Eur asian Pre his tory, 8 (1–2): 51–66.

THE NAHAL GALIM/NAHAL ORNIT PRE HIS TORIC FLINTQUAR RIES IN Mt. CAR MEL, IS RAEL

Dani Nadel1, Danny Rosenberg1, Nurit Shtober Zisu2 and Sagi Filin3

1 Zinman In sti tute of Ar chae ol ogy, Uni ver sity of Haifa, Mount Car mel, 31905 Haifa, Is rael;dnadel@re search.haifa.ac.il

2 De part ment of Is rael Studies, Uni ver sity of Haifa, Mount Car mel, Haifa 31905, Mount Car mel, Is rael3 De part ment of Trans por ta tion and Geo-In for ma tion En gi neer ing, Technion - Is rael In sti tute of Tech nol ogy,

Haifa 32000, Is rael

Ab stractA pre lim i nary sur vey on the slopes of Nahal Galim and its trib u tary, Nahal Ornit (Mt. Car mel, Is rael), shows that lo -

cal high-qual ity flint out crops were in ten sively used for flint quar ry ing and tool pro duc tion at least since the Mid dlePalaeo lithic. The pa per of fers ini tial ob ser va tions re gard ing the ge ol ogy, geo mor phol ogy and ar chae ol ogy of these lo cales, and pres ents first in sights into the scale and meth ods of past quar ry ing ac tiv i ties.

Key words: Flint ex trac tion, de bris piles, raw ma te ri als, Palaeo lithic.

IN TRO DUC TION

In a field sur vey on the slopes of the NahalGalim / Nahal Ornit drain age sys tem (Mt. Car mel, Is rael) a high-den sity com plex of large flint quar -ries was ex posed (Rosenberg and Nadel, 2009:Fig. 1). The pa per pres ents pre lim i nary data re -gard ing doz ens of flint ex trac tion and pro duc tionloci in this drain age sys tem, at the foot of therange near the out let to the Med i ter ra nean coastalplain. The study in cludes ob ser va tions re gard ingex trac tion waste and knapped flint sam ples fromthe de bris piles. These pro vide in sights into thescale of lo cal pre his toric quar ry ing ac tiv i ties.

In the Near East, Mid dle Paleolithic flint qua- rries were found in the Up per Gal i lee, Is rael (Bar- kai et al., 2002, 2006; Go pher and Barkai, 2001,2006) and the Qena area, Egypt (Vermeersch,2002). An other study claimed that flints found inan Acheulo-Yabrudian layer (E) at Tabun Cave in Mt. Car mel, were quar ried from a place at leasttwo me ters deep while more-or-less con tem po ra -ne ous flints from Qesem Cave were prob a bly sur -face col lected or ob tained from shal low quar ries

(Verri et al., 2004). Dur ing the Up per Palaeo -lithic, deep ver ti cal shafts were cre ated in the Nile ter race, in or der to ex tract de sired flints (Vermee-rsch et al., 1990, 1995). Epipalaeolithic, and es pe -cially Neo lithic flint sources and quar ries havebeen doc u mented in Is rael and Jor dan (Barkai and Go pher, 2001; Delage, 2007; Grosman and Go-ren-Inbar, 2007; Quintero, 1996; Rosenberg etal., 2009; Taute, 1994).

Sur veys of flint out crops, com bined withcom par i sons to raw ma te ri als found in rel e vantpre his toric sites were also con ducted. Delage (seeDelage, 2007 and ref er ences therein) has doc u -mented the sources of many flints used in Epipa-laeolithic sites in North ern Is rael. Druck (2004)has re cently sur veyed the west ern slopes of Mt.Car mel and cor re lated flint sources with knappedflints in Mid dle Palaeo lithic–Epipalaeolithic lay -ers in the Mt. Car mel caves. A com par a tive studyhas also cor re lated the se quence of Mid dle Pala-eolithic–Natufian in dus tries at Raqefet Cave tospe cific raw ma te rial sources in Mt. Car mel andthe Menashe Hills (Lengyel, 2007; Nadel et al.,

2008). Works like the lat ter dem on strate the po -ten tial of com bin ing geo log i cal data, flint quar ries char ac ter is tics, and stud ies of pre his toric ex ploi -ta tion and pro duc tion tech nol o gies in the Mt. Car -mel area – where a long se quence of pre his toricpres ence is doc u mented (Bar-Yosef et al., 1992;Garrod and Bate, 1937; Jelinek, 1982; Olami,1984; Shifroni and Ronen, 2000; Weinstein-Evron et al., 2007).

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit quar ry ingcom plex is lo cated in the im me di ate vi cin ity ofsev eral pre his toric sites such as the Epipalaeoli-thic through Chalcolithic sites of Ain Qedem(Olami, 1984: 52, 56–67; Rosenberg et al., 2011), Mid dle Palaeo lithic/ Neo lithic site of Ornit Cave(Olami, 1965, 1984: 46, 49–50; Rosenberg andNadel, 2011) and the Mid dle Palaeo lithic site ofTirat Car mel (Ronen, 1974). The quar ries are also

52 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 1. Lo ca tion map of Nahal Galim – Nahal Ornit and se lected flint quar ry ing sites in Is rael. In set: 1. Sasa; 2.Har Pua/Dishon sites; 3. Sede Ilan; 4. Site Dalyat el-Car mel 3 (Site 164); 5. Nahal Ornit / Nahal Galim com plex; 6.Ramat Tamar

sit u ated only a few ki lo me ters from the Natufian/Neo lithic site of Nahal Oren, the Geo met ric Ke-baran site of Neve Da vid, and the Nahal Me’arotcaves of el-Wad, Jamal, Skhul and Tabun, rep re -sent ing a long Lower Palaeo lithic – Neo lithic se -quence (Fig. 1).

For a de tailed analysis of the study area andits geo-ref er enc ing, two com ple men tary in for ma -tion sources were used. For vi sual ref er enc ing, ahigh-res o lu tion orthophoto of the area was pro -duced by a set of rec ti fied im ages (Fig. 2a). Ad di -tion ally, a de tailed sur face to pog ra phy was pro -duced from an air borne la ser scan ning sur vey(Fig. 2b) of the re gion. In or der to achieve a highlevel of de tail and ac cu racy in this com plex top o -graphic re gion and its veg e ta tion cover, la serscanning driven anal y sis was pre ferred to ter rainex trac tion via im age ste re os copy. Point den sity of the ~1 point/m2 pro vided a high res o lu tion threedi men sional de scrip tion of the study area. Thehigh-res o lu tion la ser scan cap tures not only thesur face to pog ra phy (see Abo-Akel et al., 2007)but also trees and stone de bris piles.

GEO GRAPH ICAL AND GEO LOG I CAL SET TINGS

Mount Car mel ex tends over an area of ca.230 km2, with its high est sum mit reach ing 546me ters a.s.l. The cli mate is typ i cal Med i ter ra neanwith mean an nual rain fall rang ing from 500 to750 mm. The Car mel Fault, a ma jor branch of theDead Sea Trans form, off sets ver ti cally the Up perCre ta ceous sed i men tary rocks by about 1000 m,while Ter tiary struc tures off set them sinistrally by about 1500 m. Sig nif i cant ver ti cal and hor i zon talmove ments in the Qua ter nary are man i fested bythe steep slopes along the trace of the fault, thedis placed al lu vial fans and stream chan nels, andthe for ma tion of shut ter ridges and mor pho log i cal scarps along the fault trace (Heimann et al.,2007).

The Nahal Galim ba sin, as part of the west ern cen tral and north ern Car mel, is prin ci pally madeup of the Main Chalk Com plex of the Isfye andKhureibe/Arqan For ma tions (Picard and Kashai,1958; Segev and Sass, 2006). Fa cies changes arecom mon and re late to the prox im ity of the area tothe plat form edge dur ing the Cenomanian andTuronian eras (Picard and Kashai, 1958; Ron et

al., 1990). Thus, the lo cal for ma tion var ies lat er -ally from soft to hard chalk or lime stone, and itcon tains abun dant flint ho ri zons, interbeddedwithin the chalk lay ers. In some places, the flintnod ules pro trude and even be come nat u rally de -tached from the rock, as the soft chalk or lime -stone around them have been eroded over time.The Main Chalk Com plex is over laid by a suc ces -sion of reef-re lated lime stone, do lo mite and an in -ter me di ate marl unit, com pris ing also the Muh-raqa For ma tion. Lo cally de vel oped vol ca nic rockunits, mostly pyroclastic, are com mon as len tic u -lar in ter ca la tions in the chalk (Segev et al., 2002).

Un der the pres ent Med i ter ra nean cli mate, thedo lo mite and lime stone rocks are sub jected to in -tense chem i cal dis so lu tion pro cesses, and ex hibittyp i cal morphologies of epikarst; but caves, cav i -ties and speleothems are found as well. The rocksare cov ered by shal low soils of the terra rosatype, com bin ing a fine-grained tex ture with a high con tent of stones, and rarely show ing any pro filede vel op ment (Inbar et al., 1998). Veg e ta tion onthe terra rosa soils is char ac ter ized by the Quer-cus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina ma quis as so -ci a tion (Pollak, 1984; Zohary, 1962). Treeshardly grow on the quar ry ing de bris stone piles,though low veg e ta tion may oblit er ate their con -tours (a sit u a tion also no ticed at other quar riesand pro duc tion sites in North ern Is rael – see Ro-senberg et al., 2008).

Quar ry ing land scape at Nahal Galim/NahalOrnit

Doz ens of ex trac tion lo cales and their as so ci -ated piles (e.g., Barkai et al., 2006: 40) were iden -ti fied within the sur veyed area (ca. 0.5 km2, Figs2–4). Each pile is sev eral me ters long and some -times the piles merge into one an other. There arelarger piles, one of which is the fo cus of thisstudy.

Nat u ral flint ex po sures ap pear on ver ti calrock sur faces, with the larg est lo cated in NahalOrnit on the north ern slope (Fig. 5). Flint bear ingex po sures, how ever, are com monly flat or step-like. In these, the flints are vis i ble as nod ules invar i ous di men sions and shapes (Figs 6–8). In thestep-like cases, the ver ti cal ex po sures are usu ally50–100 cm high, and hence forth termed ex trac -tion sur faces/ex trac tion fronts. Flint is also pres -ent as hor i zon tal lay ers, 5–10 cm thick and with

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 53

54 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 2. (a) Orthophoto of the study area, with Lo cus 1 marked in a black square; (b) a la ser scan im age of thesame area

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 55

Fig. 3. (a) Photo of a sec tor of the north ern bank of Nahal Ornit, show ing var i ous flint quar ries, with fan-shapedstone piles be low, marked by ar rows (width of photo ca. 60 m). (b) Photo of Lo cus 1 look ing south-west; note thatno trees or bushes grow on the stone pile. Ar rows mark lo ca tion of two transects (length of pile is ca. 40 m)

56 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 4. A fan-shaped pile of de bris on the slope of Nahal Ornit

Fig. 5. A ver ti cal ex po sure of flint nod ules em bed ded in soft chalk (width of photo ca. 4 m)

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 57

Fig. 6. Flint nod ules pro trud ing from hard lime stone

Fig. 7. Flint nod ules and flint lay ers ex posed in a step-like quar ry ing front

58 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 8. Loose flat flint nod ules ex posed be tween lay ers of hard lime stone

Fig. 9. A tested flint nod ule and a core be tween lime stone blocks, within a de bris pile be low a quar ry ing front(scale bar 20 cm)

cor tex on both sides. In the lat ter case, the flint isnot ho mog e nous, and cracks and frac tures arecom mon.

Large piles of lime stone de bris are foundsolely be low the ex trac tion sur faces (Figs 3, 4).They are as sumed to be quar ry ing by-prod ucts(debris piles), and tested/knapped flint ar ti factsare com mon within these piles (Figs 9–11). Thepiles are mostly fan-shaped, with their top nar rowand their bot tom (down-slope) wider (Figs 2–4).They are not re stricted to small gul lies, and it ap -pears that their lo ca tion is solely cor re lated withflint out crops. Im por tantly, their lo ca tion is notslope-de pend ant, as they are pres ent at all heightsand lo ca tions, from the al most-flat top of the hillsdown to the wadi floor, re gard less of el e va tion orin cli na tion. The ma jor com po nent of these de brispiles are an gu lar lime stone blocks and frag mentsin a va ri ety of shapes and di men sions (see be low).

In most lo ca tions, flint nod ules are pro trud ing from the rock sur face (Figs 5–8). This phe nom e -non is caused by hard ness dif fer ences be tween the softer lime stone/chalk and the harder flint. In the

stud ied rock for ma tion, the flint nod ules are usu -ally ho mo ge neous (and not cracked or frag -mented). Thus, in lo ca tions where there are manyscars of miss ing flint nod ules, as well as manynod ules that are bro ken or tested along the plainof the rock sur face, nat u ral pro cesses can not ac -count for the ob served phe nom ena. These con -cen tra tions are de fined as flint ex trac tion lo cales,es pe cially when ad di tional ev i dence for hu manac tiv i ties (flint knapping) is abun dantly found inthe as so ci ated stone piles.

Ex trac tion seems to have been ex e cuted intwo main ways. One was to di rectly re move iso -lated flint nod ules. The other was to break largelime stone blocks off the nat u ral wall sur face, andthen ex tract from them the de sired nod ules by ad -di tional crude break age.

In some cracked lime stone lay ers, loose flatflint nod ules can prac ti cally be pulled out byhand, with no need for any tools (Fig. 8). Oth erscould be re moved with the aid of sim ple ex tract -ing im ple ments like elon gated wedges or ‘chis els’ (Fig. 12), heavy sticks, horns, etc. Both ver ti cal

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 59

Fig. 10. A lime stone block with an em bed ded flint nod ule, within a de bris pile be low a quar ry ing front (scale bar20 cm)

and hor i zon tal ex trac tion sur faces are com mon all over the sur veyed area. Many are sev eral me terslong, though they some times merge into one an -other and com prise con tin u ous oc cur rences rea-ching doz ens of me ters in length.

The de bris piles are very com mon on thesouth ern slopes of Nahal Galim (not on the north -ern slopes where there are al most no nat u ral out -crops of flint nod ules within the bed rock). Theyare also com mon on both the south ern and north -ern slopes of Nahal Ornit (a short trib u tary thatruns into Nahal Galim, where most of the cur rentob ser va tions were made, see Fig. 1).

Lo cus 1The larg est stone pile re corded so far (Lo cus

1) is lo cated on the south ern bank of Nahal Ornit,where the slope is very gen tle (Figs 2, 3b). It is ca. 40 m long (along the down-slope axis) and ranges in width be tween 5 and 10 m. The thick ness(height) of the pile ranges from about 10–20 cm atthe mar gins to at least 50 cm in the cen ter, where

the den sity of stones is very high (Fig. 13). Lo cus 1 is lo cated di ag o nally be low a shal low gully run -ning down the steep slope, sev eral me ters awayfrom its course.

In or der to pro vide pre lim i nary de tails of thequarry de bris pile, two trans verse sec tions wereset on the sur face of Lo cus 1 (Figs 3b, 13). Thesewere lo cated across the pile near its up per-south -ern (10.5 m long) and lower-north ern (6 m long)ends. All sur face lime stone and flint spec i menslo cated within each transect were in cluded in thetwo stud ied sam ples (ca. 230 ob jects). Ad di tionalflint items were col lected from the sur face of thepile in or der to en large the stud ied as sem blage(Figs 14, 15).

Four cores were found in the stud ied tran-sects, and ad di tional cores, in clud ing a fewLevallois cores, were found on the pile’s sur faceor be tween the de bris (Fig. 14: 8). Flakes and re -touched flakes are pres ent while blades are rare.Three lime stone pieces with small flint nod ulesstill em bed ded in them were also re corded. Some

60 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 11. A lime stone nod ule half-pealed from cor tex

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 61

Fig. 12. A heavy-duty chisel-like (split ter?) quar ry ing tool made of lime stone

Fig. 13. Lime stone pieces and frag ments along the Lo cus 1 transect

62 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 14. Elon gated worked flint nod ules (‘fin gers’) (1–4), and flint cores (5–10)

of the most com mon flint items in this de bris pileare elon gated (thick or thin) nod ules / ‘fin gers’.For mal cores (Fig. 14: 6–10), tools and debitageare less fre quent al though they are found on thepile sur face (Fig. 15).

The worked flints are sharp and there are noap par ent breaks; their cor tex bears no dam agecaused by roll ing or hor i zon tal move ments be -tween the stones of the pile. The flint nod ules are

com pletely cov ered by cor tex, usu ally sev eral mm thick. Nod ules are usu ally 10–20 cm long, though there are smaller and larger spec i mens. Sim i larnod ules of high qual ity flints are vis i ble along theslopes and in the bed rock, fre quently char ac ter -ized by brown or black col ors and some timesbear ing ap par ent ‘test scars’ (Figs 9, 11).

Worked flint nod ules found in Lo cus 1 and atvar i ous other loci in the area, in clude nat u ral elon -

The Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit prehistoric flint quar ries 63

Fig. 15. Re touched flint tools (1–4)

gated ‘fin gers’ of flint, com monly found in thelimestone (Fig. 14: 1–5). These have cor tex,which cov ers most of the spec i men, ex cept forone end that usu ally bears a se ries of ho mo ge -neous flake scars around the per im e ter of thepiece. The ‘fin gers’ ap pear in the de bris piles invar i ous di men sions; the small est are just sev eralcm long, while the larger ob jects are 10–15 cmlong and more than 5 cm across. Sim i lar itemswere re ported from the Geo met ric Kebaran site of Neve Da vid (3.5 km to the north), where they in -clude a uniquely in cised ob ject, a lat er ally re -touched ob ject, a bladelet core and un mod i fiedspecimens (Kaufman, 1999: figs 1, 2).

In ad di tion, some what thicker nod ules werefound in the Natufian layer at el-Wad (ca. 10 kmto the south), where their shapes and flak ing scarsled re search ers to iden tify within them male andfe male fig u rines, phal lic ob jects and a zoomor-phic rep re sen ta tion (Weinstein-Evron, 1998: figs57–60; Weinstein-Evron and Belfer-Co hen, 1993).

The lime stone spec i mens are mostly an gu lar,with hardly any round or semi-round spec i mens.Sev eral ob jects ap pear to bear knapping signs,with flake scars and even neg a tives of the bulb ofper cus sion. Elon gated blocks and frag ments 10–20 cm long are com mon, some with one sharpedge (re sem bling crude heavy chis els or split ters,Fig. 12).

We mea sured the max i mum length of all thestones in the two transects (Fig. 16). While mostlime stone pieces are less than 20 cm long (ca.98% in each strip); within the 3–20 cm range, thedis tri bu tions in the two strips vary. In strip 1 (top -

o graph i cally lower), 89% of the stones are 3–11 cm long, while in strip 2 they form 59%. Instrip 2, 38% are be tween 12–20 cm and only 9%in strip 1. Thus, the top o graphic higher strip hasrel a tively larger stones within this length range.

The ra tio of worked flints (tools and cores) tolime stone spec i mens is 0.043 for strip 1 (n = 94items) and 0.064 for strip 2 (n = 133 items). Asnoted ear lier, flint items com prise a small frac tionof the pile, and their size range is within the mostcom mon size of the lime stone pieces.

SUM MARY AND CON CLU SIONS

Pre lim i nary sur vey and in ves ti ga tions at theNahal Galim / Nahal Ornit drain age sys tem, sug -gest that a com plex of ex ten sive flint quar ries andpro duc tion work shops was op er at ing on the lower west ern slopes of Mt. Car mel dur ing pre his toricpe ri ods. Our ini tial work has shown that sev eralquar ry ing and ex trac tion strat e gies were em -ployed, of which two are clearly iden ti fied so far.The first is the ex trac tion of rel a tively loose nod -ules from cracked lay ers. The sec ond is the quar -ry ing of large lime stone blocks, and then split tingthem in or der to ex tract in ner flint nod ules. Bothcre ated large fan-shaped debris piles be low theflint ex po sures (Fig. 4). The sec ond ap proach also cre ated step-like quar ry ing surfaces along therelevant bedrock layers (Fig. 7).

While the dates and du ra tion of lo cal flint ex -trac tion and tool man u fac ture are yet to be stud -ied, the pres ence of Levallois cores sug gests thatthe quar ries op er ated at least since the Mid dlePalaeo lithic. In ad di tion, the elon gated ‘fin gers’strongly sug gest the use of the quar ries dur ing theGeo met ric Kebaran and Natufian pe ri ods. Theprox im ity of the quar ries to the nearby Ornit Cave and to other Mid dle Palaeo lithic and later pre his -toric sites in Mt. Car mel, could im ply that theNahal Galim/Nahal Ornit com plex was a mainsource of raw ma te rial for these sites. Fur ther -more, it is plau si ble that pre his toric in hab it ants ofMt. Car mel and the Coastal Plain were oc ca sion -ally per form ing part of the knapping ac tiv i ties atthe quar ries, as could be at tested from the pres -ence of flint cores and tools in ter mixed with thelimestone components of the debris piles.

The in ten sity of quar ry ing and pro duc tion ac -tiv i ties at the Nahal Galim/Nahal Ornit com plex

64 D. Nadel et al.

Fig. 16. Dis tri bu tion (%) of max i mum length of lime -stone spec i mens in two transects, Lo cus 1

sug gests the site was a cen ter for flint ex trac tiondur ing a long pe riod. Fu ture stud ies will fo cus ontop ics such as the dis tri bu tion pat terns of thequar ries and pro duc tion loci in Nahal Galim andNahal Ornit drain age sys tem, the or ga ni za tionand tech nol ogy of flint quar ry ing and knapping,the chro nol ogy of the site and its re la tion toprehistoric sites in the area.

Ac knowl edg ments

We would like to thank D. Kaufman and N.Goren-Inbar for read ing an early draft and for pro vid -ing use ful ad vice. A. Avshalomov and A. Krugliak pre -pared the flint and stone draw ings; V. Damov and I.Rosenberg de signed the graphic il lus tra tions. Field -work was con ducted un der IAA li cense G-58/2007.

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