromones that transmit either aversive or attractive olfactory cues between individuals. Since a major com-ponent of this decrease in growth performance relates to the suppression in feed intake in group-housed pigs,we investigated the impact of social dominance and salivary contamination of feed on intake.

Entire male pigs (n = 40) were selected for even live weight (55 kg) which were stratified across groupsand a wide variation in vocalisation scores (an indicator of stress status). Groups were maintained in a con-trolled environment with a commercial pelleted diet and water provided ad libitum. The groups were observedby video surveillance for signs of dominance behaviour over a period of four days. From the analysis of 10–5two cornered conflicts for each animal together with the frequency of mounting behaviour and time spentobstructing the feeder, a dominance hierarchy (percentage of wins) was established. After one week in thegroup environment, saliva was collected repeatedly by subcutaneous injection of pilocarpine (25 mg in 1 mLsaline) from the 4 most dominant, and the 4 most subordinate animals from each group until sufficient salivahad been collected. Pools of saliva from dominant and subordinate animals were stored for the contaminationof feed and for routine analyses. A feed preference paradigm was established in which animals (now in indi-vidual pens) were provided with the choice of either fresh feed (U:100g) or the same amount contaminatedwith saliva (2 mL) from either dominant (D) or subordinate (S) animals on a rotational basis. Two establishedolfactory stimuli, molasses (M) and quinine sulphate (Q) were included in solution as controls. Feed was with-drawn 14 h before each preference test. Data for the initial preference between treatments and for the com-pletion of feed on offer for one group of 20 animals are given below.

Neither the initial preference for feed nor the first sample consumed was influenced by the two salivarytreatments. However the odour of the molasses proved to be a significant deterrant when compared with thequinine or the control. Similarly the bitterness of the quinine deterred feed intake when compared with thecontrol. Thus salivary contamination of feed per se is unlikely to influence feed intake in group-housed pigs.

Treatment combinations (1,2) Initial preference Treatment consumed first(trt 1/total %; mean ± SEM) (trt 1/total %; mean ± SEM) *P < 0.05

DS 42 ± 6 36 ± 6DU 51 ± 6 51 ± 6MQ 50 ± 8 31 ± 8*MU 42 ± 8 31 ± 8*QU 44 ± 8 33 ± 8*SU 44 ± 6 44 ± 6


Nutrition of working animals

RA Pearson

Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, University of Edinburgh,Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, Scotland

People living in the developed countries of the world often overlook the reliance that many people in the worldstill place on the working animal. It provides power in food and cash crop production and transport for goods,people and household essentials such as water and fuel in many tropical and sub-tropical areas and in somesmall scale systems in temperate areas. It is impossible to determine accurately the total number of animalsthat are used for work in the world. Some animals are used daily and others seasonally. Numerically the mostimportant animals used for work are cattle, followed by water buffalo, donkeys, horses and mules. Llamas,yaks, elephants, dogs, reindeer, sheep and goats are also used by some people for work, but in smaller num-bers. In recent years numbers in some countries have declined, notably in SE Asia, however in other countries,notably in sub-Saharan Africa, they have increased. Working ruminants and equids are characteristically kepton small mixed farms, mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions, where it is not economic to use motorisedpower or the terrain is too steep and inaccessible for machines to reach. In recent years the trend has been toconsider multipurpose use of working animals – The female animals kept for breeding and milk, and animalsultimately destined for meat are used for work, in addition to their other productive functions. Working equidsare also found around urban areas in Asia and Africa where they are used almost entirely for short distancetransport of people and goods.

The major requirement of the adult working animal is for energy. Additional requirements for protein, min-erals and vitamins during work are relatively low. These can usually be met by the additional food given tomeet the extra energy requirements and additional salt given to meet the mineral losses incurred in sweatingand salivation during work. Energy requirements of working cattle and buffalo are relatively well understoodand daily requirements can be calculated provided the duration, and amount of work is known (1).

Feeding working animals to meet these requirements is not without problems in many situations: The mainworking period in the year, when the nutritional needs for working animals are greatest, is usually at the timewhen feed supplies are at their lowest – at the start of the wet season. The basic feeds that are available to feedmost working animals at this time are the high fibre, low protein forages such as mature tropical grasses, bushhays and cereal crop residues. These feeds are not easily processed by the animal and are of low digestibility,so the animal needs to have plenty of time to feed. Work encroaches on the time available for feeding sovoluntary feed intake of forages usually decreases on a working day. Many of the people who keep workinganimals have little cash available to purchase good quality supplementary feeds always assuming that theseare available. The main challenge in feeding the working animal is to provide it with sufficient nutrients tomeet its requirements for work from the resources that are available given the constraints above. There is nosingle answer. Options available – increasing ration quality, use of body energy reserves – are discussed andexamples are provided of how these can be achieved and situations where these options are most feasible.

1. Lawrence PR, Pearson RA. Feeding standards for cattle used for work. CTVM, Univ of Edinburgh, 1998.


Canine and feline nutrition at the edge

ND Costa

School of Veterinary Biology and Biomedical Science, Division of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences,Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia

Australia has one of the highest rates of pet ownership in the world with 66% of households having pets, ahigher rate than the United Kingdom (46%). There are approximately 4 million dogs and 2.6 million cats inAustralia contributing over $3 billion to the economy, with feeding costs accounting for 60%. Moreover, com-mercial pet foods have now become the predominant method of feeding, as measured by calorie penetration,for dogs (65%) and cats (53%). The major issues associated with this trend are the nutrient specifications,ingredient composition, and increasingly the non-nutritive aims and claims of commercial pet foods. The aimin feeding dogs and cats is maintaining weight and ‘well-being’ for life. In this regard, dogs and cats are com-parable with humans. Nutrient requirements for dogs and cats are specified by the National Research Council(NRC). However, the pet food industry has found these specifications difficult to apply for dog food becausethey are based on absorbed nutrients due to difficulties in assessing bioavailability. As a consequence, the petfood manufacturers moved away from using NRC specifications to the Association of American Feed ControlOfficials (AAFCO) specifications based on dry matter concentrations. In the USA and Australia, AAFCO isnow the preferred authority for nutrient requirements.

Dogs are predominantly carnivorous, and cats, obligate carnivores with both species having high proteinrequirements at maturity (18% and 26% respectively). Therefore, commercial pet foods are manufacturedusing meat and meat byproducts and in the case of dry feeds (< 10% moisture), extruded cereal grains. Dogsand cats have endogenous amylases and disaccharidases to digest gelatinised starch. Nevertheless, cats aresusceptible to carbohydrate overload. Increasingly, ingredients are chosen to decrease the likelihood of foodallergies associated with more commonly used ingredients such as beef, chicken, wheat and corn. Fibre type,amount and proportions of soluble and insoluble fibre are included to manage stool quality and amount. Inaddition, many commercial pet foods are now formulated to an omega-6: omega-3 essential fatty acid ratiobetween 5.0:1.0 to 10.0:1.0, with a series of claimed benefits for skin and coat condition, gut sensitivity, andprogression of renal disease.

The latest focus of commercial pet food companies is on feeding for ‘well-being’, frequently using‘nutraceuticals’ and functional foods. In fact, the range, the claims made, and the inferred benefits of nutra-ceuticals in pet nutrition present the same concerns for regulators and industry associations as they do forhuman nutrition. Prebiotics, particularly fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), have been included to manage gutecology with the aim of enhancing the proportion of ‘beneficial’ bacteria such as Bifidobacteria sp.. However,a number of studies have disputed increases in Bifidobacteria sp., debated the optimum chemical form anddose of prebiotics, and failed to resolve the desired interaction with other dietary ingredients.

Thus the preferred authorities for specifying nutrient requirements, the nature and proportions of ingredi-ents chosen for commercial pet foods and the non-nutritive claims by manufacturers have changed the feed-ing of dogs and cats significantly over the last ten years.


Nutrition and horse racing: feeding racehorses

WL Bryden1,2, EA Owens2, NP McMeniman3

1Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 25702School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343

3School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072

The provision of sufficient nutrients to meet dietary requirements is a problem in racehorse feeding. The dif-ficulty is to supply adequate amounts of energy using feed concentrates and to maintain normal gut functionthrough provision of roughage. In many instances horses in full work have suboptimal voluntary feed intakedespite the best efforts of the trainer.

The nutrient requirements of farm animals that supply meat, wool, eggs or milk have been well describedin relation to the specific end-product. However, the product of the racehorse is efficient muscular action,which is much more difficult to measure. The work output or performance of a horse is affected by a numberof factors. Basic physiological mechanisms, such as muscle contraction, energy metabolism, respiration,circulation and heat dissipation, are factors that are important in the efficiency of energy generation and use.Other factors including temperament and training affect the amount of work a horse accomplishes. Similarly,environmental conditions including ambient temperature and humidity, track surface and the motivation andexperience of the jockey all influence the performance of a horse. The variable influences of these factorsmake it difficult to accurately predict and to measure the performance of a horse under normal race conditions.

Over the last 10 to 15 years there has been increased research into the nutrition and dietetic problems asso-ciated with performance of racehorses. In this review aspects of equine metabolism during exercise aredescribed and their influence on nutrient requirements discussed. Opportunities for meeting these require-ments from dietary sources are evaluated.


Against the odds – a jockeys ‘lot’

JM Moore

School of Nutrition and Public Health, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University,Burwood, VIC, 3125

Of the many sports requiring professional athletes to meet specific weight limits as a prerequisite for com-petition, horseracing stands alone in the strict weight limitations and repeated ‘weigh in’ requirements ofjockeys. A significant characteristic of thoroughbred racing is the handicap system, which imposes weightpenalties to all runners in the anticipation of rendering an even field in the race. In competition the jockey’sbody weight is the main contributor of the specified weight allowance (typically around 50–58 kg). Therefore,maintaining a low body weight for competition becomes an integral feature for jockeys.

The weigh-in procedure for jockeys differs from other weight-category sports such as boxing, wrestling,and rowing. A competitor in these fields typically weigh-in well before the event, allowing the athlete anopportunity to eat and drink before competition (1). However, jockeys are weighed before and after every racethey compete in. Compounding the situation is the absence of a distinct competition period. Horseracing inAustralia takes place year round, providing limited respite periods from race riding and a chance to maintainperiodic relaxed weight control.

The term ‘wasting’ is often used in horseracing circles to describe acute weight loss methods engaged inprior to race riding. Wasting includes fasting, fluid restriction, fluid loss from saunas, abuse of diuretics andlaxatives, self-induced vomiting and excessive exercise. Survey data of registered Victorian jockeys demon-strates the prevalent use of wasting strategies. To restrict energy intake, 75% of all jockeys routinely skippedmeals. Forty one percent of jockeys induced fluid loss through sweating in saunas and 39% of jockeys reportedusing diuretics. Of the jockeys using the sauna within 24 hours of race day, 26.5% also used diuretics and 14%also used laxatives to lose weight (2). These findings support anecdotal suggestions that many jockeys rely onextreme weight loss strategies to make weight for race riding (3).

Jockeys who engage in wasting practices may place their performance and health in jeopardy. Of particu-lar concern is the widespread reliance on severe dehydrating strategies prior to competition, further exacer-bated by habitual restricted eating and drinking practices. Future research needs to consider the impact of theseextreme weight loss methods on both riding performance and long-term health outcomes for this populationgroup.

1. Morris F, Payne W. Seasonal variations in the body composition of lightweight rowers. Br J Sports Med 1996; 30:301–304.

2. Moore JM, Timperio AF, Crawford DA, Burns CM, Cameron-Smith D. Weight management and weight loss strate-gies of professional jockeys. Int J Sport Nutr Ex Metab (In press).

3. DeBenedette V. For jockeys injuries are not a long shot. Phys Sportsmed 1987; 15: 237–45.


Fermentation of fibers by cat fecal microflora: evaluation of six novel fibresources, two non-digestible oligosaccharides and two gelling agents

CJ Giffard, RF Butterwick, RM Batt

The WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Melton Mowbray, Leics, LE14 4RT, UK

An in vitro investigation of the fermentation capacity of six novel dietary fibers, two non-digestible oligo-saccharides (NDO) and two gelling agents by feline fecal microflora has identified fibers that are likely to bebeneficial to colonic function and health in the cat.

Faeces from 14 healthy, adult, domestic short hair cats were collected and used as fresh triplicate inoculafor an in vitro fermentation system (1). Cats were fed commercial pet foods for two months prior to start ofthe study and had access to fresh water at all times. Housing conditions were within the requirements of theAnimals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.

Fibres differed significantly in the rate, extent and pattern of fermentability between substrates. The high-est concentration of total SCFA, acetate and propionate were generated from guar gum, however, no signifi-cant fermentation of carboxymethyl cellulose, the other gelling agent, was observed. Desert flower and thetwo NDO (inulin and fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS)) were also rapidly fermented but yielded more moderatelevels of SCFA and acetate. Inulin and desert flower were the only substrates to significantly increase butyrateproduction and, in both cases, there was a prolonged component to the fermentation pattern. Concentrationsof SCFA and butyrate continued to rise through to 24 h. Ground fucus, green pea, green tea and agave werefermented, yielding significant, but relatively low concentrations of SCFA after incubation for 24 h.

The concentration of branched chain fatty acids and ammonia in the inocula were reduced by FOS, inulin,guar gum and yucca in the first 6 h of incubation. Desert flower, agave, green pea and green tea also loweredammonia concentrations.

The production of gas was significantly increased in the presence of inulin, desert flower and FOS after 6 h and these three substrates plus guar gum after 24 h fermentation.

These data suggest that desert flower and inulin, which were moderately fermentable and yielded prodi-gious amounts of butyrate, have the potential to improve colonic function and health in cats. Substrates thatsuppressed ammonia concentrations, and FOS in particular, may also be beneficial, especially in modifyingammonia metabolism in disease states such as hepatic encephalopathy.

1. Markwell PJ, Giffard CJ. Dietary fibre in dogs and cats – application in health and disease. Proceedings of the Nutri-tion Society of Australia 2000; 24: 43–50.


Comparison of isoflavone absorption from soybean extract and red clover

PJ Nestel, S Pomeroy, N Tsunoda

Cardiovascular Nutrition, Baker Medical Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3181

The absorption of isoflavones in humans is complex, highly variable and poorly studied. Measured from 24 hr urinary excretion, reported values range from < 10% to nearly 50% but are mostly 15–25% on average.Even among small groups of subjects, the inter-individual ranges may vary eight-fold. Absorption/excretiondiffers between isoflavones, daidzein excretion exceeding that of genistein. Isoflavones occur naturally asconjugated glycosides but are absorbed as aglycones following microbial interactions in the gut. Whetherfree (aglycone) isoflavones are more readily absorbed has been studied with fermented versus unfermentedsoybean, with equivocal results. Because foods and commercial nutriceuticals contain both conjugated andfree isoflavones, we investigated their relative absorption from a similar food.

The objective was to compare the excretion in urine of isoflavones from a source of soybean (95% glyco-side) and from red clover (99% aglycone). The aim was to deliver 30 mg as free isoflavone within a com-mercially prepared breakfast cereal, eaten once daily. Excretion was measured in a 24 hr aliquot of urinespanning the final consumption of cereal that had been eaten regularly over 21 days. A cereal virtually devoidof isoflavones served as control and was eaten in the mid 21 day period between the two isoflavone contain-ing cereals that were eaten in random order. Fourteen subjects participated in the 11-week study that includedalso a two-week run-in period when all isoflavone containing foods were avoided.

The source of soy provided ioflavones in a ratio of 0.45 daidzein (D), 0.20 genistein (G). The proportionsof isoflavones in red clover were: 0.48 formononetin (precursor of D), 0.33 biochanin (precursor of G), 0.03 D,0.01 G.

Excretion was on average similar with both sources of isoflavones: 7.33 ± 3.49 mg with soy glycoside and7.93 ± 3.55 mg with red clover aglycone. The means therefore represent approximately 25% absorption,although this would be a minimal value since the metabolites of isoflavones were not measured. The large SDindicates the inter-individual variability (25%–75% around medians: 4.31–9.74 mg with soy and 5.61–11.39 mgfor red clover). However individuals who absorbed/excreted small amounts did so with both preparations asdid those who absorbed/excreted larger amounts. There was a strong correlation between amounts excretedduring the two phases (r = 0.69; P = 0.007). Relatively more D than G was excreted than was present in soyand substantial conversion occurred of formononetin and biochanin to D and G respectively. (Chemical analy-ses carried out by Novogen Ltd, North Ryde, NSW.)

In conclusion isoflavones appear to be absorbed similarly in their glycoside or aglycone state. Isoflavonesof different mix appear to be similarly absorbed. Whereas we found substantial inter-individual variability, theintra-individual variability was much less. These results apply to isoflavones incorporated into a food.


Evaluation of cottonseed meal for grower pigs between 20 and 50 kg liveweight

DN Singh1, R Perez-Maldonado2, GW Blight1, MH Magee1

1Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences, Animal Research Institute, LMB No 4, Moorooka, Qld, 41052Queensland Poultry Research and Development Centre, Cleveland, QLD, 4163

Cottonseed meal (CSM) offers great potential for use in Australia’s intensive livestock industry as an eco-nomical protein-rich source. Unfortunately, CSM is often limited to low dietary inclusion levels in pig diets(4–10%) because of the suspected adverse effects of anti-nutritive factors such as gossypol. Gossypol may bindwith lysine during heat processing thereby reducing digestibility and availability (1,2). This experiment exam-ined the inclusion level of solvent-extracted CSM in diets of pigs growing from 20 to 50 kg liveweight. Theexperiment was arranged as a randomised block layout of 36 individually penned Large White cross pigs, withsix dietary treatments (0, 50, 100, 150, 150 with Fe and 200 g/kg CSM X two sexes (males and females) repli-cated three times. Pigs weighing ~20 kg were randomly allocated within sex and initial weight class to blocksof pens with pen blocks corresponding to initial weight classes. Diets were formulated to contain 14MJ/kgDigestible Energy (DE) and 0.63 g available lysine per MJ DE. Diets and water were offered ad libitum. CSMwas sourced from Brisbane and contained 453 g protein/kg, 16.6 g lysine/kg, 18 g fat/kg and 0.06 g free-gossypol/kg.

The performance of pigs fed > 100 g/kg CSM was significantly greater than those on control diet(P < 0.05). This suggests that the DE value of CSM was underestimated in the formulation of the diets. Dietcontaining 50 g/kg of CSM yielded the lowest ADG (0.747 kg/d), although the DFI at this inclusion level wasnot significantly different to the control diet. Addition of iron salt did not have any effect on growth per-formance. This suggests that inclusion of solvent extracted CSM in diets of growing pigs does not require theaddition of iron salts to neutralise the effects of gossypol that is present in CSM. The FCR was not signifi-cantly different as the level of CSM increased. The data confirms that up to 200 g/kg of CSM can be fed topigs growing from 20 to 50 kg without any deleterious effect on performance. Further investigation on energydigestibility and amino acid digestibility and availability is warranted if CSM is included at high levels in pigdiets. Supported in part by Pig Research and Development Corporation.

1. Batterham ES, Andersen LM, Baigent RD, Darnell RE, Taverner, MR. A comparison of the availability and ilealdigestibility of lysine in cottonseed and soyabean meals for grower/finisher pigs. British J Nut 1990; 663–677.

2. Fernandez SR, Zhang Y, Parsons CM. Dietary formulation with cottonseed meal on a total amino acid versus adigestible amino acid basis. Poultry Sc 1995; 1168–1179.

Diet CSM g/kg) 0 50 100 150 150 (Fe)1 200 LSD(0.05)

ADG2 (kg/d) 0.826b 0.747c 0.893ab 0.905a 0.899a 0.899a 0.067FCR3 (kg/kg) 3.001 2.984 2.835 2.780 2.806 2.823 0.238DFI4 (kg/d) 1.843b 1.883b 2.120a 2.086a 2.079a 2.134a 0.189

Row means not followed by a common superscript differ significantly. 1150g/kg CSM + iron sulphate. 2Average DailyGain, 3 Feed Conversion Ratio, 4Daily Feed Intake.


Upper limits of inclusion of canola meal and cottonseed meal formulated on adigestible amino acid basis for chicken meat production

RA Perez-Maldonado

Queensland Poultry Research and Development Centre, PO Box 327, Cleveland, QLD, 4163

In Australia, one million tonnes of canola meal (CM) and a quarter million tonne of cottonseed meal (CSM)are annually available to the animal feed industry. However the use of these meals in poultry diets has beenseriously restricted due to anti-nutritive factors (ANF). Glucosinolates (GSL), condensed tannins and sinapine,the main ANF found in CM have been responsible for liver damage, leg problems, thyroid enlargement,decreased feed intake (FI), liveweight gain (LWG), and energy utilisation in broilers fed CM at high levels (1).Cyclopropene fatty acids (CPFA), gossypol, condensed tannins and fibre in CSM have been responsible foranaemia and laboured breathing development, binding with lysine during heat processing thus reducing aminoacid digestibility and availability (2). Variation in the nutritional value and ANF of these meals would beexpected due to location, environmental factors, cultivars, and industry processing conditions. It is well knownthat in Australia CM is produced from ‘double zero’ varieties low in ANF; also CSM is derived from cultivarscontaining little gossypol that would be inactivated by adding soluble iron compounds in the diets (3). In addi-tion, solvent-extracted CSM contains less oil thus reducing the negative effects of CPFA. This study evaluatedthe upper limits of inclusion of CM and CSM in broiler diets formulated on a digestible amino acid (DAA)basis.

Two broiler experiments evaluated graded levels (100, 200, 300, and 400 g/kg) of Australian CM and CSMformulated on a DAA basis. The results showed that bird performance after 41 days was not significantly(P > 0.05) affected by the level of CSM in the diet even when FI was reduced (P < 0.05) at inclusions of 200and 400 g CSM/kg. Since bird liver and pancreas weights were not affected at any level of CSM in the diets;satisfactory broiler performance would be obtained when formulating solvent extracted CSM in broiler dietson a DAA basis with adjusted lysine to 0.6 value. The results with CM showed that FI and LWG were signif-icantly (P < 0.05) affected by the level and the source of CM in the diet. Except for the Newcastle source, theoverall bird feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was significantly (P < 0.05) improved for each source of CM.This experiment demonstrated that substantial amounts of CM could be used in broiler diets formulated on aDAA basis.

1. Summers, JD. 4th Australian feed enzyme seminar. Finnfeed international/ParmoChem 1996.2. Fernandez SR, Ye Zhang, Parson CM. Dietary formulation with cottonseed meal on a total amino acid versus a

digestible amino acid basis. Poultry Science, 1995; 74: 1168–79. 3. Walkins SE, Skinner JT, Adams MH, Waldroup PW. An evaluation of low-gossypol cottonseed meal for broiler chick-

ens. J. Appl. Poultry Res, 1994; 3: 7–16.

Diet FI (g) LWG (g) F C E Liver weight g Pancreas weight g

Control 4429a 2493 1.77 2.22 0.212CSM 100 g/kg 4369ab 2508 1.75CSM 200 g/kg 4199bc 2379 1.78 2.31 0.192CSM 300 g/kg 4280abc 2419 1.77CSM 400 g/kg 4198c 2395 1.73 2.30 0.197LSD (P = 0.05) 153 124 0.04 0.23 0.049

Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05).


Brain sialic acid concentration: comparison of breast-fed vs formula-fed infants

B Wang, J Brand-Miller, P Petocz, P McVeagh

Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia

Neural tissues contain large amounts of sialic acid (SA) bound to gangliosides and glycoproteins. In animalmodels, levels of SA in brain gangliosides and glycoproteins are influenced by nutritional intake and correlatewith learning ability (1). The aim of our study was to compare the SA concentration in brain frontal cortex ofbreast-fed and formula-fed infants who died of sudden infant death syndrome.

Twenty-five frontal cortex samples were collected as part of a previous study on long chain fatty acids inbrain cortex. Twelve infants were breast-fed, 9 formula-fed and the rest unknown. The mean age at death ofbreast-fed and formula-fed infants was 11 and 13 wks respectively. Gangliosides were extracted, isolated andpurified according to published methods. Ganglioside-bound, protein-bound and free SA were determinedusing HPLC (2).

There was a significant positive correlation between protein-bound SA and age at death (P = 0.02), but notfor ganglioside-bound SA (P = 0.24). Ganglioside-bound SA was 8% higher in males while protein-bound SAwas 5% higher in females, although neither reached statistical significance. On average, breast-fed infantswere about 2 wks younger than formula-fed infants and all of the latter were male. We therefore used a multi-variate general linear model for the components of SA (ganglioside-bound, protein-bound and free) adjustingfor type of feed and sex, with age at death as a covariate. The overall differences of feeding methods weresignificant (P = 0.024). Ganglioside-bound, protein-bound and total SA were significantly higher in breast-fedinfants (P = 0.013, 0.01 and 0.005 respectively) (Figure).

These findings provide objective evidence of differences in brain development in breast-fed vs formula-fedinfants. The higher concentration of ganglioside-bound, protein-bound & total SA in frontal cortex in thebreast-fed group may explain the known neurological and intellectual advantages of breast-feeding.

1. Morgan BL, Winick M. Effects of administration of N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA) on brain NANA content andbehavior. J Nutr 1980; 110: 416–424.

Figure. Sialic acid concentration inbrain cortex (adjusted for age andsex) of breast-fed vs formula-fedSIDS infants.


Commodity consumption average in Mediterranean countries (1962–1998)compared with Australia

A Noah, AS Truswell

Human Nutrition Unit, Dept of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

As part of our study of Mediterranean diets (1) and their influence in Australia, we have collected consump-tion data for 15 major commodities from FAO Food Balance Sheets for the years 1962–1998 and calculatedthe averages all in kg/head/year over this 37 yr period for Spain, France, Italy, Malta, Croatia, Bosnia, Albania,Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Table 1).

Table 2 shows the ‘median’ average consumption of each commodity (ie consumption in the countries withthe ninth and 10th highest consumption of the set of 18 Mediterranean countries). Second row shows the rangeof consumption of each commodity (lowest country and highest country for that commodity). The third rowshows Australian average consumption figures.

Compared with the Mediterranean countries, Australian consumption was below the bottom country ofthe range for wheat and cereals. It was within the Mediterranean range, but low for olive oil, vegetables andpulses. It was well within the Mediterranean range for potatoes, rice, maize, fruits, vegetable oils, fish andwine. Australian consumption was high, though still within the Mediterranean range, for animal fat. Australianconsumption was at the top end of the range in Mediterranean countries for milk and above the range for meat.By the end of 1990s Australia’s meat consumption had declined to coincide with the top of the Mediterraneanrange. Cereal consumption (according to FAO) was still below the Mediterranean range. In conclusionAustralia has consumption patterns within the Mediterranean range for most of these commodities.

1. Noah A, Truswell AS. There are many Mediterranean diets. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr 2001; 10: 2–9.

Countries Potatoes Rice Wheat Cereals Maize Fruits Vegetables

Middle Mediterranean countries 35.5 4.5 146.5 173 4 4 81.5 143Range of 15 Mediterranaen countries 15–106 0.7–30 97–188 108–233 0.7–91 25–164 52–232Australian average 53 4 85 95 5 85 74

Countries Animal fat Vege oil Olive oil Fish Meat Milk Pulses Wine

Middle Mediterranean countries 4.5 10 2.15 6 32.5 145.5 6.5 3Range of 15 Mediterranean countries 1–20 3–18 0–19 1–34 14–103 31–252 2–11 0–90Australian average 16 11 0.5 17 121 252 3 14


Dietary predictors of survival amongst Greeks in Melbourne

I Darmadi, A Kouris-Blazos, ML Wahlqvist

International Health and Development Unit, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800

The elderly are a growing segment of the population in Australia. The Committee on Nutrition and Ageing ofthe International Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS), in cooperation with the World Health Organizationhas undertaken a cross cultural study ‘Food Habits in Later Life’ (1). As part of the project, data on food intakeand anthropometric measurements of 189 (91 men and 91 women) Greeks in Melbourne, aged 70 years andover, were recorded between January 1990 and December 1992. Subjects were defined as Greek–Australianif they had been born in Greece or if both their parents had been born in Greece. The death of 24 subjects wasconfirmed in April 1996. The aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the role of diet in survival ofelderly Greeks in Melbourne.

Data on food intake were collected using a validated, extensive (250 food items and beverages) food-frequency questionnaire (1). The frequency of consumption of different food items was quantified on a weeklybasis. Food items were translated into gram/day and grouped into several main food groups. For comparisonpurposes with other IUNS elderly cohorts (2), each food group was adjusted to 2500 kcal for men and 2000kcal for women. The Cox Proportional Hazards regression was used to analyze the data. The Cox’s modelswere developed and controlled for sex, age at enrolment, and smoking status.

A 20g increase in daily consumption of fruits and nuts was significantly associated with reduced risk ofdeath by 12% (P < 0.05). The mean (SD) intake of fruits and nuts was 252g/day (136). In conclusion, theintakes of fruits and nuts may have beneficial effects on survival of elderly Greeks aged 70 and over in Melbourne.

1. Wahlqvist ML, Hsu-Hage BH-H, Kouris-Blazos A, Lukito W et al. Food Habits in Later Life. A cross-cultural study.United Nations University Press, 1995.

2. Trichopoulou A, Kouris-Blazos A, Wahlqvist ML, Gnardellis C, Lagiou P, Polychronopoulos E, Vassilakou T, Lip-worth L, Trichipoulos D. Diet and overall survival in elderly people. BMJ 1995; 311: 1457–1460.

Variables P value RR

Vegetable intake (20g) 0.460 1.021Legume intake (20g) 0.810 0.982Fruit and nut intake (20g)** 0.004 0.883Cereal intake (20g) 0.300 0.953Dairy intake (20g) 0.700 0.991Meat intake (20g) 0.380 0.950Fish intake (20g) 0.870 1.013Monounsaturated:saturated ratio (1unit) 0.099 0.348Ethanol intake (10g) 0.380 1.155

**P < 0.01.


Degradation of canola and lupin meals in the rumen

SK Baker1, DC Henry2, L Klein1, HR Mills2, CL Pimm1, LA Store1

1CSIRO Livestock Industries, Floreat, WA, 60142The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009

Urea and dietary protein usually are hydrolysed rapidly by rumen microbial populations. Because the rate andextent of breakdown of dietary proteins determine their nutritive value, breakdown of canola and lupin mealsin the rumen was investigated in two studies reported here.

In the studies mature merino wethers fitted with rumen cannulae were used. In one, six sheep were given1000 g (air-dry) chaffed oaten hay once daily. At feeding either 75 g heat-extracted canola meal (C, 33.4%crude protein (CP)) or 75 g lupin meal (L, 32.0% CP) was put into the rumen. Rumen contents were sampledin a Latin square design (two nitrogen (N) sources, three times (1, 2 or 6 h after feeding), for six days).Ammonia-N was determined. In the other study sheep were given 900 g (air-dry) chaffed wheaten hay (8.0% CP)and 25 g/d minerals (Siromin®) once daily. Either 10 g urea (U), 70 g heat-extracted canola meal (C, 31.8%CP) or 90 g lupin meal (L, 26.2% CP) was mixed into the feed (four sheep per N source). Estimated intakesof N over 10 days (g/d) were similar (15.5 [U], 14.6 [C], 15.0 [L], SE 0.28) (P > 0.05). In rumen contents frombefore feeding, 0.5, 1, and 2 h after feeding pH and ammonia-N were determined. Urine collected daily for 4 days was analysed for urea-N and total N.

The concentration of ammonia-N (mM) was unchanged (P > 0.05) with time after lupin meal was put intothe rumen, but with canola meal it was low (P = 0.05) and then increased to similar concentrations as with lupinmeal (Figure, a). Ammonia-N concentrations (mM) did not change with time after feeding in sheep givencanola or lupin meals as dietary N supplements, but they increased after feeding and remained high in sheepgiven urea (Figure, b)). In these sheep pH in the rumen decreased with time after feeding, but there was noeffect of source of dietary N (6.68, 6.58, 6.38, 6.37, SE 0.05). Total N excreted (g/d) did not differ with sourceof dietary N (P > 0.05) (5.6 [U], 5.2 [C], 5.1 [L], SE 0.66), but sheep given urea excreted the most urea-N (g/d)(P < 0.001) (4.5 [U], 2.7 [C], 3.4 [L], SE 0.39). Rates of hydrolysis of proteins in canola and lupin meals weresimilar and exceeded rates of assimilation of ammonia-N by the rumen microbial populations, with N excretedas urinary urea. Variance (%) in rumen ammonia-N concentrations between sheep was high (Study 1: 73 [L],35 [C]; Study 2: 65 [L], 39 [C], 12 [U]). These may reflect wide variation in the proteolytic enzymes foundin the rumen between animals eating the same diets, and a poor adaptation by the proteolytic microorganismsto these proteins (1).

1. Wallace RJ, Onodera R, Cotta MA. Metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds. In Hobson PN, Stewart CS (eds).The rumen microbial ecosystem. London: Chapman and Hall, 1997; 283–328.


Water consumption by rusa stags

W Yape Kii, GMcL Dryden

School of Animal Studies, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4345

There is very little information on the water requirements of farmed deer. No data has been published for themain farmed species of rusa deer (the Javan rusa, Cervus timorensis russa, and the Moluccan rusa, C. t. moluc-censis). The experiment reported here was designed to provide some baseline data for these animals.

The experiment was conducted between 8 June and 3 July, 2001. Eight mature Javan x Moluccan rusa stags(128 ± 12.8 kg; mean ± SD) were confined in metabolism pens. All displayed the behaviour characteristic ofthe rut (breeding season). The stags were given, ad lib, a good quality lucerne hay and water (570 mg/L totaldissolved solids). Mean maximum and minimum temperatures were 23 and 8°C. For each deer, feed DM(105°C for 24 h, in duplicate) and water intakes were measured for two, 4 day periods, after 18 d adaptation.Feed and water were offered at 0800 and 1600 h and residues (feed and water) were measured at 2 h intervalsbetween 0800 and 2000 h on the day of feeding in one period, or at 12 h intervals in the other. Total feed andwater refusals were collected or measured immediately prior to 0800 h on the following day.

Overall mean drinking water intake was 6.4 ± 2.01 L/d (mean ± SD), with a mean water:DM ratio of3.13 ± 0.312 L/kg. When the stags were monitored every 2 h they ate 7% more DM (P = 0.065). Samplinginterval had no effect on drinking water intake (P = 0.129) or the drinking water:DM ratio (P = 0.446). Within-animal, between-day variation in water intake was low, with CV = 12.6%. Although between-animal variationin DM intake (DMI) was large (CV = 24.7%), variation in the drinking water:DM ratio was much less(CV = 10%). The relationship between drinking water and DM intakes was linear (P < 0.0001).

Free-ranging Timorese rusa deer (C. t. timorensis) eating dry pasture were estimated to drink 1 to 2.5 L/d(1). Water intake by red deer (C. elaphus) eating air-dry food may vary between 3.5 and 5.3 L/d (2,3). Thewater:DM ratio of red deer (5) varies between 3.3 (winter) and 2.6 L/kg DM (summer). Javan and Moluccanrusa deer may have a greater water demand than the temperate red deer.

1. Bale-Therick JF, Kihe JN, Bale AR. Feeding behaviour of Timor deer (Cervus timorensis). Proc 8 AAAP Anim SciCongr, Tokyo 1996; 2: 288–289.

2. Barrell GK, Topp DF. Water intake of red stags consuming dryland pasture or indoors on concentrated feeds. Proc NZSoc Anim Prod 1989; 49: 21–24.

3. Domingue BMF, Dellow DW, Wilson PR, Barry TN. Nitrogen metabolism, rumen fermentation and water absorptionin red deer, goats and sheep. NZ Jl Agric Res 1991; 34: 391–400.

Sampling interval (h) DMI (g/d)1 Drinking water intake Total water intake Drinking water: DM(L/d)1 (L/d)1 ratio (L/kg)1

2 2104 ± 516 6.7 ± 1.98 7.2 ± 2.09 3.18 ± 0.33312 1970 ± 516 6.1 ± 2.12 6.5 ± 2.23 3.08 ± 0.303

1mean ± SD.


Uptake of N-acetylneuraminic acid-6-14C (sialic acid) into the brain ofneonatal piglets

JA Downing1, SJ Wilkinson1, B Wang2, JC Brand-Miller2, WL Bryden1

1Faculty Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 25702Depertment of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006

Sialic acid, a nine-carbon sugar, is a vital structural and functional component of brain gangliosides and isimportant in memory function and cell-to-cell communication (1). The specific roles and importance of sialicacid in brain human development are unclear. For obvious reasons experiments based on manipulation andgrowth of human infants are limited, therefore, appropriate animal models are needed if the importance ofsialic acid in neonatal nutrition is to be determined. As part of efforts to evaluate the neonatal pig as a suitablemodel, the present study assessed sialic acid uptake into the brain of piglets.

Four piglets, three days of age, were removed from sows and two hours later had a catheter inserted intothe right jugular vein under general anaesthesia. Two hours after recovery each pig was given a bolus injec-tion of 5 µCi (11–12 × 106 counts per min (cpm)) of N-acetylneuraminic acid-6-14C with a specific activity of55 mCi/mmol. Blood samples (1 mL) were taken over next two hours and plasma harvested. The pigs werethen euthanased and the brain removed and weighed. Sub-samples of brain segments (100–200 mg) weredigested in Soluene-350 (Packard), scintillation cocktail (Highsafe-3, Wallace) added and the radioactivitymeasure in cpm using a Wallace scintillation counter. The radioactivity in 0.1 mL plasma samples was alsodetermined.

The data indicate that 0.23% of a labelled dose of sialic acid was taken up into the brain of neonatal pigs.The percentage uptake of the total label injected was low but similar to values published for mice and rats (2).It was estimated that 80% of the labelled sialic acid was removed from the circulation by 2 min and this nodoubt limited the total uptake. Therefore, uptake of sialic acid into the brain would not be a limiting consid-eration in using pigs as an animal model for human studies.

1. Von Itzstein M, Thompson RJ. Sialic acids and sialic-recognising proteins: drug discovery targets and potential glyco-pharmaceuticals. Current Medicinal Chem 1997; 4: 185–210.

2. Nohle U, Schauer R. Uptake metabolism and excretion of orally and intravenously administered 14C- and 3H-labeledn-acetylneuraminic acid mixture and the mouse and rat. Hoppe-Seyler’s Z Physiol Chem 1981; 362: 1495–1506.

Brain segment Activity Total activity Fraction of injected activity(cpm/g) (cpm) (%)

Frontal lobe 921 ± 226 5274 ± 1109 0.046 ± 0.007Left cerebrum 804 ± 106 7650 ± 781 0.066 ± 0.007Right cerebrum 814 ± 107 7222 ± 688 0.063 ± 0.007Cerebellum 996 ± 236 3412 ± 697 0.030 ± 0.006Thalamus 945 ± 204 3315 ± 613 0.029 ± 0.006

mean ± SEM.


Role of muscle phospholipids in reducing carcass fatness and improvedtenderness of meat in lambs

EN Ponnampalam1, AR Egan2, BJ Hosking2, BJ Leury2, AJ Sinclair3

1Agricultural Research and Extension Programs, Langston University, OK 73050, USA2Department of Animal Production, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3010

3Department of Food Science, RMIT University, VIC, 3001

Phospholipids in cell membranes have range of activities, and play an important role in cellular metabolismand functions of membrane proteins. We have recently shown the dietary long chain n-3 fatty acids (FA) werepreferentially deposited in muscle structural phospholipids (1) and altered plasma lipoprotein metabolism andcarcass fatness in lambs (2). In this study, we have examined the effects of rapidly degradable or slowlydegradable dietary protein supplements with or without a rapidly fermentable dietary energy source on car-cass weight (CW), fatness and meat tenderness in relation to the type of FA deposited in the skeletal muscle.Thirty-eight crossbred (Dorset Horn x Merino) cryptorchid lambs (9 months) were allocated by stratifiedrandomization to six treatment groups. All lamb consumed a basal diet of oat chaff: lucerne chaff (80:20) ad libitum. A control group (BAS) received no supplement and others received barley (BAR), fishmeal + barley (FMB), lupin + barley (LUB), fishmeal (FM) or lupins (LUP) at the rates shown below for eightweeks and lambs were slaughtered for the determination of carcass traits, muscle FA composition and meat(longissimus muscle) tenderness.

Lambs fed FM and LUP with or without BAR had heavier (P < 0.01) hot CW than lambs fed BAR or BAS.With GR (total muscle + fat tissue depth at 12th rib, 110 mm from the midline; GR) as an indicator, FMB andFM produced leaner carcasses (P < 0.01) than LUB and LUP lambs. Long chain n-3 FA in longissimusmuscle were substantially higher (P < 0.001) with FMB and FM compared with all others; while n-6 FA wasincreased (P < 0.003) by LUB and LUP only. Tenderness of meat measured by Warner-Bratzler shear forceindicate that meat was tougher (P < 0.05) with LUP, although the carcasses were larger and contained morefat. From these relationships it is postulated that lipid-derived intermediate products (eg phosphoinositides,prostaglandins, diacylglycerols) generated from muscle phospholipid in n-3 FA enriched lambs, may act asmediators in protein synthesis and development of new sarcomeres in skeletal muscle, thus enhancing the rateof lean (muscle) gain without resulting in reduced tenderness.

1. Ponnampalam EN, Sinclair AJ, Egan AR, Blakeley SJ, Leury BJ. Effect of diets containing n-3 fatty acids on musclelong-chain n-3 fatty acid content in lambs fed low- and medium-quality roughage diets. J Anim Sci 2001; 79: 698–06.

2. Ponnampalam EN, Sinclair AJ, Egan AR, Blakeley SJ, Li D, Leury BJ. Effect of dietary modification of muscle long-chain n-3 fatty acid on plasma insulin and lipid metabolites, carcass traits, and fat deposition in lambs. J Anim Sci2001; 79: 895–03.

Diet BAS BAR FMB LUB FM LUP

Supp Rate (g/d) Nil 358 84 + 179 179 + 179 168 358Hot CW (kg) 20.9a 21.1a 23.6b 24.9bc 23.5b 25.8c

GR fat depth (mm) 10.3a 10.4a 10.2a 13.6b 10.0a 15.7b

LC omega-3 FA1 35a 41a 72b 33a 74b 35a

Omega-6 FA1 165ab 174bc 162ab 194cd 141a 209d

War-Bratz (kg) 3.9a 4.8ab 4.1a 4.7ab 3.9a 5.7b

1Values are expressed in mg/100 g of meat sample and are an average of six (lambs) observations.


Cooking attenuates the ability of high amylose meals to reduce plasma insulinconcentrations in rats

MA Brown1, JA Higgins2, IL Brown3, PL McLennan1, LH Storlien1

1Metabolic Research Centre, Faculty of Health & Behavioural Sciences, University of Wollongong,NSW, 2522

2University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Center for Human Nutrition Denver, Colorado, 802623Starch Australasia Ltd, Lane Cove, NSW, 2066

Post-prandial glycemic control is important in the prevention and therapy of Type 2 diabetes and related dis-eases. A high amylose content in the starch component of the diet is considered beneficial, however the evi-dence is largely obtained for raw starch and little is known about the dose-response relationship and the effectsof cooking. The aim of the present study was to define the dose-response curve for post-prandial glycemic andinsulinemic excursions following meals of different amylose content and to compare the dose-response curvesfor meals containing cooked and uncooked starches. Following an overnight fast, rats ingested a meal andblood was sampled over the following 2 hours. The meal was given at 1.0 g carbohydrate/kg body weight withan amylose content of 0, 27, 60 or 85% of the starch. In rats fed the uncooked starch diets, glucose incrementalarea under the curve (AUC) (figure a) did not differ between groups (P = 0.31), whereas insulin AUC (figureb) was higher for the 0% amylose meal than all other meals (P < 0.05). For rats fed cooked starch diets,glucose AUC (figure a) did not differ between groups, whereas insulin AUC (figure b) was higher in the 0%amylose group than the 60% and 85% amylose groups (P < 0.05) but did not differ from the 27% amylosegroup.

These results suggest that even a relatively small proportion of uncooked amylose starch (27%) is suffi-cient to achieve a maximal attenuating effect on post-prandial plasma insulin concentrations as compared toamylopectin (0% amylose) starch. Following cooking, however, a much higher proportion of amylose (at least60%) is needed to achieve a maximally beneficial effect on post-prandial plasma insulin concentrations.

n = 7 for each point*Represents a significant difference from the 0% amylose group in the same category (ie cooked or uncooked)#Represents a significant difference from the uncooked starch of the same amylose concentration


Distribution on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in different edible portions of theblue swimmer crab (Portunus pelagicus)

M Sullivan1, XQ Su1, D Li2

1School of Life Science and Technology, Victoria University of Technology, St Albans, VIC, 3000 2Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3000

Marine products contain high levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which have been found to have beneficial effect for human health. The aimof this study was to examine the fatty acid content between different edible portions of the Australian blueswimmer crab, since there was no previous data on fatty acid profile on different portions of this species.

We have analysed lipid content and n-3 PUFA and other fatty acids in muscle, gonad and hepatopancreasin blue swimmer crab (Portunidae: Portunus pelagicus). The total lipid was extracted with chloroform :methanol (2:1 v/v) containing 10 mg/L of butylated hydroxytoluene and 0.2 mg/mL of tricosanoic acid(C23:0) as an internal standard. The methyl ester of fatty acids was prepared by standard methods. The fattyacid methyl esters were separated by capillary gas liquid chromatography.

The above table contains the data of main omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, the n-3/n-6 ratio and the totallipid content in three edible portions of the blue swimmer crab. The results indicate different fatty acid levelsbetween the muscle, gonad and hepatopancrease and significance was determined using an ANOVA. Of theindividual fatty acids, a significant difference (P < 0.01) was found for both 18:2 and 22:4 n-6 PUFA betweenthe different edible portions, which in both fatty acids were highest in the hepatopancreas and lowest in themuscle. The results indicated that all n-3 PUFA were significantly different (P < 0.01) between the edible por-tions with again the hepatopancrease containing the highest levels and the muscle containing the lowest. Totaln-6 was not significantly different overall between the three edible portions however n-3 showed a significantdifferent between these portions. The hepatopancreas was also significantly higher in lipid content whilemuscle contained the least. Muscle had a higher ratio of n-3/n-6 at 3.5 compared with 1.8 for gonad and 1.3for hepatopancreas.

Fatty Acids(mg/100g) Muscle Gonad Hepatopancreas

18:2 10.7 ±6.7 42.6 ± 26.1 85.0 ± 28.720:4 40.9 ± 3.3 157.6 ± 66.6 278.8 ± 51.422:4 – 59.0 ± 36.8 112.8 ± 28.922:5 – 18.3 ± 7.6 51.5 ± 17.3Total n-6 PUFA 6.9 46.8 96.118.3 – 11.6 ± 10.4 16.2 ± 15.020:5 118.2 ± 38.1 276.5 ±167.5 324.5 ± 95.622:5 – 74.9 ± 54.9 106.5 ± 25.322:6 48.3 ± 12.9 176.8 ± 138.8 209.0 ± 63.4Total N-3 PUFA 23.8 83.1 123.8n-3/n-6 ratio 3.5 1.8 1.3Total lipid (g/100 g) 1.2 4.6 12.2


A role for polyunsaturated C18 free fatty acids in the toughness of cooked beef

SJ Beveridge, CA Wold

School of Science and Technology, The University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW, 2258

As part of a project investigating chemical effects associated with cooking beef steaks, free fatty acids (FFAs)were studied for their potential interaction with myofibrillar protein during the cooking process.

Fast/slow and slow/fast heat-loading protocols known to generate different levels of toughness (withslow/fast leading to tougher steaks) were assessed in terms of their FFA profile. Significant differences in theconcentrations of the polyunsaturated linoleic and linolenic acids were found between the treatments. Specif-ically, the (tougher) slow/fast treatment was found to result in increased concentrations of these acids. Linoleicand linolenic acids were thus chosen for further study within beef myofibrillar protein model systems.

The acids were shown to interact with myofibrillar protein causing insolubility across a wide pH range.Most importantly, the acids were shown to cause significant insolubility at pH 5.5 similar to the ultimate pHof beef encountered in vivo.

The results of the model system were used to clarify aspects of the mechanism of interaction. A mecha-nism which involves a combination of ionic interactions and hydrophobic interactions at typical in vivo pHprovided the best explanation for the results of model systems.

The influence of physical state of the acid was also shown to be important with only those acids present asoils able to interact within the model. The results of this study support the hypothesis that FFAs interact withmyofibrillar protein during cooking. This observation is novel in light of the current literature in relation tobeef toughness.

Effect of linolenic and linoleic acids on salt solubleprotein in a pH 5.5 model system.


Growth of goats for meat production: effect of breed and castration

PJ Murray, J Sumarmono, NMW Pratiwi, DG Taylor

School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland Gatton Campus, QLD, 4343

Growth is a very important characteristic of animals for meat production and it depends on factors such asbreed, sex, nutrition and environmental conditions. The improved Boer goat has been reported to have supe-rior growth rates in South Africa (1). This breed was imported into Australia to improve goat meat productionto meet goat meat demand (2). However, there is very limited information on the growth of full bloodImproved Boer goats under Australian conditions.

This study was conducted to compare the growth rates of entire and castrated Improved Boer and feral goatbucks. Sixty full blood Improved Boer and 60 Australian feral goat bucks of similar age (six months) werereared under paddock condition during winter for 96 days. Half of each group were castrated using elastratorrubber rings at the beginning of the experiment and all goats had free access to commercial goat pellets (ME = 12.3 MJ/kg DM, CP = 18% DM), grassy lucerne hay and abundant pasture.

The growth rates of entire Boer bucks were significantly higher than those of castrated and feral bucks(215; 193; 84 and 47 g/d, respectively). Irrespective of breed, entire bucks achieved faster growth rates thancastrated bucks. At approximately nine month of age, the average live weight of castrated Boer and feral buckswas 47.5 and 27.3 kg, respectively and entire Boer and feral bucks were 53.7 and 31.5 kg, respectively.Although many causal factors may explain the differences between the two breeds, it seems that Boer bucksgrow better than ferals during Australian winter.

1. Van Niekerk WA, Casey NH. The Boer goat. II. Growth, nutrient requirements, carcass and meat quality. Small RumRes 1988; 1: 355–368.

2. Murray PJ. Background to goats and goat meat production in Australia. In: Goat Meat Production Field Day, 28th Nov, The University of Queensland, Gatton 1998; pp.5–8.


Carcass composition of entire and castrated full blood improved Boer bucks

J Sumarmono, NMW Pratiwi, PJ Murray, DG Taylor

School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland Gatton Campus, QLD, 4343

The goat meat industry in Australia is changing from harvesting feral goats to farming meat type goats ie Boercrosses. The South African Improved Boer goat has been reported to produce heavier carcasses with betterquality of meat than other breeds (1). However, their ability to produce carcasses and meat has not been deter-mined under Australian management practices and environmental conditions. In this experiment, we examinedthe carcass composition of entire and castrated Improved Boer bucks under Australian conditions. One reasonfor castrating goats is to cater for different market preferences – some markets prefer castrated goats whileothers prefer entire goats (2).

Ten 6-month old full blood Improved Boer bucks with an average initial live weight of 26.4 kg were grazedtogether in a paddock with access to commercial goat pellets (ME = 12.3 MJ/kg DM, CP = 18% DM), grassylucerne hay and pasture. At the start of the experiment, half of the goats were castrated and all goats wereslaughtered at approximately 30 kg liveweight after about 75 days on feed. Carcass dissections were doneusing standard procedures for goat carcass evaluation, jointing and tissue separation (3).

The results indicate that when slaughtered at the same liveweight, castrated Boer goats produced higherdressing percentages, dissected lean, fat and M:B than entire Boer goats. The average yield of muscles fromthe carcass is approximately 72%. Intermuscular fat contributed more to the carcass weight than subcutaneousfat. It also appears that when slaughtered at 30 kg liveweight, castrated Boer bucks have twice total dissectiblefats in their carcass than entire Boer bucks (11.8 vs 6.9%). Bones contributed 16.6 and 20.3% to the carcassweight of castrated and entire Boer bucks, respectively. It is likely that those proportions will decrease withincreasing liveweight.

1. Malan SW. The improved Boer goat. Small Rum Res 2000; 36: 165–170.2. Murray PJ, Qualischefski EQ, Flint MS. The Taiwanese market prefers castrated goats whereas the Middle East

prefers entire males. In: Proc Ntr Soc Aust 2000; 24: 80.3. Colomer-Rocher F, Morand-Fehr P, Kirton AH. Standard methods and procedures for goat carcass evaluation, joint-

ing and tissue separation. Liv Prod Sci 1987; 17: 149–159.

Castrated1 Entire1

Live weight (kg) 32.0 ± 0.5a 30.8 ± 0.5b

Fasted body weight (kg) 29.4 ± 0.5a 28.8 ± 0.5a

Empty body weight (kg) 26.1 ± 0.4a 22.8 ± 0.4b

Cold carcass weight (kg) 14.2 ± 0.2a 11.3 ± 0.2b

Dressing percentage (%) 54.5 ± 0.9a 49.8 ± 0.9b

Muscle (g) 9761 ± 205.7a 8056 ± 205.7b

Intermuscular fat (g) 1282 ± 57.9a 626 ± 57.9b

Subcutaneous fat (g) 399 ± 29.6a 152 ± 29.6b

Total bones (g) 2351 ± 48.4a 2296 ± 48.4a

Muscle to bone ratio (M:B) 4.1:1 ± 0.1a 3.5:1 ± 0.1b

a,bmeans within the rows with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05).1mean ± SEM.


Physical traits of goat meat: a comparison between meat from castratedand entire Boer bucks

NMW Pratiwi, J Sumarmono, PJ Murray, DG Taylor

School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, QLD, 4343

The Boer goat is a breed originally from South Africa and now is popular in many overseas countries includ-ing Australia. They have been presented as a compact, well proportioned and short haired goat with highgrowth (1) and reproductive rates when fed on a concentrate ration. Like most goats, their carcasses are lowin fat when compared to cattle and sheep (2). Generally, castration influences the characteristic of meat atslaughter and the amount of intramuscular fat (3).

Ten Boer bucks were studied in the experiment. At the start of the experiment, their age was approximatelysix months and five were castrated. The ten bucks grazed pasture and had unlimited access to goat pellets andgrassy lucerne hay. The animals were slaughtered at 30 kg liveweight and muscles from 3 different locations(Longissimus dorsi (LD), Vastus group (Vas), and Tricep brachii (TB)) were collected for cooking loss andshear force (WBS) assessment. A Minolta Chromameter was used to measure meat colour (L*, a* and b* val-ues) and at the same time pH at 24 h was evaluated at the loin eye muscle area at rib 12/13th while fat colourwas measured on the ventral abdomen subcutaneous fat.

Castration had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on pH, fat colour, cooking loss and shear force for any mus-cles. However, it had a significant effect (P < 0.01) on meat colour particularly on a* and b* values. Meat fromcastrated animals had a tendency to be higher (50.4) in redness compared to those meat from entire animals(42.2). It is likely that the redness has a tendency to increase in relation with the higher of total pigment in themeat. Castration did not affect L* value (colour lightness).

1. Skinner JD. Utilisation of the Boer goat for intensive animal production. Trop Anim Hlth Prod 1972; 4 :120–128.2. Schoeman SJ, Els JF, van Niekerk MM. Variance components of early growth traits in the Boer Goat. Small Rumi-

nant Res 1997; 26: 15–20. 3. Lawrie RA. Meat Science. 6th ed. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 1998. pp. 66–67.

Variable Mean ± SEMCastration Entire

pH24 5.67 ± 0.04a 5.74 ± 0.04a

Cooking Loss LD (%) 45.9 ± 1.39a 46.2 ± 1.39a

Cooking Loss Vas (%) 40.9 ± 1.73a 39.4 ± 1.73a

Cooking Loss TB (%) 40.0 ± 1.74a 39.4 ± 1.74a

Shear force LD kg/cm2 6.64 ± 0.47a 7.05 ± 0.47a

Shear force Vas kg/cm2 5.45 ± 0.79a 6.56 ± 0.79a

Shear force TB kg/cm2 4.91 ± 0.34a 4.35 ± 0.34a

a* value 50.4 ± 1.02a 42.2 ± 1.02b

b* value 23.9 ± 0.76a 15.7 ± 0.76b

L* value 4.3 ± 0.48a 3.9 ± 0.48a

Fat colour 4 ± 0.33a 3 ± 0.33a

a,bmeans within the rows with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.01).


Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of canned meats commonlyavailable in Australia

D Li1, M Mansor2, SR Zhuo2, T Woon2, MA Anthony2, AJ Sinclair1

1Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne 3001, Australia2Singapore Polytechnic Institute, Singapore

Canned meat is an important part of the diet, especially for bush walkers, travelers and soldiers during fieldtraining. However, Australian Food Composition databases lack information on lipid and fatty acid content incanned meats (1). The aim of the present study was to determine the fatty acid content in 20 species of com-monly available canned meats in Australia, which includes five beef, two mutton, eight pork, four chicken andone goose.

All canned meats were purchased from the local supermarkets and Asian grocery shops, Melbourne. Beforelipid extraction all samples were blended into fine minces to increase the surface area of the samples exposedto solvent during lipid extraction. Blended and homogenized sample was extracted with chloroform-methanol(2:1 v/v) containing 10 mg/L of butylated hydroxytoluene. The methyl esters of fatty acids of the total lipidextract were prepared by standard methods. The fatty acid methyl esters were separated by capillary gasliquid chromatography.

Total lipid content of the analyzed samples ranged from 2% in chicken (Hormel, USA) to 41% in stewedpork (Ma Ling, China). Total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) concentration ranged from 30 mg/100gin canned chicken (Hormel, USA) to 659 mg/100g in chicken hot dog (Tulip, Denmark). The 18:2n-6 was themost predominant PUFA in all analyzed samples, ranging from 187 mg/100g in corned beef (Hamper, Aus-tralia) to 2832 mg/100g in chicken luncheon meat (Tulip, Denmark). Other main PUFA found in the analysedsamples in order were 18:3n-3, ranging from 14 mg/100g in canned chicken (Hormel, USA) to 590 mg/100gin chicken hot dog (Tulip, Denmark), 20:4n-6 ranging from 11 mg/100g in Camp Pie (Tom Piper, Australia)to 65 mg/100g in chicken (Hormel, USA) and roasted goose (Ma Ling, China), and 22:5n-3 ranging from 5 mg/100g in the Chicken (Hormel, USA) and Chicken luncheon (Almaraai, Jordan) to 45 mg/100g in thestewed pork (Ma Ling, China). Total saturated fatty acid (SFA) concentration in the analyzed samples variedfrom 598 mg/100g to 14,666 mg/100g. The most predominant SFA was 16:0, followed by 18:0. Total monoun-saturated fatty acid concentration varied between 813 mg/100g to 20,218 mg/100g. The major monounsatu-rated fatty acid was 18:1 in the analyzed samples. Canned chicken samples had a higher ratio of PUFA : SFAwith value of 0.37–1.24 compared with canned beef and mutton between 0.06 to 0.14, and pork between 0.23to 0.45. Long chain (LC) n-3 PUFA content was 18 to 57 mg/100g for the canned beef compared with valueof 42 ± 7 mg/100g for fresh lean beef, 54 to 72 mg/100g for canned lamb/mutton compare with 53 ± 6 mg/100g for fresh lamb/mutton, 18 to 191 mg/100g for canned pork compared with 13 ± 2 mg/100g for freshpork, and 10 to 69 mg/100g for canned chicken compared with 18 ± 4 mg/100g for fresh chicken. The fattyacid concentrations varied quite significantly between brands and countries in all of the analyzed samples.This may be due to the different fat contents and fatty acid compositions of animal diets, and the differentamounts of visible fat trimmed off. The data obtained could contribute to the Australian food compositiondatabase to provide information for further research and for the interest of the general public.

1. National Food Authority. (1995) Composition of Foods, Australia. Australian Government Publishing Service, Can-berra, Australia.


The effect of storage and cooking on lipid oxidation of raw and cooked beefand goat meat

K Widayaka1, T Setyawardani1, J Sumarmono2

1Department of Animal Science, Soedirman University, Purwokerto, 53123, Indonesia2School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, QLD, 4345

Oxidised lipids are not only responsible for the development of off-odour and off-flavour of meat duringstorage but also often associated with heart and vascular diseases in humans. It has been demonstrated thatduring processing and storage both polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol tend to be oxidised (1). Meatfrom different species may have different rates of oxidation because of the differences in the amount of fatsand fatty acid composition.

This study examined the rates of lipid oxidation in raw and cooked beef and goat meat during frozen stor-age. Samples were Biceps femoris muscles of beef and goat. Open-air oven (200°C) was used to cook the meatuntil it reached internal temperature of 85°C. Raw and cooked samples were packaged in oxygen-impermeablebags and stored in the freezer (–18°C) for four, eight and 12 weeks. Lipid oxidation was determined at 0, 4, 8and 12 weeks by measuring the peroxide (mg malonaldehide/kg) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA, ml equivalentperoxide/kg oil) values (2). Sensory properties of the meat were also analysed by 10 semi-trained panelists.Results are presented in Figures 1 and 2.

Lipid oxidation, as expressed by the peroxide and TBA values, occurred in both beef and goat meat, cookedand raw. The longer the meats were stored in the freezer, the more lipids were oxidised (P < 0.01). Lipids incooked meat were more easily oxidised than those in raw meat (P < 0.01). This finding is similar to the obser-vations of (1). However, panelists were not able to detect any sign of rancidity of meat after storage for 12 weeks. In conclusion, frozen storage and cooking accelerate lipid oxidation in beef and goat meat.

1. Ahn DU, Nam KC, Du M, Jo C. Effect of irradiation and packaging conditions after cooking on the formation of cholesterol and lipid oxidation products in meats during storage. Meat Sci 2001; 57: 413–418.

2. Pikul J, Leszczynski DE, Kummerow FA. Evaluation of three modified TBA methods for measuring lipid oxidationin chicken meat. J Agric Food Chem 1989; 37: 1309–13.

Figure 1. Changes in peroxide values of beef and goatmeat during frozen storage.

Figure 2. Changes in TBA values of beef and goat meatduring frozen storage.


Seasonal variations of total lipid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid contentsin two Victorian farmed abalone species

XQ Su1, KN Antonas1, D Li2

1School of Life Sciences and Technology, Victoria University, Melbourne, 30002Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3000

The total lipid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) contents of two farmed abalone species, blacklip(Haliotis rubra, BL) and greenlip (Haliotis laevigata, GL) collected from Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, wereinvestigated through spring (SP), summer (SU) and autumn (AU) seasons. No seasonal profiles of total lipidcontent and n-3 PUFA level have been previously published for farmed abalone in this region. The total lipidcontent in both species varied significantly through the seasons (P < 0.01) with SU samples having the high-est level (2.7% wet muscle weight in BL and 2.5% in GL) and AU samples having the lowest level (0.9% inBL and 0.8% in GL). The total lipid content was relatively low in SP with 1.2% in both BL and GL.

There were eight major fatty acids in both species, namely 16:0, 17:1, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2, 20:5n-3 (EPA),22:5n-3 (DPA) and 20:4n-6 (AA). The predominant fatty acid in n-3 PUFA series was DPA in both specieswith the mean ± S.D. concentration of 40.7 ± 9.9 mg/100g wet muscle in BL (n = 31) and 57.4 ± 12.1 mg/100gin GL (n = 32). The level of EPA was slightly lower than that of DPA in BL with the mean concentration of35.6 ± 6.9 mg/100g, while in GL the mean concentration was only 29.5 ± 6.5 mg/100g. In both species theconcentration of 22:6n-3 (DHA) was low through the three seasons with the mean of 6.7 ± 2.3 mg/100g in BLand 7.1 ± 4.1 mg/100g in GL. The major n-6 PUFA were AA and 18:2 with the mean concentration of AAbeing 22.1 ± 5.0 mg/100g in BL and 16.8 ± 5.2 mg/100g in GL. The concentration of DPA was higher, andthat of AA was lower, than that reported previously in Tasmanian nonfarmed BL (1).

Figures 1 and 2 above show the seasonal variations of n-3 and n-6 PUFA levels in two abalone species. InGL, both n-3 and n-6 levels varied significantly (P < 0.05) with the total n-3 PUFA level increasing from69.7mg/100g in AU to 98.0mg/100g in SP. The total n-6 PUFA level in GL ranged from 30.6mg/100g in AUto 65.2mg/100g in SP. Although there were similar variations on both n-3 and n-6 PUFA levels in BL throughthe three seasons, these variations are not statistically significant (P > 0.05).

1. Nichols PD, Virtue P, Mooney BD, Elliott NG, Yearsley GK. 1998. Seafood the good food. CSIRO Marine Research.

Figure 1. Seasonal variations of n-3 PUFA level Figure 2. Seasonal variations of n-6 PUFA level


The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of commonly availablegreen vegetables in Australia

D Li, C Pereira, AJ Sinclair

Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, 3000

Diet has long been considered to play a critical role in human health, with green vegetable consumption beingclaimed to have health benefits mainly due to the vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients (such as vitamin C,folate, antioxidants etc). Additionally green vegetables are known to contain a relatively high proportion ofomega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in the form of α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3). However, there are no data avail-able on fatty acid composition and concentration of the commonly consumed green vegetables in Australia.

The present study determined fatty acid content in eleven commonly available green vegetables in Aus-tralia: spinach (Spinacea oleracea), watercress (Nasturtium officinale), parsley (Petrolelinum crispum),Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis), brussel sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera), bok choy (Brassicachinensis), cos lettuce (Lactuca sativa), broccoli (Brassica oleracea), Chinese broccoli (Brassica alboglabra),baby bok choy (Brassica chinensis) and mint (Mentha viridis, M. spicata, M. Crispa). For all samples in thisstudy, only the leaves or heads were analysed which contain the chloroplasts whereas the stems do not appearto contain many chloroplasts since they usually had little green colour. Prior to analysis the samples were blot-ted to remove adhering moisture and then the leaves or heads were chopped and blended. To determine anyvariation in lipid content, six sub-samples each weighing approximately 10 g were analysed for each of elevenvegetables. Lipid was extracted with 50.0 mL of methanol-chloroform (2:1 v/v) containing 10 mg/L of buty-lated hydroxytoluene and 0.2 mg/mL of tricosanoic acid (C23:0) as an internal standard. The fatty acid methylesters of the total lipid extract were prepared by saponification of using KOH (0.68 mol/L in methanol)followed by transesterification in BF3 in methanol. Fatty acids were identified by comparison with standardmixtures of fatty acid methyl esters and the results were calculated using respone factors derived from chroma-tograph standards of known composition. Silver ion TLC was used to identify any peaks on the GC traces thatcould not be identified using the standards.

Total fatty acid concentration of 11 green vegetables ranged from 44 mg/100g wet weight in Chinese cab-bage to 372 mg/100g in watercress. There were three polyunsaturated fatty acids in all vegetables analysed16:3n-3, 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3. Green vegetables contained a significant quantity of 16:3n-3 and 18:3n-3, rang-ing from 23 to 225 mg/100g. Watercress and mint contained highest 16:3n-3 and 18:3n-3, and parsley had ahighest 18:2n-6 in both percentage composition and concentration. Mint had a highest concentration of 18:3n-3with a value of 195 mg/100g, while watercress contained a highest concentration of 16:3n-3 with 45 mg/100g.All eleven analyzed green vegetables contained a high proportion of PUFA, ranging from 59 to 72% oftotal fatty acids. The omega-3 PUFA composition in 11 analyzed vegetables ranged from 40 to 62% of totalfatty acids. Monounsaturated fatty acid composition of the 11 analyzed vegetables was less than 6% oftotal fatty acids. The proportion of saturated fatty acid ranged from 21% in watercress and mint to 32% of total fatty acids in brussel sprouts. No eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids were detected in any ofthe samples in the present study. Consumption of green vegetables would contribute to the 18:3n-3 PUFAintake, especially for vegetarian populations. The data obtained could contribute to the Australian food com-position database to provide information for further research and to the general public.


Biobalanced livestock feeding systems

JG Dingle1, YL Henuk1,2

1School of Animal Studies, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 43452Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nusa Cendana, Kupang, NTT 85361 Indonesia

There are five major problems causing waste in intensive livestock production systems: (a) the high energycost of milling, mixing and pelleting feeds; (b) environmental pollution from excess nutrients in manure; (c) overuse of high protein feeds; (d) the belief that vitamin and mineral and other supplements must be fed;and (e) the cost of changing to more welfare friendly systems.

A model was developed and its components tested in a series of feeding trials with laying hens.

The results show that feed costs and wasted nutrients can be reduced by careful formulation of diets thatmeet the nutrient requirements of the animal but do not contain mineral, vitamin, amino acid or yolk pigmentsupplements. These diets also help to decrease pollution (6).

1. Henuk YL, Dingle JG. Practical and economic advantages of choice feeding systems for laying poultry. Wld’s PoultSci J 2001a; In press.

2. Henuk YL, Dingle JG. The effect of feeding a balanced diet with or without a micro-mineral premix, a chelating agent(EDTA) and phytase on the performance of laying hens kept in cages. Asian-Aus J Anim Sci 2000; 13; A: 195–198.

3. Dingle JG, Henuk YL. Formulating diets for laying hens without a vitamin and mineral premix gives less nutrientexcesses. In: Proc Aust Poult Sci Sym 1999; 11: 185. University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

4. Henuk YL, Dingle JG. Brown egg layers fed low density diets perform better in barn than in cages. In: Rec Adv AnimNutr Aust 2001b; 13: 26A.

5. Dingle JG, Henuk YL. Benefits and problems of free range laying hens in villages and commercial farms. Mal J AnimSci 2001; 7: 43–49.

6. Federation of Animal Science Societies – Waste Management and Ecosystems Committee. Effects of diet and feed-ing management on nutrient content of manure. http://www.fass.org/facts/manure.htm 2001; January:1–2.


Progress in the elimination of iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damageby the year 2000

BS Hetzel

ICCIDD, Women’s and Children’s Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, 5006

Iodine deficiency is now recognised to be the most common preventable cause of brain damage in the worldtoday with a global population of 2 billion at risk (WHO).

Since 1990 a global programme has proceeded with remarkable momentum for the elimination of iodinedeficiency disorders (IDD) as a cause of brain damage by the year 2000 using the technology of universal saltiodization (USI) by the addition of iodine (20–40 mg/kilo) as potassium iodate to all salt for human and ani-mal consumption.(1)

Following an earlier Nutrition Society lecture (1991) progress is now reported with special attention to thesignificant role of the International Council for Control of Iodine deficiency Disorders (ICCIDD), an inter-national NGO founded in 1986 which now comprises an international multidisciplinary network of 600professionals from 100 countries with a majority from developing countries first supported by Australia(AusAID) followed by UNICEF & WHO.

From its foundation the ICCIDD accepted technical assistance to national programmes as the first priority.This led to a close working relationship with the leading agencies WHO and UNICEF and with governmentsof countries with significant IDD public health problems. Subsequently the salt industry has been involved ina global partnership together with a World Service Club, Kiwanis International, which has raised US$50 mil-lion for UNICEF for national IDD control programmes.

A WHO/UNICEF/ICCIDD Report (1999) revealed that of the 130 IDD affected countries, 105 hadNational Intersectoral Coordinating Bodies, 102 had Plans of Action for IDD control and 98 had Legislationin place. Of 5 billion people living in countries with IDD, 68% had access to iodized salt through universalsalt iodization (USI).

A spectacular example of progress is provided by the People’s Republic of China.

Further progress can be anticipated, but sustainability requires regular monitoring of salt iodine and urineiodine. Salt iodine levels should be in the range of 20–40 mg of iodine per kilo and median urine iodine shouldbe in the range of 100–200 ug/L. Levels below 200 ug/L are necessary to minimise the occurrence of transientiodine induced hyperthyroidism (IIH) in the iodine deficient population. Increase in iodine intake (200 ug) isrequired in pregnancy to provide for the needs of the growing fetus. Recent data from Sydney and Tasmaniaindicates that iodine deficiency has recurred in Australia.(2)

1. Hetzel BS. Iodine Deficiency: A Global Problem. Med J Aust 1996; 165: 28–29.2. Eastman C. Where has all our iodine gone? Med J Aust 1999; 171: 455–456.

National Monitoring Results 1995 1997 1999

The proportion of households consuming iodized salt 20 mg/kg (%) 39.9 81.1 88.9Urinary iodine level in children aged 8–10 median (ug/L) 164.8 330.2 306.0Total goitre rate (%) by palpation 20.4 10.9 8.8The production of iodized salt (10,000 tons) 539 620 753


Raw brown onion consumption reduces plasma triglycerides and hasother health benefits

E Ostrowska1, NK Gabler1, BG Tatham1, SJ Sterling2, RB Jones2, DR Eagling2, FR Dunshea1

Natural Resources and Environment, 1Werribee, VIC, 3030, 2Knoxfield, VIC, 3176

Compounds in garlic and onions have been implicated as providing putative health benefits, such as reducingthe risk of coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis (1). However, the effects of different onion varieties andlevel of intake have not been studied. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential health bene-fits of two onion varieties fed at two levels of intake, using the pig as a human model.

Twenty-five female (Large White x Landrace) pigs (initial weight 41.5 ± 4.23 kg) were used in a 2 × 2+1factorial designed experiment. The treatments consisted of a white onion (WO) and brown onion (BO) fed at10 or 24 g/MJ DE and no onion, respectively. Onion varieties were selected on the basis of the level of cysteine-sulfoxides, WO being low and BO high. The WO and BO varieties were grown in Queensland andTasmania, respectively. Onions were homogenised in a blender prior to being mixed with dry feed formulatedto contain 16.7 MJ DE/kg and 10% (w/w) of tallow to simulate the saturated fatty acid content of a westernhuman diet. Pigs were fed approximately 90-95% of ad-libitum (1.67 MJ DE/kg0.75) for 6 weeks. Blood sam-ples were obtained by venipuncture immediately before feeding at weeks 1, 2, 4 and 6 and at three hours post-feeding at weeks 4 and 6. Plasma or serum, were analysed for total cholesterol (TC), HDL-cholesterol,LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), clotting factors such as prothrombin (PT), activated prothrombin (APPT)and thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and cell counts which included the ratio of segmented neutrophils to lympho-cytes (N:L).

BO was more effective than WO onions in lowering blood TC (9%, P = 0.059), LDL (10%, P = 0.13) andTG concentrations (21%, P = 0.082). BO reduced TC in a dose dependent manner (linear relationshipP = 0.028). Pigs fed BO tended (P < 0.10) to have higher PT and APPT times whereas these variables wereunaffected in pigs fed WO. Concentrations of TXB2 were higher in pig’s fed WO onion, but were unaffectedin pigs consuming BO onions. Serum fibrinogen and platelet counts were similar across all treatments. TheN:L, an indicator of stress intensity, was significantly reduced in pigs fed the BO onions. There was signifi-cant difference between weeks (P < 0.05) and between pre-feeding and post-feeding (P < 0.05) for most vari-ables, except for platelet count and cholesterol fractions (data not shown). In conclusion, the consumption ofbrown onions is effective in lowering plasma lipid levels and increasing clotting time in pigs.

1. Chen JH, Chen HI, Tsai SJ, Jen CJ. Chronic consumption of raw but not boiled Welsh onion juice inhibits rat plateletfunction. J Nutr 2000; 130: 34–37.

TC HDL LDL TG Platelets PT APTT TXB2 N:L(mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (109/L) (sec) (sec) (ng/mL)

Control 2.70 1.07 1.80 0.56a 428 13.8 21.5 23.59a 0.81a

WO 2.62 0.94 1.71 0.61b 467 14.0 21.8 29.44b 0.64 ab

BO 2.46 0.96 1.64 0.44c 392 14.3 23.3 23.01a 0.49b

LSD 0.291 0.123 0.217 0.149 95.34 0.423 1.795 5.612 0.252

Superscript letters a, b and c indicate significance (P < 0.05) within column.


Monosodium glutamate and asthma – what is the evidence?

RK Woods

Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Central and Eastern Clinical School,Monash University, Commercial Rd, Prahran, VIC, 3181

The flavour enhancer, monosodium glutamate (MSG) was first implicated in causing adverse reactions inpeople with asthma in 1981, when two doctors wrote a letter to the New England Journal of Medicine propos-ing a possible association between MSG and asthma.

Since this time seven clinical trials to determine the relationship between MSG and asthma have beenconducted throughout the world. Two of these trials have shown an association between MSG and asthma(1,2). However five trials, involving 45 subjects with a positive history of MSG-induced asthma, have shownno such association (3–7). A further trial, which assessed a range of food chemicals in adults with asthma,demonstrated MSG-induced asthma in one out of the eight subjects studied (8).

Attempts to clarify this issue have been limited due to methodological deficiencies, including the smallnumber of subjects studied, inadequate blinding procedures, inappropriate withdrawal of asthma medications,poor dietary control and the use of effort-dependent measures of lung function. After reviewing the evidencethat is currently available, it would appear that a causal connection between MSG and asthma has not beenconclusively established.

1. Allen DH, Delohery J, Baker GJ. Monosodium-L-Glutamate induced asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987; 80:530–537.

2. Moneret-Vautrin DA. Monosodium glutamate-induced asthma: a study of the potential risks of 30 asthmatics andreview of the literature. Allerg Immunol 1987; 19: 29–35.

3. Altman DR, Fitzgerald T, Chiaramonte LT. Double-blind placebo-controlled challenge (DBPCC) of persons report-ing adverse reactions to monosodium glutamate (MSG). J Allergy Clin Immunol 1994; 93: 303.

4. Germano P, Cohen SG, Hahn B, Metcalfe D. An evaluation of clinical reactions to monosodium glutamate (MSG) inasthmatics using a blinded, placebo-controlled challenge. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1991; 87: 177.

5. Schwartzstein R, Kelleher M, Weinberger S, Weiss J, Drazen J. Airway effects of monosodium glutamate in subjectswith chronic stable asthma. J Asthma 1987; 24: 167–172.

6. Woods RK, Weiner JM, Thien F, Abramson M, Walters EH. The effects of monosodium glutamate in adults withasthma who perceive themselves to be monosodium glutamate-intolerant. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 101:762–771.

7. Woessner KM, Simon RA, Stevenson DD. Monosodium glutamate sensitivity in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol1999; 104: 305–310.

8. Hodge L, Yan KY, Loblay RL. Assessment of food chemical intolerance in adult asthmatic subjects. Thorax 1996; 51:805–809.


Time course of incorporation of 1-14C-α-linolenic acid into various rat tissues

NM Attar-Bashi, AJ Sinclair

Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne

In a previous study we showed that an oral dose of 1-14C-α-linolenic acid is found in skin and fur of guineapigs 48 hours after dosing (1). The aim of this study was to determine the time course of labeling of varioustissues in rats following an intraperitoneal dose of 1-14C-α-linolenic acid. Twenty, 3-wk old, male Sprague-Dawley rats were each given 1.85 mCi of 1-14C-α-linolenic acid (mixed in olive oil) by intraperitoneal injec-tion. Rats were then sacrificed 5, 10, 25, 50 hours after the dose (n = 5 for each time point). The dpm andconcentration of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were determined by scintillation counting andgas liquid chromatography, respectively.

The tissues with the highest specific activity (dpm/mg omega 3 ) were the liver, spleen, kidney, fur andlung. The fur label declined over time starting from being high at 5 hours, which might indicate possible con-tamination from the intraperitoneal dose. However, the specific activity stabilized over the next 45 hours whichmight point to 14C-labelled α-linolenic acid being deposited onto the fur. The maximum specific activity wasdifferent between tissues, maximum specific activity was at 10 hours for the liver, epididiymis and heart, whilethe label did not reach a maximum for the testis, skin (head) and brain areas (cerebellum, basal forbrain andcortex) over the period examined. Analysis by silver nitrate TLC at 25 hours time point showed that the mainfractions containing 14C were the 6 double bond fraction for all tissues, except for epididymis and adiposewhere it was in the 3 double bond fraction, the skin and fur where it was in the 3 and 6 double bond fractionand the carcass where it was in the 3, 5, and 6 double bond fractions. These data are in contrast to the guineapig where after 48 hours of dosing, almost no 14C from labelled linolenic acid was found in the 5 or 6 doublebond fractions.

In this study, different tissues followed a different time course with regard to the uptake and metabolism ofthe 14C-labelled α-linolenic acid. The finding that the epididymis had a relatively high specific activity is noveland may indicate an important function for this essential nutrient. The labelling of fur support the findingspreviously reported (1), however it is still possible that the fur could have been contaminated from the intra-peritoneal injection site.

Based on the results in this experiment, it is possible to speculate that α-linolenic acid may have a func-tion in relation to fur, perhaps as a secreted lipid from sebaceous glands to protect the fur from damage bywater, light or other agents. This speculation is consistent with the use of linoleic acid in dogs to maintain theircoats in good condition (2).

1. Fu Z, Sinclair AJ. Novel pathway of metabolism of a-linolenic acid in the guinea pig. Ped Res 2000; 47, 414–417.2. Lloyd DH. Essential Fatty Acids and Skin Disease. J Small Anim Prac 1989; 30: 207–212.


Blood pressure and dietary sodium reduction in normotensive subjects

CA Nowson1, TO Morgan2, C Gibbons1

1School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, 31252Dept Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052

Intervention studies with sodium supplementation in hypertensive and mildly hypertensive subjects supportthe hypothesis that higher sodium intake is associated with higher blood pressure. However, reductions inblood pressure in normotensive subjects with reduced sodium intake, within the usual range of sodium intake,has not been consistently demonstrated.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of alterations of dietary sodium (Na) intake on blood pres-sure (BP) in normotensive subjects. Twins and family members were recruited to a double-blind, randomisedcrossover design where all subjects followed a low sodium diet (LS) (50mmol/day) for 8 weeks. Subjects tooka placebo for 4 weeks and Na supplement (NaSup) for 4 weeks. All subjects provided one 24hr blood pres-sure measurement (AMBP) at baseline and at the end of each phase and 2, 24-hr urine collections. Home bloodpressure measurements were conducted daily in the last week of each intervention phase.

One-hundred-and eight individuals (57 females, 33 males (mean age 45.1(8.9)(SD) years, not taking anti-hypertensive therapy commenced the study. Of these 89 completed the study (10 dropped out due to sideaffects from tablets, 9 from inability to comply with study demands). At baseline the mean AMBP was122.4 ± 1.0 (± SEM) mmHg systolic (SBP)/75.6 ± 0.9 mmHg diastolic (DBP) and home BP was 117.8 ± 1.6/73.5 ± 1.0, and the mean urinary sodium excretion 138.0 ± 6.0 mmol/day. Na excretion with NaSup was sim-ilar to baseline (Na 137 ± 4.2 mmol/day) and Na excretion was lower during LS phase 51.6 ± 4.3 mmol/dayP < 0.001). Home systolic BP was lower in LS phase 114.7 ± 1.3 mmHg versus 116.3 ± 1.3 with Na Sup(P < 0.05). There was no difference in AMBP between LS (119.4 ± 1.3/73.9 ± 0.8 mmHg) and the NaSupphase (119.4 ± 1.3/73.9 ± 0.8 mmHg). Na excretion was positively associated with 24-hr SBP at baseline (R2 = 0.12, β = 0.06(0.02) P = 0.003) and NaSup phase (R2 = 0.05, b = 0.05(0.03) P = 0.057).

SBP measured at home was 1.6 mmHg lower on a low sodium diet (50mmol/day) compared to a usualsodium intake (137 mmol/day). This effect was not seen with 24hr blood pressure measurement. This smallreduction in blood pressure, seen in normotensive subjects within the normal range of sodium intake indicatesthe potential health benefits of a low sodium diet. These results are in agreement with the recent US study(1)which demonstrated a graded blood pressure reduction with a low sodium diet of 67 mmol/day in normo-tensive and hypertensive subjects.

1. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodiumand the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 3–10.


Sodium intake and self-efficacy

DR Woodward1, PJ Ball2, TC Beard3

1Discipline of Biochemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart TAS, 70012School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart TAS, 7001

3Menzies Centre for Population Health Research, Hobart TAS, 7001

High sodium intakes contribute significantly to the development of cardiovascular disease, and Australianintakes are substantially above recommended levels (1). In developing strategies to encourage reduced intakes,it is useful to compare the characteristics of those who have lower and higher Na intakes, especially charac-teristics that are potentially modifiable by education/counselling.

One such characteristic is self-efficacy, a person’s confidence that they could perform certain behaviours if they so chose. Self-efficacy is not generic, but needs to be evaluated in relation to specific behaviours. Anine-item instrument has been developed (2) to measure self-efficacy for reducing salt intakes. It assesses thesubject’s confidence that they could persist with certain low-salt dietary habits (eg, buy fewer high-saltsnacks, keep the salt shaker off the table, eat low-salt cereals) if they decided to. Possible scores range from9 (minimal confidence) to 63 (maximal confidence).

As part of a study on Na intakes on 194 Hobart adults (87 males, 107 females, ages 20–69 years), we askedparticipants to complete the salt self-efficacy instrument and also assessed their Na intakes from 24h urinaryNa excretion. Data were noticeably skewed, necessitating use of non-parametric statistical methods.

Among women, the median salt self-efficacy score was 60, and the median Na intake was 112 mmol/day.The two showed a Spearman coefficient of –0.27 (P = 0.005). Median Na intakes were 121 mmol/day for subjects in the lowest quartile of self-efficacy scores (i.e., < = 54), and 94 mmol/day in the highest quartile(i.e, a score of 63).

Among men, the median salt self-efficacy score was 54, and the median Na intake was 172 mmol/day. Thetwo showed a Spearman coefficient of –0.19 (P = 0.09). Median Na intakes were 189 mmol/day for subjectsin the lowest quartile of self-efficacy scores (< = 54), and 151 mmol/d in the highest quartile (> = 58).

We conclude that greater salt self-efficacy is linked to lower Na intakes. Further study is needed to assesswhether intervention programs aimed at increasing salt self-efficacy would help patients lower their Naintakes, but our results suggest that such interventions might potentially lower Na intake by up to 30–40 mmol/day.

1. Beard TC, Woodward DR, Ball PJ et al. The Hobart Salt Study 1995: Few meet national sodium target. Med J Aust1997; 166: 404–407.

2. Sallis JF, Pinski RB, Grossman RM et al. The development of self-efficacy scales for health related diet and exercisebehaviors. Health Educ Res 1988; 3: 283–292.


Fat distribution and blood pressure: a twin study

CA Nowson1, JE Pritchard2

1School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, 31252Department of Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010

Recent research has emphasized the importance of central abdominal fat as a predictor of cardiovascular dis-ease. Furthermore, systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure may be differently associated with fatdistribution (1).

This cross-sectional study was undertaken to explore the relationship between body composition and bloodpressure in a sample of 22 males, 48 females (44 monozygous (MZ), 17 dizygous (DZ) twins and 9 familymembers who had participated in a dietary study. The mean age was 45.8 (8.9)(SD) yrs, BMI: 25.2 (4.0)kg/m2) and only those not taking anti-hypertensive therapy were included.

Blood pressure measurements, using a mercury sphygmomanometer, were taken 4 times after 5 minutesseated. Body composition was determined by a Lunar DPX-L X-ray densitometer. The relationship of bodycomposition to blood pressure (BP) (age-adjusted) was assessed using univariate regression. In the sub-groupof same sex twin pairs (22 MZ, 9 DZ pairs), the within twin pair difference in body composition was assessedin relation to the within pair difference in BP (regression through the origin).

The within twin pair difference in abdominal fat was associated with the within pair difference in DBP0.004(0.002) (β(s.e)(P < 0.05)). The within pair difference in BMI and total fat was not associated with withinpair difference in SBP or DBP.

BMI and abdominal fat were associated with both SBP and DBP crossectionally, however within twin pairsonly abdominal fat was positively associated with DBP. These associations are evident within a group of adultswho are not hypertensive and agree with a recent study, which found that body fatness, especially centralabdominal fat is associated with DBP in normotensive middle-aged men and women (2).

1. Kurabayashi T, Carey DG, Morrison NA.The beta-3-adrenergic receptor gene Trp64Arg mutation is overrepresentedin obese women. Effects on weight, BMI, abdominal fat and blood pressure, and reproductive history in an elderlyAustralian population. Diabetes 1996; 45: 1358–63.

2. Andersen UB, Dige-Petersen H, Ibsen H, Skott P, Bruun NE et al. Insulin resistance, exercise capacity and body com-position in subjects with two hypertensive parents. J Hypertension 1999; 17: 1273–1280.

SBP DBPR2 β (se) R2 β (se)

BMI (kg/m2) 0.10** 0.75 (0.36) 0.11** 0.82 (0.23)Total fat (g) 0.001 0.001 (0.000) 0.004* 0.001 (0.000)Abdominal fat (g) 0.06* 0.004 (0.002) 0.06* 0.003 (0.001)

*P < 0.05 ** P < 0.01.


Effects of the glycemic index on the insulin-like growth factor system

VR Liu1, RC Baxter2, JC Brand-Miller1

1Human Nutrition Unit, Dept of Biochemistry, and 2Department of Molecular Medicine,University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

Increased intake of refined carbohydrates has been associated with secular increases in height, weight andgrowth in groups such as the Eskimo (1). We hypothesised that acute postprandial hyperinsulineamia following the consumption high GI foods may cause changes in the insulin-like growth factor system thatfavour accelerated growth. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is an important stimulator of growth andmetabolism, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) is suppressed by acute and chronicelevation in insulin (2).

Two groups of young, lean, healthy subjects, 10 Caucasians and 10 South East Asian, were studied. Themean (± SD) age and BMI were 24 ± 4 y and 21 ± 2 respectively. They fasted overnight and consumed a lowand high GI meal (50 g carbohydrate portions of pearled barley or instant potato respectively) in random orderon separate occasions. On a third occasion they fasted over the same period. Finger prick blood samples weretaken at regular intervals over four hours and analysed for glucose, insulin, free IGF, total IGF and IGFBP-1-3.

In all twenty subjects, IFGBP-1 levels were significantly decreased by 4 h post consumption of the low GIfood (–44 ± 17 ng/mL) compared with little change after the high GI food (0 ± 16 ng/mL). However, in Cau-casians, there were significantly greater increases in IGFBP-3 4 h after consumption of the low GI comparedwith the high GI food (0.3 ± 0.1 vs 0.1 ± 0.1 µ/mL, p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in serumIGFBP-2, free IGF-1 or total IGF- 1 levels in response to the two foods.

We also noted interesting racial differences during the extended fast. In SE Asian subjects, mean fastinglevels of free IGF-1 over the 4 h were significantly higher than in Caucasian subjects (0.9 ± 0.01 vs 0.7 ±0.02 ng/mL). Correspondingly, mean IFGBP-1 levels were lowest in SE Asian subjects (40 ± 3 vs 96 ±5 ng/mL, p < 0.01). Fasting glucose levels were higher in the SE Asian groups (5.4 ± 0.1 vs 5.1 ± 0.03 mM,respectively, p < 0.01).

These results provide equivocal support for the hypothesis that the ingestion of high GI foods leads to alter-ation in the IGF system that collectively favours increased growth. Changes in IGFBP-3 were remarkable andunexpected and may indicate increased free IGF-1 available in the tissues. Changes in IGFBP-1, however,were the opposite of those hypothesised, suggesting that a low GI food would promote higher free IGF-1levels. Racial differences in the glucose metabolism and the IGF system during extended fasting may berelevant to the documented differences in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes.

1. Schaeffer O. Pre- and post-natal growth acceleration and increased sugar consumption in Canadian Eskimos. CanMed Assoc J 1970; 103: 1059–1086.

2. Busby WH, Snyder DK, Clemmons DR. Radioimmunoassay of a 26,000 dalton plasma insulin-like growth factorbinding protein: control by nutritional variables. J Clin Endo Metab 1988; 67; 1225–1230.


The acute effect of resistant starch on postprandial satiety in anoverweight population

HHY Ngai, VL Brenninger, LC Tapsell, IL Brown

Smart Foods Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2500

Introduction: Obesity and overweight are now common health problems all over the world. Successful main-tenance of long-term weight loss is of considerable benefit in this group as it lowers the risk of certain chronicdiseases. Diets high in resistant starch may be a suitable strategy for weight loss, since foods high in resistantstarch have a reduced digestibility in the small intestine. This slower rate of starch digestion and gastricemptying may have a positive effect on satiety sensation. The aim of this study was to compare in an over-weight population the postprandial satiety ratings in response to meals containing high or minimal levels ofresistant starch.

Method: Nine males and 10 females aged 42.4 ± 13.2 y with a mean body mass index (BMI, in kg/m2) of29.5 ± 3.39 were recruited. Subjects consumed two main meals (breakfast and lunch) containing either high-amylose resistant starch (R) or non-resistant starch (N) on two separate days in a crossover design in a com-fortable laboratory setting. The N meal challenge day contained a negligible amount of resistant starch, whilethe R meals contained 9.53 g and 15.21 g of high-amylose resistant starch in breakfast and lunch respectively.Subjective satiety ratings were obtained by using visual analogue scales. Measurements were taken at 60-minute intervals for 10 consecutive measures on each day. Results were expressed as mean ± SD. Com-parison of means was performed by Student’s t test and statistical significance was set as P < 0.05.

Results and Discussion: The satiety ratings from both meal-types showed an early increase after the twotest meals followed by a subsequent gradual decrease and remained above the basal values 4-h postprandially.Minor differences in satiety ratings were found after the two test meals, with a significant difference occur-ring immediately following the lunch meal (P < 0.05). Mean satiety scores were slightly higher for subjectsfed the R meal compared with those fed the N meal but these were not statistically significant. Higher intakesof resistant starch may be needed to show any effects. In addition, overweight individuals may be relativelyinsensitive to the satiety response (1), suggesting the need for further research in this area.

1. Friedman MI. Control of energy intake by energy metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 62: 1096S–1100S.


Dietary vitamin E modulates immune responses to Salmonella typhimuriumin chickens

WI Muir, AJ Husband, WL Bryden

Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006

Supplementation of poultry diets with Vitamin E (VE) can enhance the immune response and improve resis-tance to disease. In chickens VE supplementation has stimulated increased macrophage phagocytosis andincreased production of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM (1,2). However, the effect of dietary VE on IgAantibody, which acts as the first line of defence of the intestinal mucosa, has not been evaluated. Recent workby the authors identified increased IgA antibody production at the intestinal site in birds immunised withtetanus toxoid and receiving diets supplemented with VE (3). The present study was designed to determinewhether improved antigen-specific IgA antibody production could be stimulated in birds receiving VE sup-plemented diets and immunised with killed Salmonella typhimurium, which commonly colonises the chickenthrough the intestinal mucosa and, poses a serious public health risk.

From the day of hatch chicks were placed on a maize-based diet containing 50 mg VE/kg which wassupplemented with either 100, 250, 2500 or 5000 mg VE [BASF, Lutavit E 50 Special]/kg. At day 21 allchickens were intraperitoneally immunised with killed whole Salmonella typhimurium in a vegetable oil basedadjuvant. Two weeks later they received an oral booster of killed whole Salmonella typhimurium. Samples ofserum, intestinal scrapings (IS) and bile were collected on the end of the experiment, day 42, and Salmonellatyphimurium specific IgA antibody titres were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (4).

On day 42 birds receiving 250 mg VE supplementation /kg had significantly higher mean anti-S. typhimurium IgA antibody titres in serum (P < 0.05) and IS (P < 0.02) and, notably higher anti-S. typhimurium IgA titres in bile, compared to birds receiving the basal diet. Birds receiving 2500 mg VE sup-plementation /kg had a significant increase (P < 0.04) in serum anti-S. typhimurium IgA antibody, but there wasno notable alteration in the IgA antibody titre in either the IS or bile.

These results demonstrate the capacity for vitamin E supplementation of poultry diets to enhance theimmune response in chickens and, in particular, anti-Salmonella typhimurium IgA antibody titres at the intes-tinal mucosa following immunisation with killed whole Salmonella typhimurium. The potential for vitamin Esupplementation to enhance the immune response when included in the diet for periods less than 42 days isbeing investigated.

1. Tengerdy RP, Brown JE. Effect of vitamin E and A on humoral immunity and phagocytosis in E. coli infected chicken.Poult Sci 1977; 56: 957–963.

2. Haq A, Bailey CA, Chinnah A. Effect of β-carotene, canthaxanthin, lutein and vitamin E on neonatal immunity inchicks when supplemented in the broiler breeder diets. Poult Sci 1996; 75: 1092–1097.

3. Muir WI, Husband AJ, Bryden WL. Dietary vitamin E modulates intestinal immunity. Proc Aust Poult Sci Sym 2001;236.

4. Muir WI, Bryden WL, Husband AJ. Evaluation of the efficacy of intraperitoneal immunization in reducing S. typhimurium infection in chickens. Poult Sci 1998; 77: 1874–1883.


Effect of monounsaturated fat in the diet on the serum lycopene levels

KDK Ahuja, MJ Ball

School of Human Life Science, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7250

Epidemiological data suggest that populations with higher serum/tissue levels of carotenoids have a lower riskof coronary heart disease (CHD) (1,2). Lycopene, a carotenoid mainly found in tomatoes, has been suggestedto have the greatest antioxidant capacity of the carotenoids found in fruits and vegetables. Carotenoids are fat-soluble compounds and their absorption from the diet into the body may depend on the amount of dietary fatingested. For years there has been debate about what energy source should replace the saturated fat in the diet,to give the optimum serum lipid profile to reduce CHD risk. Studies have investigated the effect of differentamounts of total fat on the serum levels of carotenoids especially β-carotene and lutein, but to our knowledgeno study has looked at the effect of different amounts of fats in the diet on the serum lycopene levels.

A randomised crossover dietary intervention study, partially funded by Grains Research and DevelopmentCorporation, Canberra, Australia and Meadow Lea Food Ltd, Mascot, Australia was conducted in 13 healthymen aged 20 to 70 years. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of monounsaturated fat enriched(MUFA) diet (38% of energy from fat) and high carbohydrate low fat (HCLF) diet (15% energy from fat) withcontrolled lycopene content, on serum lycopene levels. Main sources of lycopene in the diet were tomato pasteand tomato soup (donated by Heinz Watties, Melbourne, Australia). The lycopene content of the diet was20.3 mg/day. The diets were designed to be low in other carotenoids. The diets were of 14 days duration witha washout period of six weeks. Before the start of the two dietary periods, subjects were asked to take lowcarotenoid diet (LCD) for two days to avoid the acute peaks in serum lycopene levels which may occur witha high intake of lycopene rich food 10-12 hrs before the blood sample (3).

Compared to baseline (after two days of LCD) serum trans, cis and total lycopene levels increased afterthe MUFA and HCLF diet periods. There was no significant difference in trans, cis and total lycopene levelsat the end of two diets. This study indicated that 38% of energy from fat in the diet compared to 15% of energyfrom fat with a modest amount of lycopene in the diet has no differential effect on the serum lycopene levels.

1. Morris DL, Kritchevsky SB, Davis CE. Serum carotenoids and coronary heat disease. The Lipid Research ClinicsCoronary Primary Prevention Trial and Follow-up Study. JAMA 1994; 272: 1439–1441.

2. Kohlmeier L, Kark JD, Gomez Gracia E, Martin BC, Steck SE, Kardinaal AF, Ringstad J, Thamm M, Masaev V,Riemersma R, Martin Moreno JM, Huttunen JK, Kok FJ. Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMICStudy. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 146: 618–626.

3. Porrini M, Riso P, Testolin G. Absorption of lycopene from single or daily portions of raw and processed tomato. Br J Nutr 1998; 80: 353–356.

Acknowledgements. We thank Dr Emma Ashton for her assistance in conducting the study.


An overview of gene-nutrient interactions

JJ Strain, CS Downes

Northern Ireland Centre for Diet and Health (NICHE), University of Ulster, Coleraine, BT52 1SA,Northern Ireland, UK

We are near the end of human structural genetics. The Millennium draft sequence identifies over 90% of the3 billion base pairs of DNA carried in every cell: the total assemblage of genes, or genome. International part-ners in the Human Genome Project are now working to eliminate gaps and ambiguities, to produce a ‘goldstandard’ sequence by 2003. The genome sequence will be an immensely valuable resource, and its high pub-licity has produced a revolution in nomenclature: omes are the new isms and ologies. Nutritionists, whothought they were studying metabolism or physiology, are now told that the basic information of the genometurns nutrients and their metabolites into living cells or organs (the metabolome) which, in turn, are integratedinto a living human being (the phenome or physiome).

Actually, the structural genome by itself does not tell all that much. We need functional genomics to tell uswhat gene products do: and which may not be obvious from their sequence. Also, the genome is the same inall cells but the subset of genes expressed is not. Much more needs to be known about the control of tran-scription, whereby the information encoded in our genes is copied onto messenger RNA (mRNA), formingthe transcriptome (the complete set of mRNA). One method of control is DNA imprinting by methylation; themethylome is the complete set of DNA methylations in a cell type. After transcription, mRNA changes beforetranslation to proteins can take place. Non-coding regions (introns) are removed from between the codingregions (exons) by splicing. Often, the same initial transcript can be spliced in many different ways (the cur-rent record, for a neuroprotein gene, is about 50,000 permutations). Editing of mRNA can sometimes removea base encoded by DNA, and replace it by another. Thus, the final members of the transcriptome are not sim-ple copies of the genome. Also, topping and tailing of the end regions of mRNAs influences rates of proteintranslation. Proteins, once translated, can be cleaved or have their constituent amino-acids significantly mod-ified. The complete set of protein molecules in a cell (the proteome), therefore, is at least an order of magni-tude greater than the complete set of genes (about 30,000). International proteomic consortia are already inplace, but technical problems (proteins will not form convenient paired strands, as nucleic acids do) willensure that progress is much slower than with genomics.

Genomics and proteomics are ‘big science’. Nutritionists can intelligently choose small important geneticitems to generate hypothesis-led research. Of course, as non-reductionist scientists, we have much experiencein elucidating aspects of the metabolome and physiome, with cell cultures, animal models and nutritionalinterventions in humans. But now we can maximise our research potential by a systematic, genome-upapproach to the study of nutrition.

Indeed, it could be argued that nutrition is not at the edge of the gene, but rather is centre stage. Dietarycomponents make substantial contributions to the stability of DNA, can affect the regulation of gene expres-sion, and may have roles in genetic imprinting; the methylome is a function of folate status. Moreover,nutritional requirements are influenced by variability within the genome; mostly by single nucleotide poly-morphisms (alternative bases), which occur about once every 1000 base pairs. These are defined as polymorphic variants or alleles (alternative forms of a gene) when they occur in at least 1% in the population.Such mutations close to or within a gene may influence the amount, structure and function of the geneproduct; this in turn can influence nutritional requirements, and susceptibility to degenerative disease.

The objectives of this overview are to delineate some of the complex each-way gene-nutrient interactions,to provide examples of nutrients that are involved in such interactions, and to show some of the opportunitiesavailable to nutritionists to advance the discipline of nutrition in the post-genomic era.


Folate, gene expression and genomic stability

M Fenech

CSIRO Health Sciences and Nutrition, PO Box 10041, Adelaide BC, SA, 5000

Folate deficiency has been known to be a cause of megaloblastic anaemia since 1930. However, in the pasttwo decades it has become evident that various methylated/reduced forms of this vitamin play a key role inDNA metabolism, specifically maintenance methylation of CpG sequences and in the synthesis of thymine,one of the four bases in DNA. Inadequate maintenance methylation of CpG has important consequences whichinclude (a) altered methylation of CpG islands which impacts on gene expression, (b) altered structure of cen-tromeric DNA leading to chromosome loss and aneuploidy during cell division and (c) expression of parasitic(viral) DNA sequences. These events lead to important changes in the phenotype of cells and are an initiat-ing step in cancer. The other important role of folate (5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate) is the synthesis of dTTP(deoxythyminetriphosphate) from dUMP (deoxyuracilmonophosphate). This reaction is important becausefolate deficiency increases the dUTP/dTTP ratio which results in uracil being incorporated into DNA insteadof thymine. Uracil in DNA is highly mutagenic, and the cell dedicates four of eight known human DNA repairglycosylases to remove this base. Incorporation of uracil in DNA leads to excessive excision repair sites andthe subsequent formation of DNA double stranded breaks which are similar to the DNA lesions caused by ion-ising radiation. The formation of DNA double stranded breaks leads to chromosome breakage, chromosomerearrangement and gene amplification, important events in the initiation and progression of cancer. The capac-ity to utilise folate is dependent on dietary intake and also on polymorphisms that affect the activity of proteins/enzymes involved in the deconjugation, conjugation, reduction, methylation and receptor transport. Whenvitamin B12 is oxidised or concentration is low, activity of methionine synthase is reduced, lowering SAMconcentration and trapping folate as 5-methyltetrahydrofolate making folate unavailable for synthesis ofdTMP and methylation of DNA. In view of the above we have dedicated our research efforts in defining theoptimal concentration of folate and vitamin B12 for minimising DNA damage in human cells. To date ourresearch suggests that chromosome damage in human lymphocytes in vivo is minimised when RBC concen-tration of folate exceeds 600 nmol/L, plasma B12 exceeds 300 pmol/L and plasma homocysteine is less than7.5umol/L (1). These concentrations are achievable at above RDA intake of folic acid (700ug) and vitaminB12 (7ug) (1). In vitro studies suggest that the optimal concentration of folic acid in medium for minimisingDNA damage is in excess of 60nmol/L which is greater than the normal range of folate concentration inhuman plasma (15-40 nmol/L) (2). These studies suggest that current RDAs for folate and vitamin B12 maynot be adequate for minimising DNA mutation. This has led to the concept that RDAs should be designed tominimise DNA damage rate because genomic instability is a causative factor in degenerative diseases such ascancer, Alzheimer’s disease and accelerated ageing (3).

1. Fenech M, Aitken C and Rinaldi J. Folate, vitamin B12, homocysteine status and DNA damage in young Australianadults. Carcinogenesis (accelerated paper) 1998; 19: 1163–1171.

2. Crott JW, Fenech M. (2001) The effect of folic acid deficiency and MTHFR C677T polymorphism on chromosomedamage in human lymphocytes in vitro. (submitted).

3. Fenech M. Recommended dietary allowances for genomic stability. Mutation Res 2001, (in press).


Nutrition as an evolutionary force

WJ Foley

School of Botany and Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200

Until recently, evolutionary biologists have not been much interested in nutrition. Although food ultimatelyprovides the energy for survival growth and reproduction, many physiologists have been frustrated by thedifficulty of defining exactly what contributes to variance in nutritional quality of different diets. Instead theyhave focussed on other aspects of animal performance such as thermal and locomotory capabilities that areeasier to define and measure.

However, many animals face prolonged periods without food and the realization of the extraordinary andrapid responses of the gut in some species have resulted in a renewed emphasis on how the gut of wild specieshas evolved to match fluctuating food supplies, energetic demands and different food types that are the of wildvertebrates.

The most spectacular changes in gut anatomy and physiology have been observed in large sit and waitpredators such as pythons. In those species the absorptive capacity of the gut can double within hours ofingesting a meal along with up-regulation of metabolic rate, digestive enzymes, nutrient transporters and otherorgans such as kidneys. However other snakes that feed more regularly don’t show the same magnitude of reg-ulatory response. Many other species such as migratory birds must up- or down-regulate their nutrient uptakecapacity to meet requirements for activities and changing food availability.

These findings illustrate that maintenance of gut tissues is a large energetic and nutritional burden on ani-mals and one that is borne only when there is food to process. But if the gut is so flexible when food is notavailable how does it respond when greater quantities of food must be processed? Other major evolutionaryquestions have asked whether the gut ever sets the ultimate limit to animal activity. Studies of animals in coldand those lactating at maximal capacity show rapid enhanced capacity of the gut to digest and transport nutri-ents to meet higher energy requirements. Peripheral processes (e.g. capacity of the mammary glands to makemilk) have been argued to limit energy expenditure by animals under these conditions rather than the capac-ity of the gut to transport nutrients.

In wild species, periods of under-nutrition provide the best means of observing selection on nutritionalstatus in wild species. However, there are surprisingly few examples of the fitness consequences of variationin foraging traits, despite their importance for survival of wild species. The best example is in Soay sheepwhere broader incisor width is strongly selected during population crashes, as is resistance to parasites. Indi-vidual variation in parasite resistance is in turn under genetic control but there is much uncertainty about themechanisms and stability of these selective forces.

Overall, our ability to ask specific questions about the evolutionary impact of nutrition in wild species ishampered by a lack of understanding of what constitutes nutritional quality. There are many examples of wildanimals with restricted or unusual diets (e.g. toxic constituents) but understanding how the interactionbetween consumer and diet has evolved is challenging.


Refugee camps – a food security, livelihood and childhood nutrition assessmentat Sinje, Cape Mount County, Liberia, West Africa

D Stevens1, AJ Bencke2

1Nutrition Consultant and Program Manager, Save the Children, UK2School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW, 2308

Introdution/Objectives – Liberia and Sierra Leone are two West African countries ravaged by civil war andrebel takeovers. The human cost of more than a decade of killings, civil unrest, and associated miseries is hugeand especially vulnerable are the women and children. WFP (World Food Program) are responsible for foodaid to most refuge camps in Africa, and inherent in their rationing is the expectation that after a few months,refuges will cultivate, work or barter for some of their food. Sinje, is an established Liberian border refugeecamp for 17,000 refugees from Sierra Leone (6,000 settled more than 9 months – Camp 1). WPF wished toreduce the food ration for 11,000 recently arrived refugees (Camp 2) to that of Camp 1 (4,400 kJ/day/person)which is 4000 kJ/day/person below WFP/UNHCR recommendations. Young children are at greatest risk ofmalnutrition and their rates are a marker for food insecurity. Many refugees have endured months of forcedrelocation due to unrest, before arriving at Sinje. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of therecent arrivals on food security and livelihood and childhood malnutrition and assess the effect that the pro-posed ration reduction may have on Camp 2.

Design – Cross sectional study involving systematic sampling of 318 households (eating from the samepot), utilisation of the food ration (bulgur wheat, pulses and oil), access to other sources of food and income.Anthropometric measurements of every child (6 months to 5 years) in the household, and rations suppliedwere recorded. Structured interviews were conducted by Liberian nationals predominantly trained andemployed by Save the Children UK (responsible for monitoring food security in this region). Open endedquestions concerning family savings, assets and wages, as well as intentions of returning to Sierra Leone werealso posed.

Outcomes – Camp 1 refugees were food insecure if relying just on their rations (< 4400 kJ/person daily),but most households had developed livelihood strategies to gain more food, whilst Camp 2 was food secure onthe current ration of 8800 kJ/person daily, but with few livelihood opportunities to supplement their ration inthe long term. Other measures were not significantly different.

Conclusions and Recommendations – Female headed households are particularly vulnerable to foodinsecurity, and most likely to resort to distress strategies eg sale of meagre assets and high interest loans.Refugees need job creation, mini marketing, and micro-banks. Farming as a livelihood is unattractive, as mostrefugees want to return home and the huge influx has reduced availability of land. Stunting rates, a result oflong term food insecurity, may be reduced by improving other livelihood opportunities. Reduction in ration inCamp 2, whilst important to promote self reliance, should be postponed until other livelihood strategies are in place.

Camp 1 Camp 2

Number of households sampled 112 206Female headed households 47% 46%Childhood malnutrition – global 4.4% 2.7%Stunting in children (high: > 30%, WHO) 38% 39%


Consumption of bangun-bangun leaves (Coleus amboinicus Lour) to increasebreast milk production among Batakneese women in

North Sumatra Island, Indonesia

R Damanik1, N Damanik2, Z Daulay3, S Saragih2, R Premier4, N Wattanapenpaiboon1, ML Wahlqvist1

1International Health & Development Unit, Monash University, VIC, 3800,2Pematang Siantar Public Hospital,

3Pematang Siantar Junior High School 4, Kabupaten Simalungun, North Sumatra Island, Indonesia,4Institute for Horticultural Development, Knoxfield, VIC, 3176

Bangun-bangun leaf (Coleus amboinicus Lour; CA) is an herb that is traditionally consumed by Batakneesewomen in North Sumatra Island Indonesia whilst nursing. Batakneese women believe that this herb can stim-ulate the production of their breast milk. The present study aimed to gather information about the beliefs andexperiences of Batakneese women in consuming this herb, using a focus group discussion method.

Sixty Batakneese women, who used CA leaves whilst nursing, were invited to participate in focus groupdiscussions conducted in three villages of Simalungun District in North Sumatra Island, Indonesia. One halfof the participants were recent mothers (aged 35–51 yr) and the other were elderly mothers (aged 51–91 yr).Each discussion group consisted of 6–12 participants, either recent or elderly mothers, and was moderated bymidwives (ND, SS) from the district hospitals. Topics included the knowledge about CA leaves and experi-ence in consuming CA leaves. The duration of each discussion was about 60–90 minutes and it wasrecorded audio-visually.

‘Bangun-bangun’ is the name given by Batakneese people, especially in Simalungun, for the Coleusamboinicus Lour plant. In the Simalungun language, ‘bangun’ means ‘wake-up’. Traditionally, women whohave just given childbirth are given this plant in order to recover. It is believed that delivery upsets the balanceachieved during pregnancy and brings about weakness. A special diet of bangun-bangun soup, considerednourishing, is given to the mother ‘in order to return her to a state of balance’. The diet is also intended toensure that the mother can take care of the newborn properly, especially by breastfeeding. All participantsconsidered the effects of consuming bangun-bangun soup during their nursing period to have been beneficial.In general, the women felt fit (not tired but, rather, fresh) and healthy after consuming CA leaves. They felttheir breasts become full with breast milk. Moreover, most participants found that consuming CA leaveshelped control postpartum bleeding and ‘acted as a uterine cleansing agent’.

All participants commenced CA consumption on the second day after giving birth, and most of themconsumed a bowl of bangun-bangun soup three times a day for 30–40 days, whilst others did so for only14–21 days. To make the soup more delicious, slices of chicken meat or fish are added. According to theelderly mothers, there was no restriction to or required frequency with which to consume this soup. The hus-band or the mother or mother-in-law usually cooks the soup at home. They obtain the CA leaves from theirhome garden or the local market.

The focus group discussions indicated that Batakneese people consider that the consumption of CA leavescan stimulate the production of the breast milk whilst nursing. CA leaves may be consumed at any time andas much as possible without known adverse effects.


Compliance with the dietary regimen in a five-year trial of the primaryprevention of asthma

A Yiu1, S Mihrshahi2, K Webb1, JK Peat2, GB Marks3, SR Leeder4

1Department of Public Health and Community Medicine andDepartment of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

2Clinical Epidemiology Unit, The Children’s Hospital, Westmead, NSW, 21453Institute of Respiratory Medicine, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

4Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

The Childhood Asthma Prevention Study is a randomised controlled trial designed to measure the effective-ness of house dust mite allergen reduction and supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids, both separately andin combination, for the primary prevention of atopy and asthma (1). Poor compliance may compromise thesuccessful outcome and validity of CAPS results.

Pregnant women whose unborn children were at high risk of developing asthma due to family history wererandomised prenatally into active and placebo groups (n = 616). The active dietary intervention requiresmothers to add tuna oil capsules to the infant’s food from six months, and use Canola margarine and oil. Theplacebo diet involves the use of Sunola oil capsules, polyunsaturated margarine and sunflower oil. Data arecollected quarterly in the first year and then half yearly until five years. Compliance is assessed by self-rating(all visits) and plasma phospholipids at 18 months. Data are currently available for 251 children (41% of total).

This study sought to 1) assess differences in plasma phospholipids between active and placebo groups, asa biomarker for compliance with the dietary regimen 2) evaluate the validity of self-reported compliance com-pared with plasma phospholipids.

The active group had significantly higher plasma omega-3 fatty acid levels and significantly lower omega–6 fatty acid levels than the placebo group.

Self-reported compliance was related to plasma phospholipids in the expected direction, that is, omega-3fatty acids were significantly higher among self-rated good compliers with capsule taking than in self-ratedpoor compliers (P < 0.001). Nearly half of the subjects were correctly classified into tertiles of plasma omega-3 fatty acids according to self-rated compliance. Only 12.5% were grossly misclassified (Kappa = 0.18).

Significant differences between plasma fatty acids in the intervention groups reflected high compliancewith the dietary regimen of CAPS. Self-reported compliance was significantly associated with plasma fattyacids. However, self-reported compliance was not an accurate basis for classification into tertiles of omega-3fatty acids.

1. Mihrshahi S, Peat JK, Webb K, Tovey ER, Marks GB, Mellis CM, Leeder SR. The Childhood Asthma PreventionStudy (CAPS): Design and Research Protocol of a Randomized Trial for the Primary Prevention of Asthma. Con-trolled Clinical Trials 2001; 22: 333–354.

Fatty acid Active (n = 125) Placebo (n = 126) P valuemean (%) (95%CI) mean (%) (95%CI)

Total omega-3 7.07 (6.71-7.42) 5.05 (4.83-5.26) < 0.001Total omega-6 32.7 (32.20-33.24) 35.21 (34.69-35.72) < 0.001


Calculating resting energy expenditure in men with HIV/AIDS

MJ Batterham1, J Morgan-Jones2, P Greenop3, R Garsia3, J Gold2

1Smart Foods Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 25222The Albion Street Centre, Surry Hills, NSW, 2010

3Dept of Nutrition & Dietetics/Dept Clinical Immunology Royal Prince Alfred Hospital,Camperdown, NSW, 2500

Previous research investigating the role of resting energy expenditure (REE) in the aetiology of metabolicabnormalities and weight loss in HIV has been conflicting (1). This conflict in the literature may be a resultof inadequate adjustment for body composition as the fat free mass is the primary determinant of REE andabnormalities of body composition. Both wasting of the fat free and fat mass (‘lipodystrophy’) are commonin people with HIV/AIDS.

The aims of this cross sectional study were to:

1. To determine if resting energy expenditure accounting for fat free mass (FFM) is elevated in HIV posi-tive males when compared with healthy controls in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy.

2. To examine the accuracy of prediction equations for estimating REE in people with HIV. 3. To determine if REE accounting for FFM is significantly different between those HIV positive subjects

reporting lipodystrophy (LD), weight loss (≥ 5%) and those who are weight stable when compared withcontrols.

This research was conducted in both a tertiary referral hospital HIV unit and an outpatient clinic special-ising in HIV care. Seventy HIV positive males were recruited and the results compared with those from sixteen healthy age matched male control subjects.

REE was measured after an overnight fast using indirect calorimetry (Deltatrac II metabolic monitor,Helsinki, Finland). Body composition was assessed using bioelectrical impedance analysis (SEAC BIM 4,Uniquest, Brisbane).

The main findings were:

1. REE when adjusted for FFM using regression residuals was greater in HIV positive subjects than con-trols (1735 ± 194 kcal n = 70 vs 1581 ± 166 kcal n = 16, P < 0.05).

2. The Harris Benedict, Schofield and Cunningham equations significantly underestimated REE in the HIVpositive subjects when compared with controls and the two equations published by Melchior and col-leagues in HIV positive patients overestimated REE. Therefore a new prediction equation was devel-oped. The accuracy of the published equations to predict REE differed in the different HIV positivesubgroups which reflects the heterogeneity in body composition.

3. When divided into subgroups REE adjusted for FFM was significantly greater in the weight stable HIVpatients (n = 23, 113 ± 13 kJ/kg) than the healthy controls (n = 17, 100 ± 11 kJ/kg, P < 0.05). The differences for the groups with lipodystrophy (n = 30, 109 ± 12 kJ/kg) and weight loss (n = 17,106 ± 11 kJ/kg) were not significant.

In conclusion, REE is significantly higher in HIV positive males when compared with healthy controls.Body composition abnormalities common in HIV make the use of standard prediction equations for estimat-ing REE invalid.

1. Macallan DC. Wasting in HIV infection and AIDS. J Nutr 1999; 129: 238S–242S.


Malnutrition in children with cancer in Pakistan

Q Atta-ur-Rehman

Department of Ancillary Health Services, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospitaland Research Centre, Lahore, Pakistan

Background: Malnutrition is common among the majority of cancer patients, including children with cancer.In underdeveloped countries such as Pakistan, various degrees of undernutrition are prevalent in the normalpopulation. Malnutrition is recognised to have profound effects on tolerance of anti-cancer therapy, surviv-ability and treatment outcomes. In previous studies, malnutrition was shown to be a negative prognosticfactor at Shaukat Khanum Cancer hospital.

Method: Two hundred and fifty children admitted to the hospital were assessed for nutritional status. Bothanthropometric and biochemical parameters were used as the basis for assessment Patients were furtherclassified into Grade-1 (mildly malnourished), Grade-II (moderately malnourished) and Grade-III (severelymalnourished) on the basis of weight for age using the physical growth scales of the National Centre forHealth Statistics (1).

Results: Of the 250 children, only 17% were well-nourished and 83% were malnourished to some degree.Of those who were malnourished, 19% were mildly malnourished, 29% were moderately malnourished and35% were severely malnourished. Using biochemical parameters, 71% patients were hypoalbuminemic.

Conclusion: Malnutrition is prevalent in children with cancer in Pakistan. Pre-existing malnutrition in thecommunity may be partly responsible. Serum albumin appears to be potentially useful in assessing malnutri-tion in these patients. Malnutrition will adversely affect treatment outcome, quality of life and increase mor-tality and morbidity. Aggressive nutrition therapy to correct nutritional status should therefore be initiated asearly as possible.

1. National Centre for Health Statistics. Growth of healthy children. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32: 607–629.


Food insecurity in Somali women living in Australia

C Burns

School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC

Migration and economic transition are associated with dietary change. Australia accepts both migrants andrefugees from developing countries. Paradoxically these entrants may be vulnerable to both obesity and foodinsecurity. The current study aimed to assess changes in food habits, physical activity and body weight inSomali women who have come to Australia as refugees. The sample recruited was a convenience sample of46. The method was a questionnaire administered by a bilingual interviewer in the subject’s home. Twenty-four hour dietary recall was assessed with confirmation of portion size using models. Usual intake in bothAustralia and Somalia were assessed with a food frequency questionnaire (picture and photo) (1). Weight andheight were measured using a portable scale and stadiometer.

The women had an average (SD) age of 35.9 (11.5) years. The majority were married (55%). The womenhad spent on average 2 years in Australia, they had spent at least 4 years in transit from refugee camps. Eightpercent of the sample had a tertiary education, 25% had no formal education, 26% primary only and 35% hadcompleted high school. The mean BMI was 27.4 (5.4) kg/m2 (range 18.3–43.4). Fifty-four percent of the sam-ple had a BMI > 25. Seventeen percent stated that they had lost weight since arrival in Australia, 38% reportedthat they had gained weight and 43% that they had maintained weight.

The mean (SD) energy intake was 4431 (1509) kJ, protein intake was 46.9 (21.2) g. Mean intakes of themicronutrients; iron 6.27 (2.9) mg, folate142 (69.9) ug and zinc 6.2 (3.1) mg fell below the Australian RDI.Using a EI/BMI < 1.5 (2), 44 subjects could be classified as under-reporting dietary intake. But was this under-eating or under-reporting? It is possible that the women, influenced by cultural norms of slimness in Australiaor not wishing to be stimatised, under-reported. The alternate explanation is under-eating, particularly as 60%reported either losing weight or staying the same. Undereating may be due to deprivation mentality influencedby the refugee experience. It could also be that the intakes reflect food insecurity. Refugees and newly arrivedmigrants may have low incomes and financial family obligations in their countries of origin. The women maycurtail their intakes to provide more food for their families. These findings suggest that migrants and refugeesare a population vulnerable to food insecurity.

1. Kumanyika SK, Tell GS, Shemanski L, Martel J, Chinchilli VM. Dietary assessment using a picture-sort approach.Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65: 1123S–9S.

2. Goldberg GR, Black AE, Jebb SA, Cole TJ, Murgatroyd PR, Coward WA, Prentice AM. Critical evaluation of energyintake data using fundamental principles of energy physiology. Eur J Clin Nutr 1992; 45: 569–581.


Supplement usage in women entering the menopausal transition in Brisbane

KL Hanna1, R Williams2, S O’Neill2, SK Khoo2, R McIntosh2, C Patterson1, P Lyons-Wall1

1School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology, QLD, 40592Royal Women’s Hospital and The University of Queensland, QLD, 4029

There is an increasing number of supplements on the market which purport to assist in the relief of menopausalsymptoms, with over 38 different products readily available in Brisbane. Yet little published data are availableon the extent of use. These supplements include non-prescription medications, herbal therapies and nutritionalsupplements designed to complement inadequate dietary intake or provide preventative or therapeutic bene-fits. This study focussed on the extent and pattern of usage of supplements purported to assist with themenopausal transition. Reasons for usage were also assessed.

Subjects were women participating in The Longitudinal Study on Ageing in Women (LAW), a multi-disciplinary study being undertaken in SE Brisbane, with 500 women aged 40–80 yr randomly selected fromthe electoral roll. Data on reported supplement usage over the previous 6 mo were collected by interview as partof year 1 baseline assessment of overall dietary and supplemental intake of phytoestrogens. Results are pre-sented for the cohort of 158 women aged 40–55 yr who were likely to be entering the menopausal transition.

The overall prevalence of usage of one or more supplements was 58%: 36% reported using vitamins, 27%used herbal therapies (excluding menopausal supplements), 24% used minerals, 6% used supplements forpremenstrual symptoms and 11% used supplements for relief of menopausal symptoms, with a significantincrease in the older group aged 50–55 yr (P < 0.05). Of the women who reported taking supplements formenopausal symptoms, products included Evening Primrose oil (42%), phytoestrogens (38%) eg soy,isoflavones, Red Clover or linseed, and herbal preparations (20%) eg Chinese herbs or wild yam. Usage ofsupplements according to age group is summarised in the table.

The results of this population-based study indicate that 11.4% of women aged 40–55 yr reported takingsupplements for relief of menopausal symptoms over the previous 6 mo. Preliminary analyses in the samecohort indicate that the prevalence of use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was 10–20%. Therefore itappears that about 70 to 80% of women were not taking either prescribed or non-prescribed medications. Thiscannot be attributed entirely to lack of need, as studies indicate that up to 80% of Western women experienceadverse menopausal symptoms (1). Whether our findings reflect an absence of severe symptoms or use ofalternative strategies, remains to be clarified. Possible concerns regarding the safety of HRT or uncertaintyabout the efficacy of herbal or nutritional supplements may also partly explain the observed discrepancy.

1. Eden J. Phytoestrogens and menopause. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 12: 581–587.

Reported use of supplements for premenstrual 40–44 yr 45–49 yr 50–55 yr 40–55 yrsymptoms or menopausal transition (n = 21) (n = 61) (n = 76) (n = 158)

No supplements 85.7% 85.2% 78.9% 82.3%Premenstrual symptoms 9.5% 8.2% 3.9% 6.3%Menopausal symptoms 4.7% 6.5% 17.1%1 11.4%

1significantly higher than corresponding values in other age cohorts, P < 0.05.


An investigation into the association between eating environment andfood intake of residents with dementia at an aged care facility

AM Fendick, LM Konz, LE Vandervliet, DCK Roberts

School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW, 2308

Objective – Anecdotal reports have suggested that small dining rooms improve behavior at meal times inthose with dementia and that aromatherapy can have a calming influence. This study aimed to determinewhether the type of dining area (canteen style versus domestic style) or the use of aromatherapy influencedfood consumption of residents with dementia in an aged care facility.

Design – Food consumption of residents with dementia was measured in a large, canteen style dining areaover 15 days at lunch and dinner and compared to food consumption of residents with dementia in a small,domestic style dining area. Due to the nature of the research and the need for minimal disruption to residents,individual intakes were unable to be measured. Intakes were estimated from total food offered to the groupsminus food returned. Aromatherapy was also used in the small room and food consumption measured for afurther 15 days at lunch and dinner. Analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of meal, room andaromatherapy on mean intakes and mean proportion eaten per person. Descriptive statistics were used forreporting frequency of consumption of individual meals and likes and dislikes.

Outcomes – Ten residents participated in the study, nine female and one male. In the first stage six residents were present in the small room and four were present in the large room. In the second stage(aromatherapy) there was five residents present in the small room.

The mean intake of residents in the small room was significantly more (P = 0.02) at lunch (240 g ± 67.3)than dinner (209 g ± 46.4), and this occurred whether or not aromatherapy was used. Mean intakes wereslightly higher at lunch (21g more per person) and dinner (19 g more per person) when aromatherapy wasused, but did not reach significance. Examining the proportion of food eaten revealed that even though totaldaily intake (lunch plus dinner) increased in the small room with aromatherapy (74.6% versus 71.2% of totalfood offered), this was not significant. A significantly (P = 0.011) greater proportion was eaten in the largeroom compared to the small room (78.1% versus 71.2% of total food offered).

Conclusions – Residents with dementia ate a larger amount at lunch than dinner and those residents in thelarge room ate more when compared to those in small room. Aromatherapy did not alter food consumption inresidents with dementia. Further research with a larger sample size may modify this conclusion.

Mean total daily intake Lunch Dinner Significance(g) per person (SD) (lunch vs dinner)

Large room 494 (101.0) 246 (70.5) 244 (56.3) NSSmall room 448 (98.3) 240 (67.3) 209 (46.4) 0.02Small room with aromatherapy 488 (58.0) 261 (61.5) 228 (37.7) 0.02Significance aromatherapy NS NS NS


Depression in malnourished children with cancer

I Kiran, Q Atta-ur-Rehman

Department of Ancillary Health Services, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospitaland Research Centre, Lahore, Pakistan

Background: Cancer is considered as the most feared of all the diseases. The stress of dealing with an illnesslike cancer can cause many uncomfortable feelings such as depression. Malnutrition and depression showclose relationship with each other. Depression is closely associated with malnutrition.Objective: To assess depression in malnourished cancer patients.Setting: Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore-Pakistan.Method: The sample of 46 admitted paediatric cancer patients in pediatric oncology ward of Shaukat KhanumMemorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre. Thirty-six males and 10 females were assessed by a trainedclinical psychologist and clinical nutritionist by using psychological assessment form. Nutrition assessment ofchildren were based on weight for age with the help of growth charts (1).Results: Of 46 malnourished pediatric cancer patients 37% (n = 17) were depressed. Malnourished patientswere categorised into three categories on the basis of anthrometry, mildly malnourished, moderately andseverely malnourished. The incidence of depression in mildly malnourished patients was 4% (n = 2), moder-ately and severely malnourished patients was 13% (n = 6) and 17% (n = 8) respectively. Conclusion: This study shows that the depression is closely linked with the day by day deteriorating nutri-tional status in children with cancer.

1. Physical growth: National Centre for Health Statistics percentiles. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32: 607–629.


Short and long term black tea consumption reverses endothelial dysfunctionin patients with coronary artery disease

SJ Duffy, JF Keaney, M Holbrook, N Gokce, PL Swerdloff, B Frei, JA Vita

Evans Department of Medicine and Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine,Boston, Mass and Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, USA

Epidemiological studies suggest that tea consumption decreases cardiovascular risk, but the mechanisms ofbenefit remain undefined. Endothelial dysfunction has been associated with coronary artery disease (1). Someantioxidants have been shown to reverse endothelial dysfunction (2) and tea contains antioxidant flavonoids.

To test the hypothesis that tea consumption will reverse endothelial dysfunction, we randomized 66 patientswith proven coronary artery disease to consume black tea and water in a cross over design. Short-term effectswere examined two hours after consumption of 450 mL of tea or water. Long terms effects were examinedafter consumption of 900 mL tea or water daily for four weeks. Vasomotor function of the brachial artery wasexamined at baseline and after each intervention with vascular ultrasound. Fifty patients completed the pro-tocol and had technically suitable ultrasound measurements. Both short and long term tea consumptionimproved endothelial-dependent flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery, whereas consumption of waterhad no effect (P < 0.0001 by repeated-measures ANOVA). Tea consumption had no effect on endothelium-independent nitroglycerin-induced dilation. An equivalent oral dose of caffeine (200 mg) had no short-termeffect on flow-mediated dilation. Plasma flavonoids increased after short- and long-term tea consumption.

In conclusion, acute and chronic tea consumption reverses endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patientswith coronary artery disease. This finding may partly explain the association between tea intake and decreasedcardiovascular disease events.

1. Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long termoutcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 2000; 101: 1899–1906.

2. Andriambeloson E, Kleschyov AL, Muller B et al. Nitric Oxide production and endothelium-dependant vasorelax-ation induced by wine polyphenols in rat aorta. Br J Pharmacol 1997; 120: 1053–1058.

In 50 patients with coronary artery disease, beverageconsumption significantly affected flow-mediateddilation (P < 0.001). Post hoc analysis demonstratedthat flow-mediated dilation was higher after short andlong term tea consumption versus baseline and waterconsumption (*P < 0.001). Furthermore, short on longterm tea ingestion resulted in additional improvement(**P = 0.02).


Regular ingestion of tea does not inhibit in vivo lipid peroxidation in humans

JM Hodgson, KD Croft, TA Mori, V Burke, LJ Beilin, IB Puddey

University of Western Australia Department of Medicine, Royal Perth Hospital, WA, 6000

Results of prospective studies suggest that tea may protect against cardiovascular disease. A potential mecha-nism for such an effect involves inhibition of lipid peroxidation by polyphenolic antioxidants derived from tea.Our objective was to determine if regular ingestion of tea could inhibit in vivo lipid peroxidation. Two con-trolled intervention studies assessed the effects of regular ingestion of tea on lipid peroxidation determined bymeasurement of urinary F2-isoprostane excretion, which is currently regarded as one of the best availablemarkers of in vivo lipid peroxidation.

Study 1. The effects of five cups/day of green tea and black tea were compared to hot water containing thesame concentration of caffeine in 13 otherwise healthy subjects with raised blood pressure using a randomisedthree-period (seven days each) crossover study. F2-isoprostane excretion was not altered following regularingestion of green tea (273 ± 48 pmol/mmol creatinine) or black tea (274 ± 39 pmol/mmol creatinine) incomparison to hot water (263 ± 47 pmol/mmol creatinine) [Figure 1].

Study 2. The effects of five cups per/day of black tea were compared to hot water in 22 otherwise healthysubjects with mildly raised serum total cholesterol concentrations using a randomised two-period (four weekseach) crossover study. F2-isoprostane excretion was not altered by regular ingestion of black tea (334 ±71 pmol/mmol creatinine) in comparison to hot water (355 ± 75 pmol/mmol creatinine) [Figure 2].

These results do not support the hypothesis that polyphenolic antioxidants derived from tea inhibit in vivolipid peroxidation.

Figure 1. Urinary F2-isoprostanes following fivecups/day of hot water containing caffeine, green tea andblack tea for seven days each in random order in subjectswith raised blood pressure (mean ± SEM).

Figure 2. Urinary F2-isoprostanes following fivecups/day of hot water and black tea for four weeks eachin random order in subjects with mild elevations inserum total cholesterol concentrations (mean ± SEM).


The impact of xenoestrogens in the diet: feminizing agents or functional foods?

BM Thomson, PJ Cressey, IC Shaw

ESR, PO Box 29 181, Christchurch, New Zealand

Xenoestrogens are synthetic or naturally-occurring chemical compounds in the environment that are able tomimic the action of the female hormone, 17β-estradiol (estrogen). This wide range of chemicals share acommon mechanism involving occupancy of the estrogen receptor site to form a complex which may thenbind to a specific region of a target gene, initiating protein synthesis and cell division. The estrogenicity ofa wide range of compounds has been tested by measuring relative binding affinities, gene expression or cellproliferation.

International interest and concern about the significance of these compounds to human health has arisenfrom wildlife effects including the feminization of marine snails, reduced penis size in alligators, the thinningof egg shells and impaired reproductive function of seals. Possible human health effects include reduced spermcount and quality, cryptorchidism, hypospadias, male breast and testicular cancer. On the other hand, somegroups of xenoestrogens, in particular the isoflavones and flavonoids, have beneficial effects which mayreduce the risk of breast cancer in women, help to alleviate postmenopausal symptoms, and reduce the risk ofcardiovascular disease, atheroscelerosis and cancer generally.

Food is a major route of exposure to xenoestrogens and we have assessed the daily intake of 20 naturally-occurring (soy isoflavones, lignans, coumestans, flavonoids, and resorcylic lactones) and synthetic xenoestro-gens (organochlorine pesticides, PCB congeners, alkylphenols) known to occur in food. Dietary exposure ofthe wider New Zealand population was estimated from either New Zealand or international reports of con-centrations of xenoestrogens in food and New Zealand consumption data (1,2). For an adult male, the esti-mated daily intakes were 0.015 mg estrogen equivalents/day on the basis of binding affinity to the receptorsite and 0.003 mg estrogen equivalents/day on the basis of resulting cell proliferation. More than 98% of totalestimated intake was from isoflavones and flavonoids.

When bioavailabilty is taken into account by factoring intake estimates with plasma concentrations, theestimated circulating blood level from all xenoestrogens combined, for an adult male, is approximately halfthe circulating level of endogenous estradiol. This would appear pharmacologically significant.

1. Ministry of Health. NZ Food: NZ People. Key results of the 1997 National Nutrition survey. Wellington: Ministry ofHealth, 1999.

2. Cressey P, Vannoort R, Silvers K, Thomson B. 1997/98 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. Part 1: Pesticide residues.ESR Client Report FW9964. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Health, 2000.


Dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids alter the molecular species profile ofavian breast muscle phospholipids

RE Newman1,2, WL Bryden,1,2 E Fleck3, LH, Storlien2,4, JA Downing1,2

1Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 25702Smart Food Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2522

3CSIRO, Livestock Industries, Prospect, NSW, 21484Department of Biomedical Science, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2522

We have previously shown that dietary n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) reduce abdominal fatpad mass, plasma triglycerides and cholesterol in broiler chickens when compared to feeding saturated fattyacids (1). These changes may be a consequence of alterations in the fluidity of the plasma cell membrane com-position (2) and this in turn may influence processes involved in energy metabolism. We investigated theeffects of these dietary fats on the distribution of subclasses of choline (PC) and ethanolamine (PE) phospho-lipids in the breast muscle of these same broilers.

Day-old broiler chickens were reared in a brooder and fed a commercial starter diet for three weeks. Theywere then randomly divided into three groups (n = 10) and were fed the experimental diets for six weeks. Thediets were isonitrogenous and contained 80 g/kg of either edible tallow sunflower oil or fish oil giving dietsenriched in saturated fatty acids, n-6 PUFA or n-3 PUFA respectively. At end of feeding, samples of breastmuscle were taken and later analysed for phospholipid molecular species.

Supplementation with the different fatty acids (FA) had no effect on the distribution of phospholipidsubclasses. Sunflower oil and tallow resulted in a similar molecular species profile. For the diacyl PC phos-pholipids the principal species were 16:0-18:1(n-9) and 16:0-18:2(n-6) whereas, for the alkyl-enyl PC phos-pholipids the predominant species were 16:0-18:1(n-9) and 16:0-20:4(n-6). Of the diacyl PE phospholipids thedominant species was 18:0-20:4(n-6) and of the alkyl-enyl PE phospholipids the major species were 16:0-18:1(n-9), 16:0-20:4(n-6) and 18:0:20:4(n-6). Supplementation with fish oil significantly increased (P < 0.01)levels of both eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) into their PC and PE phos-pholipids compared to the other diets. Increased n-3 PUFA incorporation was associated with decreasedarachidonic acid (20:4n-6) in both PC and PE phospholipids.

Broilers fed the n- 3 and n-6 enriched diets have similar energy metabolism and this is different to tallowfeeding (1). The present data indicates that membrane composition is similar for broilers fed sunflower oil andtallow but different for broilers fed fish oil. Taken together, these results suggest that changes in energy meta-bolism are not related to membrane phospholipid composition.

1. Newman RE, Downing JA, Bryden WL, Fleck E, Buttemer WA, Storlien LH. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids ofthe n-3 and the n-6 series reduce abdominal fat in the chicken (Gallus domesticus). Proc Nutr Soc Aust 1998; 22: 54.

2. Clandinin MT, Cheema S, Field CJ, Garg ML, Vendatraman J, Clandinin TR. Dietary fat: exogenous determinationof membrane structure and cell function. FASEB J 1991; 5: 2761–2769.


Diet containing cocoa powder with flavanols and procyanidins inhibitsplatelet function

KJ Murphy1, AK Fassoulakis1, I Singh2, MA Francis2, MJ Pike2, AH Turner2, NJ Mann1, AJ Sinclair1

1Department of Food Science and School of Medical Science2, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001

Flavanols and their related procyanidins are flavonoids found in foods such as tea, wine and cocoa powder,and are powerful antioxidants in vitro (1). The consumption of a high intake of a cocoa beverage, containing897 mg total flavanols and oligomeric procyanidins, inhibited platelet activation and function in an acute study(6 hours) in humans (2).

The current study investigated the long-term effect of a lower dose of flavanols and procyanidins fromcocoa powder using a double blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study with 32 subjects. Subjects werestratified into active and placebo groups based on plasma vitamin C levels prior to the study. Subjects on theactive diet consumed 234 mg of flavanols and procyanidins (CocoaPro™, Mars Inc) per day for 4 weeks,while subjects on the placebo tablet consumed an identical tablet made from cocoa powder with a low levelof flavanols and procyanidins (< 1mg) for 4 weeks. Dietary restrictions were implemented to control theamount of flavonoids from the diet. Weighed food records, anthropometric measurements and fasting bloodtests were performed at day 0 and 28. Plasma was analysed for F2-isoprostanes, TBARS, TRAP, the flavanolscatechin and epicatechin, vitamin C, E, A, carotenoids and uric acid to determine the effect of oxidativedamage. Plasma was also analysed for lipids and lipoproteins, while whole blood was analysed for plateletaggregation and platelet activation using flow cytometry.

Results showed that the plasma levels of epicatechin, catechin and vitamin C were significantly increasedin the active group at day 28 and that platelet aggregation and activation (% of activated platelets) was signif-icantly lower in the active group (p < 0.05) compared with the control, using two different agonists, at day 28.There were no significant differences between groups for vitamin E, A, the carotenoids nor plasma lipids andlipoproteins. In terms of antioxidant protection, there were no significant differences in TBARS, TRAP andF2-isoprostanes between groups. These results with a relatively low intake of cocoa flavanols and procyani-dins over a 4-week period support the short-term data showing benefits on platelet function. In vitro datasuggest that flavonoids inhibit platelet function by reducing H2O2 production, and in turn, phospholipase Cactivation in the platelet (3). Further investigations with different levels of supplementation are recommended.

1. Adamson GE, Lazarus SA, Mitchell AE et al. HPLC method for the quantitation of procyanidins in cocoa and choco-late samples and correlation to total antioxidant capacity. J Agric Food Chem 1999; 47: 4184–4188.

2. Rein D, Paglieroni TG, Wun T, Pearson DA, Schmitz HH, Gosselin R, Keen CL. Cocoa inhibits platelet activationand function. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 30–5.

3. Pignatelli P, Pulcinelli FM, Celestinin A et al. The flavonoids quercertin and catechin synergistically inhibit plateletfunction by antagonising the intracellular production of hydrogen peroxide. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 1150–1155.


Lycopene concentration and antioxidant capacity after consuming tomatoeswith olive oil

JM Fielding1, D Li1, R Stockmann2, AJ Sinclair1

1Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, 30012Food Science Australia, Werribee, Victoria, 3030

Lycopene is a carotenoid found in high concentrations in tomatoes and tomato products and it is the most effi-cient singlet oxygen quencher of all the carotenoids (1). High lycopene concentrations have been found to beprotective against myocardial infarction (2). Consumption of tomato juice, tomato paste and fresh tomatoeswith corn oil or olive oil, increases plasma/ serum lycopene concentrations (3,4), although it is not known ifthis increase is associated with increased antioxidant capacity of the plasma.

This study examined plasma lycopene concentrations after a 9 d dietary intervention where tomatoes werecooked with extra virgin olive oil. Subjects (n = 10) were aged between 20–35 yr, of Anglo Celtic origin andin good health. They completed a 5 d diet avoiding dietary sources of lycopene, then consumed 4 tomato mealson consecutive days: two on the first and one on each of the second and third days. Each tomato meal con-tained 500 g of tomatoes and 20 mL of extra virgin olive oil. Fasting blood samples were taken at baseline, 24 h after the completion of a low lycopene diet, the morning following the two lycopene meals and 24 h afterthe third and fourth meals. Plasma carotenoids and vitamin E were measured using HPLC. The antioxidantcapacity of the plasma was measured by ORAC, TBARS and a singlet oxygen assay.

Results indicated that avoiding foods containing lycopene led to a significant decrease in total plasmalycopene. Results also showed a significant increase in plasma total lycopene, trans-lycopene and cis-lycopene concentrations, when tomatoes were cooked and consumed with olive oil. There was no change inantioxidant capacity of the plasma as assessed by the ORAC assay, which assesses peroxyl radical scaveng-ing ability.

1. DiMasco P, Kaiser S, Sies H. Lycopene is the most efficient biological carotenoid singlet oxygen quencher. ArchBiochem Biophys 1989; 274: 532–538.

2. Kohlmeier I, Kark JD, Gomez-Gracia E, and the Euramic study group. Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk inthe Euramic Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 146: 618–626.

3. Gartner C, Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Am J ClinNutr 1997; 66: 116–122.

4. Fielding JM, Rowley KG, Cooper P, O’Dea K. Addition of olive oil to processed tomatoes increases plasma lycopeneresponses to dietary lycopene. Proc Nutr Soc Aust 1998; 22: 280.

trans-Lycopene1 cis-Lycopene1 Total Lycopene1

(µg/100 mL plasma)

Baseline 20.39 ± 3.62 12.51 ± 2.47 31.88 ± 6.10Avoiding lycopene 11.80 ± 1.94 8.67 ± 1.44 20.45 ± 3.3472 meals 19.79 ± 2.37 13.45 ± 1.37 33.33 ± 3.534 meals 18.92 ± 2.44 11.98 ± 1.18 32.26 ± 2.64P-value 0.0033 0.0359 0.0084

1mean ± SEM.


Are probiotics effective?

MJ Playne

Melbourne Biotechnology, 1 Lorraine Street, Hampton, VIC, 3188 and RMIT University, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bundoora, VIC, 3083

Recent research has provided sound clinical evidence of the effectiveness of some defined strains of probioticbacteria in helping to control several human disease conditions. Summaries of the present evidence have beenpresented in recent reviews (1–4). There are four strains with substantial published clinical data: Lacto-bacillus rhamnosus GG (Valio), Saccharomyces cereviseae Boulardii (Biocodex), Lactobacillus paracaseiShirota (Yakult), and Bifidobacterium lactis BB12 (Chr Hansen Labs). There are only 10 other strains withany peer-reviewed recently-published clinical data. These include: Lactobacillus reuterii (Biogaia), Lacto-bacillus johnsonii La1 (Nestle), and Enterococcus faecium SF68 (Cernelle).

There is now strong evidence that specific probiotic strains can alleviate antibiotic-associated diarrhoea,Clostridium difficile diarrhoea, rotavirus diarrhoea in children, other bacterial infections causing diarrhoea,and constipation. Exciting new findings are occurring in the use of probiotic bacteria (L-GG and BB12) todelay the development of food allergies and atopic eczema in young children (5). This could prevent the devel-opment of asthma in later life. Lactose intolerance is lessened by yoghurts and other fermented dairy products,and this effect is assisted by use of probiotic strains containing active ß-galactosidase. There is proof that somestrains may lower cholesterol levels, but this effect does not seem to be sustained. Many strains will promoteimmune responses, but the direct effect of such modulation on health is not clear in most cases. Evidence thatprobiotics may reduce the incidence and duration of travellers’ diarrhoea is variable, and seems to depend onage group and cause of diarrhoea . Animal models provide evidence that development of bowel cancers maybe prevented by probiotics, but the evidence is inconsistent and it is not yet possible to relate probioticintake to prevention of the development of bowel cancer in humans (6). Bio-markers such as faecal enzyme,ß-glucuronidase, show consistent reductions when humans consume many probiotic strains.

1. De Roos N, Katan M. Effects of probiotic bacteria on diarrhea, lipid metabolism, and carcinogenesis: a review ofpapers published between 1988 and 1998. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 405–11.

2. Pathmakanthan S, Meance S, and Edwards CA. Probiotics: a review of human studies to date and methodologicalapproaches. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis. 2000; suppl 2: 10–30.

3. Fonden R, Mogensen G, Tanaka R, Salminen S. Culture – containing dairy products – effect on intestinal microflora,human nutrition and health – current knowledge and future perspectives. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federa-tion 2000; No.352.

4. McFarland LV. A review of the evidence of health claims for biotherapeutic agents. Microbial Ecol Health Disease2000; 12: 65–76.

5. Kalliomaki M, Salminen S, Arvilommi H, Kero P, Koskinen P, Isolauri E. Probiotics in primary prevention of atopicdisease: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet 2001; 357: 1076–1079

6. McIntosh GH, Royle PJ. Playne MJ. A probiotic strain of L.acidophilus reduces DMH-induced large intestinal tumorsin male Sprague-Dawley rats. Nutrition Cancer 1999; 35: 153–9.


The intestinal microflora in Australian breast-fed and formula-fed infants

JEAC Napoli1, JC Brand-Miller1, H Agus1, M Romeo2

1Department of Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW, 20062Microbiology and Immunology, University of New South Wales, NSW, 2052

Previous studies have found that breast-fed (BF) infants have an intestinal microflora dominated by bifido-bacteria possibly caused by bifidobacterial growth factors present in human milk which protect infants againstbacterial pathogens. In contrast, formula-fed (FF) infants have more Bacteroides, enterobacteria and clostridia.In this study, we compared the effect of the type of feeding on the composition of the faecal microflora in10 full-term, healthy Australian infants (five BF and five FF) aged 4 to 12 weeks.

Faecal samples were placed in an anaerobic chamber within 3 h of collection. Faeces (1 g) were homog-enised and diluted 10-fold (10–1–10–8) g/ml in Wilkins-Chalgren anaerobe broth. One hundred microlitres ofeach dilution were plated in duplicate and incubated anaerobically at 37°C on Wilkins-Chalgren anaerobeblood agar (2 days, total anaerobes), and supplement (2 days, Bacteroides), Reinforced Clostridial agar (prepa-rations were heat treated for 10 mins at 90°C to select for clostridial spores) (2 days, clostridia), Rogosa agar(2 days, lactobacilli) and raffinose bifidobacteria agar (3 days, bifidobacteria). Plates which contained thefollowing media were incubated aerobically on nutrient agar (1 day, total aerobes), and MacConkey agar (1 day,enterobacteria). After incubation, colonies were counted and identified by colony morphology. Bacterialcounts were calculated as log 10 of colony-forming units/g of faeces. Faecal pH was measured with a digitalpH meter.

The composition of the intestinal flora was found to be different between BF and FF infants. Breast-fedinfants had higher faecal bacterial counts of lactobacilli than FF infants (P < 0.05). Lactobacilli were presentin the faeces of all BF infants but only three of the five FF infants. Formula-fed infants had higher counts ofenterobacteria than BF infants (P < 0.05). Bifidobacteria were the predominant faecal bacteria in BF infants.Conversely, Bacteroides were the predominant faecal bacteria in FF infants. There were no marked differencesbetween the groups in counts of Bacteroides or clostridia. Faecal pH was significantly lower in the BF group(5.47 ± 0.06) than in the FF group (7.34 ± 0.17) (P < 0.05). This study supports other research findings on thebenefits of breast-feeding on the intestinal microflora of infants.

Faecal bacterial counts1

Breast-fed Formula-fed(n = 5) (n = 5)

Total anaerobes 11.21 ± 0.39 10.08 ± 0.71Bacteroides 8.88 ± 0.91 9.86 ± 0.62Bifidobacteria 9.35 ± 0.33 7.82 ± 0.79Lactobacillli 7.94 ± 0.90 2.72 ± 0.792Clostridia 1.98 ± 1.22 4.76 ± 2.05Total aerobes 8.49 ± 0.10 9.06 ± 0.17Enterobacteria 7.03 ± 0.71 9.22 ± 0.052

1mean ± SEM. Colony forming units.2significantly different from breast-fed group, (P < 0.05).


The effect of two years milk supplementation on bone mineral accretion inChinese adolescent girls

K Zhu, H Greenfield, X Du, DR Fraser

Department of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006

To investigate the effect of milk supplementation on bone mineral accretion during early puberty, a two-yeardouble-blind, controlled supplementation trial with vitamin D and/or calcium fortified milk was carried out inChinese 757 girls aged 10 years consuming plant-based diets. There were divided into three groups accordingto of randomly selected Beijing schools: In Group 1 schools, subjects received 330 mL UHT milk fortifiedwith Ca as milk salts (providing an extra 560 mg Ca/day) on every school day; in Group 2 schools, subjectsreceived the same milk additionally fortified with vitamin D (8 µg/day); in Group 3 schools, subjects wereunsupplemented controls. is the control group. Bone mineral density (BMD) of distal (DF) and proximal fore-arm (PF), wasere measured in all subjects, and of total body (TB) was measured in a sub-sample of 414 girlsby dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at baseline and end-trial.

A total of 327 days supplementation was provided over day during the two years was 327 days. The addi-tional Ca intakes were averaged 251 mg per day over this period. While only 56.3% of subjects had breastdevelopment either at Tanner stage 2 or 3 at baseline, 81.5% had reached Tanner stage 2 or 3, and 13.8% hadreached Tanner stage 4 or 5 at 24 months. No significant differences in terms of weight, height and pubertalstatus wereas found between groups at baseline or end-trial 24 months. Both supplemented groups had sig-nificantly higher PFBMD than controls group at end-trial 24 months. Compared with controls group, Group 1and Group 2 subjects had significantly higher percentage gains (mean ± SEM) in PFBMD (13.06 ± 0.92, 12.88± 0.83 vs 2.78 ± 0.90, P < 0.001), and TBBMD (7.02 ± 0.59, 8.89 ± 0.61 vs 3.86 ± 0.58, P < 0.001). 24 monthsMmilk supplementation on school days over 24 months, significantly increased bone mineral accrual inChinese adolescent girls. If this e gain persists, the eventual peak bone mineral density should might also beincreased in the study subjects. Milk supplementation (330 mL with a total of 560 mg Ca with/without 8 mgvitamin D on school days over two years) significantly increased bone mineral accrual in Chinese adolescentgirls. If this gain persists, peak bone mineral density may increase in supplemented subjects, and reduce therisk of future osteoporotic fracture.

Supported by Dairy R & D Corporation and Nestle Foundation.

Baseline End-trialGroup 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3(milk) (milk + vitD) (control) (milk) (milk + vitD) (control)

n = 237 n = 260 n = 260 n = 209 n = 243 n = 251

Weight (kg) 33.79 (7.24) 33.43 (7.01) 33.73 (6.94) 45.53 (9.68) 45.34 (9.26) 44.11 (8.94)Height (cm) 140.48 (6.39) 141.13 (6.99) 141.11 (6.46) 153.73 (6.53) 154.12 (6.60) 153.25 (6.34)DFBMD 0.233 0.233 0.233 0.277 0.276 0.280

(g/cm2) (0.029) (0.029) (0.028) (0.047) (0.044) (0.047)PFBMD 0.479 0.480 0.480 0.541* 0.543* 0.492

(g/cm2) (0.050) (0.049) (0.051) (0.084) (0.080) (0.072)TBBMD 0.690 0.683 0.696 0.743 0.746 0.726

(g/cm2) (0.058) (0.049) (0.053) (0.084) (0.078) (0.083)

Values are mean (SD); * P < 0.001; # subject nosas 145, 136, 133 at baseline, 112, 114, 124 at end-trial for 24 months,respectively.


Do differences in nutrient intake predict differences in bone mass in boys:a co-twin control study

S Iuliano-Burns1, JL Hopper2, E Seeman1

1Dept of Endocrinology, Austin & Repatriation Medical Centre, Heidelberg, VIC, 30842Centre for Genetic Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052

Genetic factors determine a large proportion of the variance in bone traits such as size, mass and volumetricdensity. The proportion of variance attributable to genetic factors can be determined using the classic twinmodel, in which it is assumed that similarities in life style factors, such as diet, are the same within monozy-gotic (MZ) pairs as they are within dizygotic (DZ) pairs. The effects of home environment, however, may dif-fer less within MZ pairs than within DZ pairs, and this may account in part for their greater resemblance. Thisassumption has not been rigorously tested in young males. Protein and calcium intakes are important nutrientsfor bone mass accrual. Protein insufficiency during growth is associated with delayed skeletal maturity, andreduced cortical and trabecular bone (1). Calcium supplementation has been associated with increased bonemass accrual in children (2). Using data from male twins, we determined the similarity in nutrient intakewithin MZ and DZ pairs, and the extent to which within pair differences in bone mass and anthropometrycould be explained by within pair differences in nutrient intake.

We studied 36 MZ and 39 DZ male twin pairs aged 11.3 ± 2.9 years (range 7–20 years). Bone mass andbody composition were measured using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Dietary intake was assessedusing 3-day weighed food diaries, and analysed using FoodWorks Nutrition Program (Version 2.10). Anthrop-ometry was measured using standard methods. Similarities within pairs were assessed using Pearson’s corre-lation. The extent to which within pair differences in bone mass could be accounted for by within pairdifferences in nutrient intake was determined using multiple linear regression through the origin. Data wasanalysed using StatView (version 4.51).

MZ and DZ twins did not differ in mean age, bone mass, anthropometry or nutrient intake. Age-adjustedcorrelations for height, sitting height, leg length and bone mass ranged from r = 0.86-0.96 for MZ pairs and r = 0.68-0.78 for DZ twins (all P < 0.01). Age-adjusted correlations for calcium, protein and energy intakeswere r = 0.89, r = 0.77 and r = 0.84 for MZ pairs and r = 0.43, r = 0.43 and r = 0.52 for DZ pairs, respectively(all P < 0.01). Within pair differences in protein intake were marginally significant predictors of within pairdifferences in total body (β = 0.3) and leg BMC (β = 0.3) (P < 0.08), but not axial BMC. Within pair differ-ences in calcium and energy intake did not predict differences in bone mass. Within pair differences in nutri-ent intake did not predict differences in height, sitting height or leg length.

MZ pairs differ less in their dietary intake than do DZ pairs. These data suggest that about 9% of the vari-ance in within pair differences in BMC at several sites was explained by within pair differences in proteinintake. Dietary calcium intake did not appear to be an independent predictor of bone mass, but this could bea type 2 error due to lack of power. Protein intake may be a more important factor in bone mass accrual at thelegs than the spine. The importance of dietary protein intake in relation to bone mass accrual is becoming moreapparent.

1. Adams P, Berridge FR. Effects of Kwashiorkor on cortical and trabecular bone. Ar Dis Childh 1969; 44: 705–709.2. Johnston CC, Miller JZ, Slemenda C et al. Calcium supplementation and increases in bone mineral density in

children. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 82–87.


Rumen protected conjugated linoleic acids: effects on milk compositionin dairy cows

SK Gulati1, S McGrath2, PC Wynn2, TW Scott3

1CSIRO Livestock Industries, Prospect, NSW, 21482Department of Animal Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2570

3Rumentek Industries, Parkside, SA, 5001

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are geometrical and positional isomers of conjugated linoleic acid havingpotent metabolic effects. They reduce plasma triacylglycerol, cholesterol, fat deposition and have anti-cancerand anti-inflammatory properties (1). In ruminants CLA are formed either by partial hydrogenation of C18-diand tri-unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen or are synthesised in tissues from trans-11-octadecanoic acid viathe �9 desaturase pathway (2). Ruminant-derived foods provide significant sources of CLA in the human dietand because of their potential health benefits, current research is directed towards increasing the CLA contentof meat and milk products. Previous studies have shown abomasal infusions of CLA and dietary supplementsof unsaturated oils increased the CLA content in milk but had no effect on milk protein yield (2).

The effect of feeding CLA protected from ruminal hydrogenation (RP-CLA) by encapsulation in an inertmatrix of protein (3) on milk composition are presented in the figure below.

In short term feeding trials supplements of RP-CLA significantly increased milk protein yield (P < 0.05)and reduced milk fat yield (P < 0.05); the proportion of CLA in milk increased from 1.4 to 2.2%. The CLA-induced increase in milk protein yield reflects a major re-channeling of nutrient use in the dairy cow; whereprotein synthesis and secretion is enhanced and lipogenesis is inhibited. Long term feeding trials are requiredto assess the impact of RP-CLA on lactation and reproductive performance.

1. Roche HM, Noone E, Nugent A, Gibney MJ. Conjugated linoleic acid: a novel therapeutic nutrient? Nutr Res Rev2001; 14: 173–187.

2. Chouinard PY, Corneay L, Barbano DM, Metzar LE, Bowman DE. Conjugated linoleic acids and milk compositionJ Nutr. 1999; 129: 1579–1584.

3. Gulati SK, Kitessa SM, Ashes JR, Fleck E, Byers EB, Byers JG, Scott TW. Protection of Conjugated linoleic acidsfrom ruminal hydrogenation and their incorporation into milk fat. Ani Fd Sci and Tech 2000; 86: 139–148.

Protein yield and fat yield � in Holstein cows (trial1, n = 5; trial 2, n = 3) at pasture, supplemented withRP-CLA for 4 days.


High carbohydrate and high monounsaturated fat dietary targets producesimilar outcomes in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus with

concomitant reduced saturated fat intakes

LC Tapsell1, GD Calvert1, GS Martin1, M Batterham1, S Denmeade1

1Smart Foods Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2522

Dietary intervention is the cornerstone of treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). American recom-mendations are defined in terms of macronutrient energy proportions: 10–20% Protein, < 10% saturated fattyacids (SFA), ≤ 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids with the remaining 60–70% to comprise carbohydrate (CHO)and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (1). The decision to include more MUFA or CHO is based on theneed to control energy intake, but not overload a CHO sensitive system (2). In this study we compare theeffects of two dietary approaches which fit within the current guidelines: a high CHO, low SFA diet and a highMUFA, low SFA diet.

Fifty six men and women diagnosed with T2DM in the last 2 years were recruited from the IllawarraDiabetes Service. Subjects were randomised to either a high carbohydrate (53% CHO/ 12%MUFA) or a highMUFA (43% CHO / 22% MUFA) diet, with both diets comprising < 10%SFA, ≤ 10% PUFA and 15% Proteinunder weight maintenance conditions. Diet histories and 3 day food records were done at baseline and 3 monthly intervals for 12 months. Outcome variables were changes from baseline in weight, waist circum-ference, HbA1c,and in plasma cholesterol, triglycerides and HDL cholesterol. On completion, data were avail-able from 19 MUFA- and 23 CHO- group subjects.

There were no significant differences between groups for usual dietary intakes on entry to the study. Sub-jects in both groups needed to reduce their SFA intakes (mean baseline intakes 12 ± 2% energy). By 12 monthsboth groups had achieved reduced SFA intakes (no difference between groups), and the MUFA diet groupwere consuming significantly more MUFA than the high CHO group (p < 0.05). The high CHO group wereconsuming more CHO than the MUFA group, but this difference was not significant. There were no signifi-cant differences between groups in changes in clinical measures at 12 months. Both groups showed a signifi-cant increase from baseline in HbA1c * (p < 0.05) indicating deterioration in metabolic control, but no changein weight, waist circumference or plasma lipids.

This study suggests that the current allowance for some flexibility in the CHO / MUFA component of thediet produces similar clinical outcomes, but further efforts are needed to improve glycemic control.

1. ADA Nutrition recommendations for people with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 2001.2. Storlien LH, Tapsell LC, Calvert GD. Diabetic diets: whither goest? Nutr Rev 1999; 14: 865–867.

Change variable High MUFA diet1 High CHO diet1

Weight (kg) –0.69 (0.53) –0.26 (0.71)Waist circumference –1.8 (0.87) –1.4 (0.76)HbA1c (%) +0.92 (0.42)* +0.63 (0.28)*Cholesterol (mmol/L) –0.14 (0.22) –0.03 (0.14)Triglyceride (mmol/L) –0.10 (0.19) –0.20 (0.30)HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) –0.02 (0.06) +0.06 (0.03)

1mean (SEM) * significant change at P < 0.05.


Saturated fat intake linked to risk of inflammatory bowel disease – results of acase control study

A Bencke1, DCK Roberts1, R Batey2

1School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW, 2308 and2Department Gastroenterology, John Hunter Hospital, NSW, 2305

Objective – To determine the pre symptomatic dietary factors which predispose to the development of inflam-matory bowel disease (IBD).

Design – Case control study of newly diagnosed cases with IBD matched (within 5 years of age, genderand geographic location) to randomly selected (electoral roll) multiple controls. Cases were recruited within6 months of diagnosis from NSW and ACT by referral from gastroenterologists. Diet was assessed within 2 years of onset of symptoms prior to diagnosis using a 218 item food frequency questionnaire which includedvitamin supplement use. Questions on potential confounders (education, work, nationality, supplement use) oreffect modifiers (smoking, breastfed, oral contraceptive use, appendectomy and tonsillectomy) were included.Energy adjustment was used in the analysis and conditional logistic regression for matching.

Outcomes – Data from 107 case and 308 matched controls were useable for analysis. Education, workstatus, tonsillectomy, vitamin supplement use and alcohol use were not associated with IBD. Having eversmoked (prior to symptoms) was significantly associated with IBD, although current smoking was not. Having been breastfed was negatively associated with IBD, while OC use was positively associated with IBD.Median energy intake was higher (P < 0.01) in cases (11.4 MJ) than controls (10.0 MJ). Utilising energyadjustment by regression analysis resulted in total fat, and saturated fat intake being higher in cases than con-trols. Using energy adjusted nutrient intakes, conditional logistic regression produced odds ratios that weresignificantly higher for total fat, saturated and monounsaturated fat. Controlling for the effect modifiers/confounders found in the univariate analysis left saturated and total fat intake as the only significant predic-tors of IBD (Odds ratio 2.96 and 2.23 respectively, highest versus lowest quartile).

Conclusions – Increased consumption of saturated and total fat in the diet prior to symptom appearance isrelated to the subsequent appearance of IBD. Calculation of the population attributable risk from this data sug-gests that about one third of cases could be avoided if the population reduced saturated fat consumption belowthe top quartile of intake.

Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 95%C CI Trend(OR =1) OR OR OR P

Total Fat (g) < 81 81–95 95–106 > 106 1.39 1.79 2.43 1.22–4.82 0.010Saturated (g) < 32 32–37 37–43 > 43 1.30 1.91 2.64 1.34–5.19 0.003Monounsaturated(g) < 29 29–34 34–38 > 38 1.50 1.43 2.06 1.05–4.01 0.049After adjustment*Total Fat (g) < 81 81–95 95–106 > 106 1.37 1.91 2.23 1.08–4.63 0.026Saturated (g) < 32 32–37 37–43 > 43 1.66 2.03 2.96 1.41–6.20 0.007

*Three confounders controlled in model – oral contraceptive use, past smoking & breastfed less than 6 weeks.


How effective is the ‘low fat’ message?

V Droulez1, B Eden1, S Anderson1, M Noakes2

1Heart Foundation, PO Box 2222, Strawberry Hills BC, NSW, 20122CSIRO Division of Human Nutrition, Adelaide, SA, 5000

Public health nutrition strategies have emphasised fat reduction. Attitudinal research indicates that fat con-sumption is associated with weight gain and heart disease and hence fat restriction is perceived as beneficial(1). Knowledge of low fat strategies for food selection and preparation suggest that the ‘low fat’ message hasbeen successfully communicated. However, there is confusion and hence little consideration of type of fat.

The Heart Foundation (HF) policy on dietary fat and cardiovascular disease (CVD), based on a rigorousreview of the scientific evidence, places greater emphasis on type of fat. In particular, reducing saturated fattyacid (SAFA) and increasing polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) (2). Little evidence was found to support arecommendation for total fat and CVD. A subsequent HF review on the relationship between dietary fat andbody weight found that energy density, rather than fat, is a major dietary determinant of energy intake. Sinceenergy density is affected by several factors, fat reduction alone may not reduce energy intake.

Analysis of the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) data showed that on the day surveyed, only 1% ofdiets complied with both SAFA and PUFA recommendations, 15% with the SAFA recommendation and 10%with the PUFA recommendation (3). High intakes of whole milk, cheese, pastries, butter and cereal-basedmixed dishes prevented compliance with the SAFA recommendation and low intakes of polyunsaturated mar-garine and oil, the PUFA recommendation. Fat modification strategies were more effective than fat reductionstrategies in shifting the diets of adults towards SAFA and PUFA recommendations (3).

Dietary modelling was conducted to ensure that public health dietary strategies and food-based recom-mendations reflect the scientific evidence. Manipulations of a model, based on the eating patterns of adults inthe NNS, showed that butter, cheese and takeaway foods (for dinner) had the most negative effect on the ratioof PUFA to SAFA. Conversely, soybean and sunflower oils, low SAFA commercial deep-frying oil and forti-fied soy beverage had the most positive effect on the PUFA to SAFA ratio in the model diet. It also showedthat 25 g of spreads and oils can be included in an energy restricted diet and still meet SAFA, PUFA and ALArecommendations.

The evidence suggests that the emphasis of dietary messages for CVD prevention must evolve from ‘lowfat’ to ‘type of fat’ with due consideration to energy density. In addition, several foods must be targeted andspecific recommendations on the type and amount of foods are required to more effectively reduce CVD.

1. Shanahan P, Wilkins M. Qualitative research dietary fat related behavioural issues. Research report prepared by Elliot& Shanahan Research. April 2000.

2. National Heart Foundation of Australia. A review of the relationship between dietary fat and cardiovascular disease.Aust J Nutr Diet 1999; 56(4): Suppl.

3. Cobiac L, Record S, Leppard P. The NHF dietary fat recommendations – how can they be achieved? CSIRO HealthSciences and Nutrition. October 2000.


Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term adverse effects on bone mass:a twin study

CA Nowson1, LM Paton2, JL Alexander2, C Margerison2, MG Frame2, B Kaymakci2, JD Wark2

1School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, 31252Dept. Medicine, University of Melbourne, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC, 3050

Pregnancy and lactation place significant stress on maternal calcium homeostasis, and may result in substan-tial changes in bone mineral density. While bone loss in the period immediately following parturition is well-documented (1), there is not a clear consensus regarding long-term recovery in bone mineral from the effectsof either pregnancy or lactation. We retrospectively assessed the number of pregnancies and duration of breastfeeding in relation to bone mineral density (BMD) in female twins, using cross-sectional and co-twin modelapproaches.

Female twins and siblings (n = 1354) > 18 years of agewho were grouped according to number of preg-nancies: never pregnant (NP) (n = 426), 1–2, (2P) (n = 455) and > 3, (3P) (n = 473). Of these subjects 83 twinpairs were identified where one twin within a pair had been pregnant (> 20 weeks) and the other had neverbeen pregnant beyond 20 weeks. Information on pregnancies and breast feeding was obtained by questionnaireand bone density at lumbar spine (LS), total hip (HP), and total body bone mineral content (TBMC) by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (Hologic QDR 1000W).

Those who were never pregnant were younger (NP 33.1 ± 0.68 years (± SEM), 2P 45.1 ± 0.53 years and3P 49.8 ± 0.48 years (P < 0.05 ANOVA)), had a lower BMI (NP 24.2 ± 0.22, 2P 25.9 ± 0.24 and 3P 26.4 ±0.23 (P<0.05)) and were taller (NP 163.2 ± 0.31cm, 2P 162.5 ± 0.31cm and 3P 161.4 ± 0.31cm (P < 0.05)).After adjustment for age, lean and fat mass, groups 2P and 3P had 3.8% higher LS BMD compared with NP(P < 0.001), and TB BMC was 2.7% higher in 2P and 3.1% higher in 3P compared with NP (P < 0.001) andHP BMD was greater in 3P compared to NP by 2% (P < 0.01). Of the Of the 928 parous individuals parouswomen 87% breast-fed (> one month). After adjustment for age, lean, fat mass, TB BMC was higher in thosewho breast-fed (2.30 ± 0.34kg) compared with those who did not (2.24 ± 0.02 kg) (P < 0.01).

71% breast-fed and there were 58 parous twin pairs where one twin breast-fed and the other did not. Therewere no significant differences in height, weight, BMI, or HP BMD, LS BMD, TB BMC between breast feed-ing twin and non-breast feeding twin.

In 83 twin pairs (21 monozygotic, 62 dizygotic), mean age 42.2 (15.7) (SD) years, who were discordantfor ever being pregnant, the parous twins had a mean of 2.3 (0.13) pregnancies and breast-fed for 8.39 (1.67)months per child. There were no significant differences in height, weight, BMI, or HP BMD, LS BMD,TB BMC between nulliparous and parous twins.

Of the parous women 70% breast-fed and there were 58 parous twin pairs where one twin breast-fed andthe other did not. There were no significant differences in height, weight, BMI, or HP BMD, LS BMD,TB BMC between breast feeding twin and non-breast feeding twin.

These results indicate that there is no long-term detrimental effect of pregnancy or breast feeding on bonedensity. There was and some evidence from the cross sectional analysis to suggest that pregnancy mayincrease bone density, although no within-pair difference in bone was observed in twin pairs discordant forever being pregnant. Therefore, although there may be acute reduction in bone mineral density with pregnancyand breast feeding, mothers appear to readily replace the bone lost after a period of time.

1. Sowers MF, Corton G, Shapiro B, Jannaush M, Crutchfield M et al. Bone loss and lactation. JAMA 1993; 269:3130–3135.


Increased dietary saturated fat intake decreases the ratio ofthromboxane/prostacyclin in healthy male subjects

D Li1, R Habito2,4, G Angelos2, AJ Sinclair1, MJ Ball3

1Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, 30012School of Health Science, Deakin University, VIC, 3144

3Department of Biomedical Science, University of Tasmania, TAS4Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, Philippines

The ratio of thromboxane A2/prostacyclin I2 (TXA2/PGI2) plays a critical role in platelet aggregation(Moncada and Vane 1979). Evidence from dietary intervention studies has found that the ratio of TXA2/PGI2was decreased by marine omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) in humans (Ferretti et al 1998, vonSchacky et al 1985). However, there is no data on the effects of the diet high in saturated fat from animalsource on the ratio of urine stable metabolites of TXA2/PGI2 in literature. The aim of the present study was toinvestigate the effect of dietary saturated fat on ratio of urine stable metabolites of TXA2/PGI2.

In the present study we investigated the effect of dietary saturated fat on the ratio of urine excretion 11-dehydro thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and 6-keto prostaglandin F 1a (PGF 1α) in 27 healthy aged 30 to 55 yearsfree-living male subjects. Each volunteer was randomly assigned to one of the two diets for a period of 4 weeks, after which each subject resumed his usual diet for 2 weeks as a ‘wash-out period’, before beingassigned to the other diet for a further 4 weeks. The two diets were designed to provide similar amounts ofenergy, protein, dietary fiber, and alcohol, differing only in the amount of fat. The high fat (HF) diet wasdesigned to provide 10–15 % more energy from animal fat compared to the low fat (LF) diet. Twenty-sevensubjects collected their 24-hour urine on the last day of each of the diets. The samples were stored at – 20°Cfor later analysis. The concentrations of 11-dehydro TXB2 and 6-keto prostaglandin F 1α in the urine wasdetermined by using an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) method with commercially available EIA kits. Serumlipids from 12 randomly selected subjects were extracted by chloroform : methanol (1:1, v/v). Methyl estersof fatty acids of serum lipids were prepared by standard methods. Methyl esters of fatty acids were separatedby gas chromatography as described.

The ratio of urine excretion 11-dehydro TXB2 and 6-keto PGF 1a was significantly lower in the HF (2.7 ±0.2) than in the LF diet (3.1 ± 0.3) (p < 0.05). Serum concentration of 20:4n-6 was 6% higher in the HF thanin the LF diet, while the proportion of 20:4n-6 was 5% lower in the HF than in the LF diet. Compared withthe LF diet, the concentration and proportion of 14:0, 18:0, 20:0 and total saturated fatty acid in serum wassignificantly higher in the HF diet (p < 0.05), and 18:3n-3 and the ratio of n-3 PUFA to n-6 PUFA was significantly lower in HF diet (p < 0.05). The present result indicate that decreased ratio of urine excretion of11-dehydro TXB2 to 6-keto PGF 1α in the HF diet compared with the LF diet may be caused by decreasedintake of 20:4n-6 proportion, rather than intake of absolute amount of 20:4n-6.

1. Moncada S, Vane JR. Arachidonic acid metabolites and the interactions between platelets and blood vessel walls. N Engl J Med 1979; 300: 1142–1148.

2. von Schacky C, Fisher S, Weber PC. Long term effect of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and celluarlipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 1626–1631.


Influence of dietary stearic acid enrichment on individual platelet phospholipidfatty acid composition

FD Kelly1, NJ Mann1, AH Turner2, D Li1, AJ Sinclair1

1Dept of Food Science and2School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, 3001

It is widely accepted that stearic acid, as opposed to saturated fats in general, is not hypercholesterolemic. Inaddition, stearic acid enriched diets have previously been shown to reduce platelet aggregation (1) and plateletsize as measured by mean platelet volume (MPV) (1,2). This decrease in MPV, indicative of platelets in aquiescent, non-activated state, may represent a reduced thrombotic tendency.

Many cell functions are influenced by their membrane fatty acid composition and thus, it is important todetermine if there is preferential distribution of stearic acid amongst specific platelet phospholipid fractionsand if stearic acid incorporation affects the level and distribution of other specific fatty acids.

Five healthy male subjects aged 44 ± 14 years consumed a stearic acid (C18:0) enriched diet at a level of6.4% total energy (~ 20 g per day compared with an habitual intake of ~ 8 g per day) for four weeks. Habit-ual and intervention dietary intakes were measured using seven day weighed food records. Venous blood wascollected for Full Blood Examination including measurement for MPV and platelet fatty acid determinationat days 0 and 28. The platelet phospholipid (PL) classes, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine(PC), phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylinositol (PI), were separated by TLC using the solvent system:methyl acetate: propan-1-ol: choloroform: methanol:0.25% aqueous KCI (25:25:25:10:9, by vol). Fatty acidmethyl esters were prepared by a standard method and identified using Gas Chromatography.

Stearic acid levels increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the PE and PC platelet PL fractions by 17% and15%, respectively, compared with baseline levels. In the PI fraction, there was a non-significant trend todecrease stearic acid levels combined with a significant increase in the level of linoleic acid and a significantdecease in the level of arachidonic acid (AA) by 248% and 13%, respectively, compared with baseline levels.No differences were observed in MPV.

The significant decrease in AA in the PI fraction may be linked to the previously encountered lower plateletaggregation in stearic acid enriched diets (1).

1. Kelly FD, Sinclair AJ, Mann NJ, Turner AH, Abedin L, Li D. A stearic acid-rich diet improves thrombogenic andatherogenic risk factor profiles in healthy males. Eur J Clin Nut 2001; 55: 88–96.

2. Schoene NW, Allmann AM, Dougherty RM, Denvir E, Iacono JM. Diverse effects of dietary stearic acid and palmiticacids on platelet morphology. In: Sinclair A and Gibson R (eds). Essential fatty acids and eicosanoids. AOCS, Cham-paign, Illinois. 1992; 290–292.

PE1 PC1 PS1 PI1

C18:0% at baseline 15.63 ± 0.46 13.79 ± 1.31 41.51 ± 2.29 38.16 ± 0.76C18:0% at day 28 18.22 ± 1.37a 15.92 ± 2.25a 41.82 ± 1.38 35.81 ± 2.33

1mean ± SD, asignificantly different to baseline (P < 0.05).


Relationship between platelet phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids anddietary intake of fish, meat and polyunsaturated fat in male Melbourne

Chinese and Caucasian

D Li1, H Zhang2, BHH Hsu-Hage3, ML Wahlqvist4, AJ Sinclair1

1Department of Food Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia2Primary Health Branch, Department of Human Service, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia

3Department of Rural Health, The University of Melbourne, Shepparton 3632, VIC, Australia4International Health & Development Unit and Asia Pacific Health & Nutrition Centre, Monash University,

Clayton 3168, VIC, Australia

Increased n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the tissues is associated with decreased risk of cardio-vascular disease (1). The aims of this study were to investigate (1) platelet phospholipid (PL) polyunsaturatedfatty acid (PUFA) composition in subjects who were the Melbourne Chinese migrants compared with thosewho were the Melbourne Caucasians, (2) the relationship between platelet PL PUFA and intake of fish, meatand PUFA. Ninety-seven Melbourne Chinese males aged between 25 to 55 years and 78 age and sex matchedCaucasians were recruited in Melbourne. Dietary intake was assessed using a semi-quantitative Food Fre-quency Questionnaire. The platelet PUFA was measured by gas liquid chromatography.

The Melbourne Chinese had a significantly higher intake of fish (p = 0.012) and white meat (p = 0.0045)compared with the Melbourne Caucasians and had significantly higher proportions of platelet PL 20:5n-3(p = 0.006), 22:6n-3 (p < 0.0001), total n-3 (p = 0.027) and 22:5n-6 (p = 0.0002). The Melbourne Chinesehad a significantly lower intake of red and total meat (p < 0.0001) than the Melbourne Caucasians, and sig-nificantly lower proportions of 20:3n-6 (p = 0.023), 20:4n-6 (p < 0.002), 22:4n-6 (p < 0.0001), total n-6(p = 0.037), 22:5n-3 (p < 0.0001) and ratio of n-6/n-3 (p = 0.011).

Multiple linear regression result (Table) indicated that platelet PL 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 were positivelycorrelated with fish intake, and negatively correlated with dietary intake of meat and PUFA, while 22:5n-3 waspositively correlated with dietary meat and PUFA intake, and negatively correlated with fish intake. Dietaryintake of PUFA and fish are potential confounding factors for assessing the effects of meat consumption onplatelet PL individual PUFA. Dietary intake of PUFA and meat did not influence the incorporation of fish longchain n-3 PUFA into platelet PL in this study population.

1. Kinsella JE, Lokesh B, Stone RA. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and amelioration of cardiovascular disease:possible mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 1–28.

Fish (g/day) Meat (g/day) PUFA (g/day)Std. Coeff. P value Std. Coeff. P value Std. Coeff. P value

18:2n-6 0.001 0.968 –0.146 0.135 0.128 0.19020:3n-6 0.030 0.701 –0.172 0.070 0.312 0.00120:4n-6 –0.032 0.691 0.026 0.787 0.044 0.65222:4n-6 –0.125 0.114 –0.076 0.424 0.242 0.01222:5n-6 0.034 0.664 < 0.0001 0.993 –0.311 0.03922:5n-3 –0.235 0.002 0.146 0.104 0.218 0.01622:6n-3 0.211 0.003 –0.064 0.446 –0.415 < 0.000122:6n-3/22:5n-3 0.277 < 0.0001 –0.126 0.105 –0.448 < 0.0001


The demographic dimension: past and future

JC Caldwell

Health Transition Centre, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health,Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200

The human population took hundreds of thousands of years to reach 1 billion in the mid-nineteenth century,since when it has risen to 6 billion; it will probably reach some kind of equilibrium under 10 billion duringthe 21st century. This has been a unique historical event and is the social aspect of the Industrial Revolution.For most of this time population growth was constrained by food resources, as described by Malthus just asthe period was ending. Boserup (1) argues that population growth itself was the main mechanism in increas-ing food resources.

We are still in a transitional period during which science and capital have greatly increased food produc-tion and, by lowering mortality, population numbers. Third World mortality fell steeply after World War IIcausing unprecedentedly high rates of population growth. The constraint of growth by reducing birth rates wasbrought about by birth control resulting from socio economic change, scientific breakthroughs and organisedfamily planning programs. Food production has kept up with population growth, although there are still largenumbers of undernourished people.

The presentation will focus on two issues, the future of population growth and the resource problems cre-ated by such growth. The United Nations population projections (2,3) will be examined to demonstrate globaland regional implications. The end point of the demographic transition is no longer seen as being neces-sarily constituted by stationary population. In a world where 44% of the population already lives in countrieswith below-long-term-replacement fertility, it is quite possible that human numbers will peak at 8–10 billion dur-ing the 21st century and then begin a long period of decline. Fears that rapid population growth would impedeeconomic growth or would outstrip increases in food production have so far proved unfounded and will prob-ably remain so in the 21st century. The real question is the long-term equilibrium between population andresources in a world of almost 10 billion people, or sustainability in a situation where that number representsa hump preceding smaller numbers.

1. Boserup E. The conditions of agricultural growth and the economics of agrarian change under population pressure.Chicago: Aldine, 1965.

2. United Nations. World population prospects: the 1998 revision. New York, 1999.3. United Nations. Long-range world population projections based on the 1998 revision. New York, 2000.


Prospects for the Third Horseman in an environmentally stressed biosphere

AJ McMichael

National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University,Canberra, ACT, 0200

Human numbers will reach an estimated 8–9 billion by 2050. This along with continued economic develop-ment in today’s low-income countries, means that the total global demand for food will increase by aroundthreefold over the coming half-century. Will a combination of high-tech precision farming, enlightened practices (such as low-till and mixed-crop farming), equitable land tenure and socially-attuned use of GMtechnology suffice to keep St. John the Divine’s ‘Third Horseman’ at bay? Opinions vary (1,2).

Against this background of social changes and technical possibilities, today’s emerging global environ-mental changes, such as climate change, will also affect food production. Other incipient large-scale environ-mental changes that are affecting, or will affect, food production include stratospheric ozone depletion,biodiversity losses (with knock-on effects on crop and livestock pest species), and the perturbation of severalof the great elemental cycles of nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus (3). Further, current agricultural practicesare increasingly damaging to the biosphere at large, and entail deforestation, chemical pollution of soils andwaterways, destruction of habitat and increased risks of infectious diseases in livestock – and their passageinto human populations (4,5).

These various environmental changes will affect the production of crops and livestock on land and wildand cultivated fisheries in various and complex ways. The modelling of how global climate change is likelyto affect world and regional food production is illustrative. On balance, recent modelling-based estimates indi-cate that, in the medium-to-longer term, if not over the next several decades, climate change will affect cropyields adversely, especially in food-insecure regions (6). An increase in climatic variability will amplify therisks to future food production.

Our capacity to maintain food supplies for an expanding and increasingly expectant world population willdepend on maximising the efficiency and sustainability of production methods, using genetic biotechnologieswisely, and minimising ecologically damaging environmental changes. Resolution of the longstanding dis-parity between the world’s rich and poor, with widespread chronic deficits in ‘food entitlements’ (7) alongsidean unprecedentedly well-fed privileged minority, should also be part of any future sustainable solution.

1. Dyson T. World food trends and prospects to 2025. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999; 96: 5929–5936.2. King M. Commentary: Bread for the world – another view. British Medical Journal 1999; 319: 991–992.3. McMichael AJ. Human Frontiers, Environments and Disease: Past Patterns, Uncertain Futures. Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press, 2001.4. Tilman D, et al. Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change. Science 2001; 292: 281–284.5. Tilman D. Plant diversity enhances ecosystem responses to elevated CO2. Nature 2001; 410: 809–810.6. Parry M, Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A, Fischer G, Livermore M. Climate change and world food security: a new assess-

ment. Global Environmental Change 1999; 9: S51–S67.7. Sen A. Poverty and Famines. An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.


The impact of changing world resources on food security

ML Wahlqvist AO

Professor of Medicine and Director of the Asia Pacific Health & Nutrition Centre, Monash University,Melbourne, Australia

It is usual to think of resources as ones to do with people, fuel (energy) and minerals, food and water (1). Eachof these is highly relevant to human food security. But information resources and intelligence, now increas-ingly a part of information technology (IT), and systems, especially ones of governance and culture, are alsocrucial (2). Bringing together these resources for food security in a way that is sustainable is the greatestchallenge.

New and enhanced resources include those of population (especially older people), cultural fusion, infor-mation, renewable energy and biotechnology (3). Good governance is being both strengthened and weakeneddepending on location, information and education systems, burden of disease, and other factors. Gravelythreatened are potable water supplies. Food transport may become precarious if jet-fuel dependent and localfood production has diminished – yet it has played an important role in the diversification of the human diet.The decline in eco-systems and biodiversity may make food variety and what it offers food security moreuncertain – generalised food variety has been a relatively recent human achievement through food culturalexchange, agricultural and horticultural development, food trade, and economic development; it may beshort-lived.

Food and nutrition policy can no longer ignore its own impact on world resources and their sustainability.

1. Wahlqvist ML. Prospects for the Future: Nutrition, Environment and Sustainable Food Production. Food and Agri-culture Organization, 1999. (www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/x2638e.htm)

2. Wahlqvist ML, Kouris-Blazos A, Savige GS. Food security and the Aged. In: Ogunrinade A, Oniang’o R, May J (eds).Not by Bread Alone. Food Security and Governance in Africa. Toda Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research.South Africa: Witwatersrand University Press, 1999; 206–221.

3. Hawken P, Lovins A. Natural capitalism; the next Industrial Revolution. London: Earthscan, 2000. ISRN 1-85383-461-0.


Abeywardena, M.Y. S10 Agus, H. S82Ahujja, K.D.K. S62Alexander, J.L. S89Ali, A.M. S14 Anderson, S. S88Angelos, G. S90Anthony, M.A. S47Antonas, K.N. S49Arcot, J. S17, S18Armitage, J.A. S7 Attar-Bashi, N.M. S55Atta-ur-Rehamn, Q. S70, S74Ball, M.J. S62, S90Ball, P.J. S57Barclay, A.W. S21 Batey, R. S87Batt, R.M. S30Batterham, M. S16, S69, S86Baxter, R.C. S59Beard, T.C. S57Beilin, L.J. S76Bencke, A. S66, S87Beveridge, S.J. S43 Blake, R.J. S12 Blight, G.W. S32 Brand-Miller, J.C. S19, S21, S39,

S59, S82 Brenninger, V.L. S60Brown, I.L. S41, S60Brown, M.A. S41 Bryden, W.L. S28, S39, S61, S78Burke, V. S76Burns, C. S71Burns, P. S7Butterwick, R.F. S30 Caldwell, J.C. S93Calvert, G.D. S16, S86Cameron, R.D. S3Clayton, E.H. S15 Collins, D.P. S25 Costa, N.D. S27Cressey, P.J. S77Croft, K.D. S76Damanik, N. S67Damanik, R. S67Daniells, S. S23 Darmadi, I. S36 Daulay, Z. S67Davis, C. S11 de Ambrosis, A.E S17 Denmeade, S. S86Dickinson, S. S19 Dingle, J.G. S51Downes, C.S. S63Downing, J.A. S39, S78Droulez, V. S88

Du, X. S83Duffy, S.J S75Dunshea, F.R. S53, S8Eagling, D.G. S8, S53Eden, B. S88Edwards, C.A. S24Egan, A.R. S40 Engelbrecht, H. S14Fassoulakis, A.K. S79Fendick, A.M. S73Fenech, M. S64Fielding, K.M. S80Fleck, E. S78Foley, W.J, S65Forbes-Ewan, C.H. S5Frame, M.G. S89Francis, M.A. S79Fraser, D.R. S83Frei, B. S75Gabler, N.K. S8, S53Gallagher, N.L. S25 Garg, M.L. S12Garsia, R. S69Gibbons, C. S56Giffard, C.J. S30 Giles, L.R. S25 Gillen, L.G. S23 Gocke, N. S75Gold, J. S69Greenfield, H. S83Greenop, P. S69Griffith, B. S3Gulati, S.K. S85Haber, P. S17Habito, R. S90Hanna, K.L. S72Henuk, Y.L. S51Hetzel, B.S. S52Higgins, J.A. S41Hodgson, J.M. S76Holand, Ø. S3 Holbrook, M. S75Hopper, J.L. S84Hosking, B.J. S40Hsu-Hage, B.H.H. S92Husband, A.J. S61Irwin, T. S21Iuliano-Burns, S. S84Iwatani, Y. S18 Jahangiri, A. S10Jayasooriya, A.P. S7 Jones, R.B. S8, S53Kaymacki, B. S89Keaney, J.F. S75Kelly, F.D. S91Khoo, S.K. S72Kiran, I. S74

Kofinas, G. S3Konz, L.M. S73Kouris-Blazos, A. S36 Kruse, J. S3Lane, H.W. S1Lansdowne, R. S25 Leeder, S.R. S68Leury, B.J. S40 Lewis, T. S6Li, D. S9, S42, S47, 49, S50,

S80, S90, S91, S92Liu, V.R. S59Loh, C.Y. S9Lugg, D. S2 Lyons-Wall, P. S72Magee, M.H. S32Mann, N.J. S79, S91Mansor, M. S47Margerison, C. S89Marks, G.B. S68Martin, D.G. S13Martin, G.S. S16, S23, S86Mathai, M. S7Mc L Dryden, G. S38McGrath, S. S85McIntosh, R. S72McLennan, P.L. S41 McMeekin, T.A. S6McMeniman, N.P. S28McMichael, A.J. S94McMurchie, E.J. S10 McNamara, E. S22 Mihrshahi, S. S68Moore, J.P. S29Morgan, T.O. S56Morgan-Jones, J. S69Mori, T.A. S76Morris, M. S7 Moses, R.G. S23 Muir, W.I. S61Murphy, K.J. S79Murray, P.J. S44, S45, S46 Napoli, J.E.A.C. S82Nestel, P.J. S31 Newman, R.E. S78Ngai, H.H.Y. S60Niall, M. S2Nicholas, L. S22 Nichols, D.S. S6Nichols, P.D. S6 Noah, A. S35 Noakes, M. S88Nobmann, E.D. S3Nowson, C.A. S56, S58, S89O’Dea, K. S2 O'Neill, S. S72Ostrowska, E. S8, S53

Supplement Author Index


Owens, E.A. S28 Paterson, J. S17Paton, L.M. S89Patten, G.S. S10 Patterson, C. S72Pearson, R.A. S26Peat, J.K. S68Pereira, C. S50Perez-Maldonado, R. S32, S33Petocz, P. S19 Pike, M.J. S79Playne, M.J. S81Pomeroy, S. S31 Ponnampalam, E.N. S40 Pratiwi, N.M.W. S44, S45, S46 Premier, R. S67Prescott, J. S20Pritchard, J.E. S58Puddey, I.B. S76Purcell, B. S7Reid, C.E. S13Roberts, D.C.K. S22, S73, S87Romeo, M. S82Rudra, P.K. S12Russell, D.E. S3 Samman, S. S11Sanderson, K. S6Saragih, S. S67Sclater, J. S25Scott, T.W. S85

Seeman, E. S84Setyawardan, T. S48Shaw, I.C. S77Sherwood, N.S. S15Shrestha, A.K. S17, S18Sinclair, A.J. S7, S9, S40, S47,

S50, S55, S79, S80, S90, S91, S92

Singh, D. S13, S32 Singh, I. S79Sivarajah, G. S11 Smith, M. S6Stanton, J. S22 Sterling, S.J. S8, S53Stevens, D. S66Stockman, R. S80Storlien, L.H. S41, S78Strain, J.J. S63Su, X.Q. S42, S49Sullivan, D. S11Sullivan, M. S42Sumarmono, J. S44, S45, S46, S48Swerdloff, P.L. S75Talbot, P. S11 Tapsell, L.C. S16, S23, S60, S86Tatham, B.G. S8, S53Taylor, D.G. S44, S45, S46Teleni, E. S13Thompson, C. S19Thomson, B.M. S77

Truswell, A.S. S35Tsunoda, N. S31Turner, A.H. S79, S91Van der Walt, J.G. S14Van Koesveld, M. S25Vandervliet, L.E. S73Vingrys, A.J. S7Vita, J.A. S75Wahlqvist, M.L. S36, S67, S92, S95Wang, B. S39 Ward, J. S19, S89Wattanapenpaiboon, N. S67WebbK S68Weisinger, H.S. S7 Weisinger, R.S. S7 White, R.G. S3 Widayake, K. S48Wilkinson, S.J. S39 Williams, R. S72Wills, R. S12Wold, C.A. S43Woods, R.K. S54Woodward, D.R. S57Woon, T. S47Wynn, P.C. S25, S85Yape Kii, W. S38Yiu, A. S68Zhang, H. S92Zhu, K. S83

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