The Move to Global War War Aims Germany

War Council of December 1912

o Germany must prepare for European powder keg.

o Russia is weak and modernizing

o Britain can only get stronger

o Wants to diffuse democratic and socialist rise.

September Programme

o Defensive measure in Social Darwinistic context

o Statement of German hegemony and dominance

o Continuation of Weltpolitik at the expense of British expansion.

Italy

Italy is attractive to the Allies 1) to create a two-front war for Austria-Hungary, 2) to gain

control of the Mediterranean, and 3) to boost Allied army morale.

Treaty of London:

o Blueprint for Italian involvement with the Allies in World War 1

o Promises a lot of land (including irredenta) to Italy

France

Plan 17 (equivalent to the Schlieffen plan)

Immediate takeover of Alsace-Lorraine, and other expansion at German expense.

Want Germany to pay massive reparations.

Great Britain

High-minded altruism (God and country)

Preserves European balance of power (weaken Germany not utterly destroy it)

Gain spheres of influence (Suez canal for example)

American Entry

Once Russia was gone, it became democracy versus evil.

Germany now must win as quickly as possible.

Brings assured victory, only a matter of time now.

Wilson’s 14 Points

Starts when Wilson projects American values and democracy onto the world with his

“Peace without Victory” speech, calling for dismemberment of Realpolitik, and

promotion of morality.

Point 1: Free and Open Covenants:

o This is Wilson’s appraisal of World War 1 (caused by sneaky allances)

o Undermines the current world order, an unpredictable solution.

Point 2: Absolute Sea Freedom:

o Serves the US navy best (best can only get better in this situation)

o Great Britain opposes this because opening the seas will diminish their

superiority, and this makes “absolute” freedom impossible.

Point 3: Removal of Economic Barriers:

o Serves the US Economy best

o Undermines self-determination and domestic policies.

o Removal “to the extent possible” is arbitrary.

Point 4: New World Order (Disarmament)

o French are paranoid of Germany and won’t disarm

o Whoever disarms first is at a disadvantage, creates postponing.

o Too much vested interest in arms manufacturing

Point 5: Free, Open-Minded Colonial Adjustments

o Undermines the universal nationalist sentiment

o Great Empires become equal to small powers, Realpolitik still at play.

Point 14: League of Nations

o Promises collective security, but is that possible?

Treaty of Versailles Big Four did most of the decision making, Central Powers and Russia were not invited.

Allied Expectations

Wilson willing to disarm Germany, forcing them to pay because their Spring Offensive

undermined the 14 points entirely.

Lloyd George willing to stick to 14 points for the purpose of territorial acquisition

Clemenceau, Orlando, and Lloyd George wanted to destroy Germany through the Treaty.

o France wants revenge for Franco-Prussian war.

Italy wants promised rewards from Treaty of London

Actual Results

Major Territorial acquisitions and losses, including Rhineland and Tsar Valley.

Anschluss is prohibited, major disarmament for Germany

War Guilt Clause blaming Germany for causing World War 1 (initiative for Germany to

pay $33B in reparations)

Seen as incredibly harsh to Germans because of their expectations due to Wilsonian

idealism (Partly responsible for German atmosphere creating WW2)

However, no harsher in reality than the treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The other treaties impose heavy limitations on Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey.

France gains interest in Eastern Europe (wishing to stall German eastern expansion,

Bolshevik expansion west, concerned with precariousness of new Eastern Europe)

o Creates mini-ententes with small nations to gain standing

Hague Conferences called in 1899 and 1907 for continued peace and disarmament were

unsuccessful, the trend continues.

League of Nations British and French disagreed about what they wanted out of the League.

Principles:

1. Prevent issues and tensions from getting out of hand through open diplomacy (if

any state resorts to war, they would be censored)

2. Functional cooperation for mutual betterment (such as disarmament, a failure)

3. Execute Peace Treaty Mandates (allowing for collective security)

Problems with collective security are 1) do nations acting collectively necessarily have

collective interests? and 2) different nations define security differently.

Expectations:

1. They expected war to be muzzled, not abolished (pragmatic)

2. Limitations of human nature (rogue states)

3. National self-interest undermines collective security

American abandonment of the League delegitimize the League’s standing

Reasons for American Abandonment:

1. Growing suspicion and isolationist sentiment (Washington farewell address)

2. Article 10 (calling for assistance given to a member experiencing external

aggression) threatens American sovereignty and violates the Monroe Doctrine.

3. US does not want a contamination of American exceptionalism.

4. Wilson’s diminished credibility.

Worldwide Effects of Versailles Economic Situation

Unprecedented casualties and expenditures resulting in widespread hunger, beginning of

the end of European hegemony, the U.S. becomes a creditor nation.

Post World War 1 Germany and the Ruhr Crisis

Germany was democratic and progressive but was virtually stillborn

Problems: Association with the Versailles Treaty created constant threats from

oppositional parties and violent opposition from all fronts (revolts).

The Ruhr Crisis was a French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr Valley, due to

German refusal/inability to pay for reparations.

o Results in German financial insolvency and massive hyperinflation

o Emergence of radical parties and strikes

o Highlights tensions between world powers

o Leads to appraisal of the Versailles Treaty

o People are eventually expelled from the Ruhr Valley

o French took more goods than outlined by the reparation

o Theoretically, their debts were paid, and German investors gained initially.

o Results in massive unemployment, collapse of the German economy and revolts,

in part creating an environment for Hitler’s rise.

Soviet Union

Terribly weak with devastated warfront but was improving prospects with the New

Economic Policy.

Rise of the Comintern as a party aiming to spread communism worldwide.

o Not very effective overall, only worked in China with the KMT.

Russia and Germany were generally shunned, held a secret Rapallo Conference.

o Recognized each other as nations

o Removed all debts

o Strengthen economic ties

o Secret armament agreement

Austria-Hungary

Central and Eastern Europe became fluid and volatile, economically weak and full of

tension.

o Highlights the difficulties of self-determination.

France created mini-ententes to replace the Franco-Russian alliance, create buffer zones

and influence in the East, and a need to control the rise of authoritarian states.

Larger entities such as Yugoslavia were created to fend for themselves.

Ottoman Empire

Creation of a strong Turkish state after the revolution.

Treaty of Sevres was pretty harsh, Lausanne was much softer after revolution and new

government.

They take back Greek-occupied territory and do not need to pay reparations.

o Turkey becomes a potential world power.

This reappraisal of Sevres seems to compromise the entire Treaty process.

Franco-English Relations

1. Couldn’t compromise on how to deal with Germany

2. Absence of Anglo-American security

3. League did not support French interests

4. French wanted to decimate Germany, British needed them to maintain power.

5. British were overextended physically and financially

6. Opposing spheres of influence

Locarno Spring Era Resolutions of the Washington Naval Conference

An American initiative, a very successful conference.

Called to deal with armaments, qualification to supposed isolationism.

1. Naval race was hugely expensive

2. Fearful of Japanese development

3. Eliminate British-Japanese alliance

Reasons for Locarno Era

1. League of Nations have high ideals, public doesn’t want another world war, supports the

League.

2. League of Nations had been successful (successes forgotten because of heavy failures)

3. Changing circumstances such as Rapallo Conference

4. Failure of the Ruhr Crisis encourages a reassessment of Franco-British and Franco-

German relations, because if Germany disintegrates, British would lose out on trade.

5. Constructive reappraisal of reparations issue with the Dawes Plan

6. Emergence of new German (Stresemann), French (Briand) and British (MacDonald)

leadership.

Locarno Pact

Discussed border disputes and German rehabilitation, called by Briand and Chamberlain

Britain: 1) Doesn’t want another Ruhr crisis; 2) Discourage further Soviet-German

relationships; and 3) Break up French ententes.

France: 1) Ensure security at German border; and 2) Influence German rehabilitation

without force.

Germany: 1) Solution of reparations issue; and 2) Diplomatic recognition as a Great

Power

Agreements:

1. Germany respects Western frontiers, FRA, BEL, and GER stay peaceful.

2. Territorial disputes must be brought to arbitration committee

3. French and Belgians evacuate the Rhineland

4. Spirit of Locarno creating a time of hope and peace.

Pan-Germanist ambitions are not dealt with

Weakens the Versailles Treaty due to revision

French are suspicious of Anglo-German coziness.

USSR is completely isolated and ostracized.

Results of Locarno Spring

Kellogg-Briand Pact: A pledge to remove all war, but it’s an impossible pledge that

doesn’t hold much weight.

Young Plan: Proposed to rehabilitate Germany, reducing German payments to $2M

payable by 1988 (much more doable for Germany)

Appraisal of Locarno Spring

Solved problems regarding borders, military intervention, and allied occupation.

However, peace depends on economic prosperity, political stability, collective security,

and thus this period could not last.

Ended in 1929 due to the Great Depression and the death of Gustav Stresemann.

Collapse of the League of Nations

Great Depression:

o Encourages autarky over international trade, undermining the League and

promoting fascist ideologies.

o Eliminates democratic resurgency and international cooperation.

Disarmament Failure:

o U.S. did not want to cut the arms industry (compromises the economy)

o Reduces the legitimacy of the League

o Great Depression doesn’t help matters, move towards national security over

collective security.

o Nazi Germany and Japan leave the League

Japan

Meiji Japan

This era formed many of Japanese political, economic, and socio-cultural structures.

Modernization and Reputation improvements (adaptation of Western values)

o Becomes a strong economic/military force in Asia.

Policy

Based on Western prototype (party emergence in 1890, Quasi-democratic constitution)

Universities and newspapers established, promotion of education

o Deeply proud and homogenous.

Their homogeneity facilitates rapid change, unwillingness to end up like China.

By 1890s, Westernization diminishes, return to Japaneseness.

Costs of Modernization

Very high taxes, peasants are unsatisfied (rich get richer), lots of immigration.

Emperor is given extraordinary power, left wing is suppressed immensely.

Education more for moral purposes than actual education, taught loyalty to state.

Foreign Aims

Gain diplomatic equality and respect to become a Great Power.

Ongoing exploratory mission in the West to learn Western ways.

Promotion of education, conscription, patriotism.

Make Korea a Japanese sphere of influence 1) as an access point to China, 2) for

preclusive Imperialism, and 3) they feel entitled.

Sino-Japanese War Fought between Japan and Qing Dynasty, Japan beat China quite easily to gain control of

Korea (China had lackluster troops and leadership, surrendered in 6 months)

Very surprising to the West, builds concern of Japanese

o Builds Japanese nationalist sentiment and anti-Chinese sentiment

Treaty of Shimonoseki: China recognizes Korean independence, Japan gains Taiwan

and Manchuria, massive reparations for China.

Russia, Germany, and France create a memorandum forcing Japan to relinquish

Manchuria, humiliating Japan but also motivating them.

U.S. becomes afraid of the state of the Great China Market due to Chinese financial

issues (this motivates the Boxer rebellion)

Anglo-Japanese Alliance

British Aims: secure commercial and military interests in China and Pacific.

Japanese: gains international prestige by allying with GB

o Assurance from West of neutrality, creation of Russia as common enemy.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Russia extends sphere of influence in Manchuria (Trans-Siberian railroad)

Russo-Japanese War can be seen as prototype for World War 1.

o Technological advancement, cost, bloodshed, mass mobilization.

Russia’s diplomatic silence provoked Japanese to begin hostilities.

Battle of Mukden: one of the largest battles of the 20th century

Russians lost badly (poor command, unprepared, too self-confident, closed Suez)

Britain agrees to extend Anglo-Japanese alliance

Treaty of Portsmouth:

Japan gains standing as world power, but they are weakened financially.

Rise of Yellow Peril (Western fear/suspicion of Japan) because Japan was

angry that they hadn’t been given enough at the conference.

American-Japanese Relations

Premised on American development, suspicion of Japanese

Johnston-Reed Act: limits European immigration and prohibits Asian immigration

Root-Takahira Agreement: acknowledgement by Japan of U.S. claims to Phillipines

and by U.S. of Japanese claims to Korea in 1908.

International Relations

Russia and Japan are willing to negotiate

Korea falls under Japanese protection

North Manchuria becomes Russian sphere of influence, South goes to Japan

Justification of Japanese Expansionism

G: Greatness

R: Resources

O: Overseas Markets

S: Settlement

S: Security

Further Involvement (1914-1922) World War 1

War creates opportunity, expands Empire despite minimal influence

Mutual Western and Japanese suspicion

21 demands made to China

Versailles Treaty

Japan saw wartime victory as mutilated (expected to keep captured German territories)

Siberian Expeditions

Joined the Allies in fighting for the Whites

Showed Japanese Imperial ambitions as far as Siberia.

Wanted to intensify anti-communist sentiment, create buffer state in Siberia.

Taisho Era (1912-1926)

Democracy

Western-like techonological and cultural developments.

Limited Western emulation at beginning (no real parties, transcendental cabinet that

didn’t really do anything)

A commoner becomes Prime Minister, moving Japan towards electoral system.

1920s two-party system was very conservative and not very honest.

Peace Preservation Law: turns dissent into a moral issue, modified in 1928 to include

religious aspects

Opposition was allowed but was extremely limited, no tolerance for communism.

Tokko established in 1911 to investigate groups with ideologies that can undermine the

present authority, military police also established in 1881.

Kokutai: Unique Japanese idea translated as national identity (rejects Western

democracy and promoted Imperial democracy)

Emperor’s role becomes very ambiguous, however the military has a direct governmental

role (tied to the Emperor)

Domestic Policies

Underlying deep-seeded traditionalism, heavy social repercussions

o Importance of hierarchical structure, obedience, and duty.

Existence and influence of right-wing ultranationalist secret societies

Lots of economic instability (rural poverty, 1927 banking crisis)

Zaibatsu: large financial/industrial enterprise such as Mitsubishi

K: Kokutai Principle C: Meiji Constitution

I: Economic Instability A: Anti-Immigration Act

P: Peace Protection Law S: Secret Societies

P: Police T: Traditionalism

I: Political Instability E: Earthquake

Foreign Policy Russia

By 1922, relations were pretty good due to Japanese recognition of the USSR (despite

their opposition to communism)

U.S. pressured Japan to evacuate Siberia.

United States

Neither Nation wanted to antagonize each other militarily.

Japanese-American rapprochement:

1. Japanese financial instability

2. Didn’t want competition with eachother

3. Needs American trade and imports

4. Suspicious of Japan

5. Secure Pacific possessions and Open Door to China

6. End Anglo-Japanese alliance (racism, security)

Four Power Pact:

Ends Anglo-Japanese alliance (problematic for GB)

GB, Japan, US, and France respect each other’s possessions

Five Power Pact:

Determination of naval ratios (5 for US/GB, 3 for Japan, 1.7 for France/Italy)

Japan felt they’d been treated unfairly BUT in reality they get an extremely

powerful Pacific concentrated navy (gain Pacific dominance)

Nine Power Pact:

Japan removes troops from Siberia, respects Chinese integrity

Becomes dominant in Pacific, militarily and economically

USA restricts possibility of Japanese expansion.

China

China was very weak but in the process of changing

Kuomingtang (KMT): group made of democratic and socialist principles that sought to

modernize China (not very successful)

Japan tried to maintain clout in China and couldn’t alienate the KMT or the USA

The military was not a fan of rapprochement

However, Japan 1) Respected Chinese territorial integrity, 2) Economic relations, 3)

Sympathetic to Chinese governmental aims, and 4) protected Japanese rights

Manchuria

1927-1928 signals the beginning of Japanese militarism (troops go to Manchuria to

protect Japanese interests)

The Japanese military agreed to expansion of military budget, ultranationalism, and

disarmament opposition, but disagreed on whether or not to revolt.

Southern Manchuria is an important sphere of influence that could be lost to the KMT.

Young extremists assassinated a warlord in Manchuria but were not punished (Prime

Minister did not want to humiliate Japan, assassinated as a result)

The Great Depression

Japanese decision to tie value of yen to the gold standard results in massive

unemployment (horrible crop collection, businesses close permanently)

Zaibatsu are doing well, making the civilians suspicious of them and the government.

Mukden Incidents

Bomb explodes on September 18, 1931 just outside Manchuria City

Blamed on Chinese nationalists but actually planned by Japanese army (to create an

excuse for retaliation)

Japanese occupies Chinese villages without much opposition

o China was no match for Japan, didn’t want war to spread.

o Wanted demographic expansion in face of Depression, create a buffer state

between them and the USSR.

This serves to weaken civilian government, promoting the military.

Shanghai Incident

5 Japanese monks beaten on January 18, 1932, creating lots of Sino-Japanese tension.

On January 28, 1932, Japan bombed Shanghai.

Violation of League rules, Kellogg-Briand Pact, Washington Naval Conference

League and the US ask Japan to leave Manchuria but Japan refuses.

League of Nations

League was overall hesitant to intervene, thinking it was bad timing and there was

nothing wrong happening (Great Powers however are very worried)

A commission was established to investigate the crisis but took months to get started,

finally after nearly a year they determined Japanese invasion was illegitimate.

Japan leaves the League of Nations and sends more troops to Manchuria.

Japan (1932-1937)

Domestic instability, new state Manchukuo becomes colonial extension of Japan.

o Oppressive Japanese government in Manchukuo.

In an era called the Showa Period named after the reigning Emperor.

2/26 Incident:

o Some Imperial Army divisions started a revolt, killing officials and occupying

government buildings. (They wanted Showa restoration)

o Emperor labels this as a mutiny, ends military factions.

o Results in capitulation of civilian government and increased military budget,

expansion of the Empire.

German invasion of Rhineland and Italian invasion of Ethiopia teaches Japan that open

aggression can work

Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936:

o Expansion of common hostility towards communism

o Pact made between Japan and Germany, showing Japanese fascist sympathy

o Removal from Western ideology, nearing confrontation with Russia.

Stalin asked China to sign agreement to join common front against fascism in 1937.

Second Sino-Japanese War Begins in 1937 and merges with WW2 in 1941.

Japanese infantry exchanges fire with Chinese at a bridge, one Japanese thought to be

taken prisoner. Japan therefore launches a massive invasion.

Japan has technological and military advantage, took over railroads and spread war

through China. (Brutalities such as Rape of Nanking made Japan ruthless)

Chinese used guerrilla tactics to continue resistance, eventually overextending the

Japanese and isolating them from American exports

Japan therefore got caught up in a war they couldn’t win, but had so much pride that they

were not allowed to lose.

Reasons for Pearl Harbour

1. Increased need for natural resources due to war and financial difficulties

2. Restrictions in American-Japanese trade.

3. American and Japanese conflicting interests in the Pacific

Italy

Liberal Italy (1870-1915)

Domestic Problems

1. Regionalism (lack of national identity because regional identity was so prevalent)

2. Poverty (especially in the South)

3. The Roman Question (Roman Catholic Church doesn’t accept unification)

4. Massive immigration and politically corrupt system

Foreign Problems

1. Irredenta Issue (Italian regions of people not a part of Italy)

2. Reputation as the least of the Great Powers

3. 1896 effort to take control of Ethiopia fails, resulting in humiliation

4. Libyan War (1911-1912)

World War 1 Italy

Italy leaves Triple Alliance due to poor relations with Austria-Hungary

Salandra (PM of Italy) decided not to go to war, because the Alliance was only defensive.

However, in 1915 they join the Allies due to the Treaty of London

During the war, the domestic front had political divisions

o Translated to poor leadership on the battlefield.

o Massive casualties and debts

Peace Treaties

Italy was on the winning side, gaining irredenta through Treaty of St. Germain.

Vittorio Orlando is treated as a secondary leader among the Big Four.

Due to practical reasons (survival of Eastern Europe through the preservation of

Yugoslavia) the Treaty of London could not be fulfilled.

o Makes Italy feel humiliated and offended.

Dopoguerra (1918-1940)

Emergence of Fascism Foreign Affairs

Disillusionment and humiliation after the Peace Conferences (14 points betrayed Italy)

Emergence of nationalism and ultranationalism

Domestic Affairs

War debt, unemployment, inflation, causing strikes, tension, and disorder

Tension between northern and southern regions.

The strike and rivals were organized by revolutionists and riots.

Italian state does nothing about it (lack of confidence in the state in general)

Extra-Governmental Responses

Fume (a port) became Italian interest due to rise of nationalism.

Independent actions taken by Gabriello D’Annunzio (invaded Fume and made it

independent, taught state a lesson about sitting idle, emergence of many Fascist slogans

and ideas)

Fume was captured by Italy in 1920, but was unnecessary and was terminated.

The Fume Crisis made the usage of force a necessity, and contributed to the emergence of

the radical left and right.

The right tried to gain control by suppressing the left.

Benito Mussolini Origins Born in Romania, was a bully as a child (expelled from school for staging a revolt)

Established a socialist paper Avanti, but later turned radical and was expelled from the

socialists

Served in the army but was injured during practice, still very ultranationalist, frustrated

with the Italian State doing nothing.

Became associated with battlegroups responsible for ending Italian issues.

Begins organization that became seed of fascist party in March 1919 (diverse

membership)

March on Rome: Mussolini’s National Fascist Party came to power in Italy in October

1922.

Italian Fascism Emphasis on struggle, militancy, imperialism, national expansionism, corporate and

national solidarity, autarky, singular state rule, action.

Opposed to Marxism, internationalism, liberalism, atheism, class division.

Problems of fascism include infantilism, anti-intellectualism and simple polarities,

hatred and scapegoating, and a culture of death.

Mussolini’s Rise Became Prime Minister in 1922 (thus had to work with the system, but manipulated it to

his advantage)

Started by creating a good image of himself domestically and abroad. (Attempted to

continue to feign support by restoring Catholic education and banning public swearing)

Attempts to broaden support by conservative business interest, plays on communist threat

November 22, 1922: asks Parliament for 1 year of emergency powers to act with firm

and decisive will, which was granted to him

o Only a temporary measure, and not a big deal to the current government.

o However, Mussolini uses this to extend his power, becoming Minister of Interior

and Exterior.

Mussolini changes the electoral system by introducing the Acerbo Law in 1923

o The country is divided into 5 constituencies, and if a party gets 25% or more of

the votes per constituency, they gain 2/3 of the seats in Parliament

o Enables the fascists to win the next election democratically.

The Fascists combination of an effective propaganda campaign, suppression of

opposition, and utilization of violence, as well as the division of socialists and

communists allows the Fascists to win.

Matteotti Crisis: moderate socialist (opposed to fascists) murdered in 1924 by the

Squadristi (paramilitary branch responsible for suppressing the socialists)

Mussolini thought this crisis would diminish his credibility, but in reality it destroys the

far left due to a lack of unity and strength)

King Emanuel decides to support Mussolini in the face of a suspected far left revolution

(wanted stability for Italy).

Squadristi wanted Mussolini to act, or they would leave, so Mussolini takes over in 1925.

o He bans all opposition and unions, introducing a fascist secret police.

o Law in 1925 gives Mussolini the power to rule by himself without the parliament.

However, relative to Stalin and Hitler, Mussolini was only totalitarian to a small extent.

o The King still remained the head and was not eliminated (the King can dismiss

Mussolini at any point)

o The army and navy were not entirely fascist, nor was the church.

Cult of Personality of Mussolini Short, big headed, charming, intelligent, practical, a lot of rhetoric (creation of an image)

He rules without a Parliament, he makes all the decisions

Positive government initiatives such as mass education, parades, after work societies,

propaganda, association with the church.

Negative side includes censorship, secret police, spies everywhere, no job access for non-

fascists, re-structuring of being “Italian”

Justification of exaggeration of the cult of personality is the core of the fascist ideology

o Anti-intellectual movement, connection to history (Mussolini as a new Caesar),

vanity and contempt for the masses.

o It was successful but only to a certain degree.

Foreign Policy Italy wanted expansion on the grounds of historic claims (Roman Empire), glory and

revenge to solidify Italian World Power status, racism, national security.

Mussolini was not very aggressive however because he did not initially have a master

plan (nothing Mein Kampf like), and he wanted to maintain his status of being respected.

However, there were some aggressions, including the Corfu crisis (an Albanian-Greek

border issue leading to the bombardment of Corfu. The Great Powers asked Italy to leave

Corfu, and Italy threatened to leave the League.)

Mussolini gets involved in Stresa in 1934 to oppose German attempts to invade Austria.

Italy threatens invasion if Germany goes any further, so Germany backs off.

Change in perception of peace in Italy:

1. Aggressiveness was actually always dormant

2. Fascist principles required militancy.

3. Frustration at limited Italian gains

4. The Great Depression

5. Divert attention from domestic problems to nationalism

6. Rise of Nazism

7. Failure of Disarmament

8. Success of the Manchuria Crisis for Japan.

Stresa Front

Mussolini was still presenting himself as a peaceful ruler at the time, but Germany wants

to inaugurate an Austrian-German union (rejected by Austrian dictator, assassinated as a

result)

o Mussolini sends troops to the German border, causing Hitler to retreat.

Italy, France, and Britain agree to maintain the independence of Austria, securing

Locarno Treaties and resisting further attempts to violate Versailles.

France becomes suspicious of German military gains

Italy undermines Stresa by keeping the door open to treaties with Germany

Britain undermines Stresa by making an agreement with Germany, allowing them to

increase their navy to 35% the size of the Royal Navy.

Ethiopian War

Necessary for revenge, glory, racial reasons, war as a purpose of the fascist ideology,

economic factors, demographic reasons, strategic reasons, nationalism to divert attention

from domestic difficulties.

Mussolini attempted to win quickly and without embarrassment, invaded in 1935 with a

huge army, new technologies, and even poison gas.

o Wanted to show what fascism represents through swift and absolute victory.

League of Nations said it was a clear violation of the principles of the League through

Italian aggression.

However, the British needed Italy on their side, and opened the Suez canal for them to

access Ethiopia.

Italy gains Imperial glory, and this ends up being the height of the fascist regime.

Clear use of poison gas and barbarian warfare undermines Italy’s claims to civilization

Mussolini begins to see himself as unstoppable, enters Spain and suffers disastrously.

o Now he is isolated, leading to a friendship with the Nazis, falling under their

influence in terms of policy.

o Since Germany sees the inactivity of the League and the Great Powers, they

decide to invade the Rhineland unopposed in 1936.

Spanish Civil War (1936)

Italy and Germany side with the nationalists while USSR sides with the loyalists.

Italy supports Franco by giving him massive amounts of resources (they want to preserve

interests in the Western Mediterranean and gain Spanish economical cooperation)

o Germany was much less supportive, and wanted to prolong conflict in order to

promote European divisions and solidify their dominance.

o Results in a massive waste of resources for the Italy

Germany just keeps benefitting due to continued Italian isolation and decision to ally

with the Nazis.

Axis Pact (1936)

Close diplomatic and military connection between Italy and Germany

Divided into Anti-Comintern pact and the Pact of Steel (1939), both economic and

military alliances.

By this time Italy becomes a secondary power relative to Germany.

It was necessary for Italy because of their diplomatic isolation, the heavy international

opposition to fascism, and Italian expansionist aims.

This serves to divide Europe.

Mussolini adopts Nazi ideology, and Italy becomes a satellite of Germany, where Hitler

had no intention of consulting Mussolini about anything, even about their alliance with

the Soviet Union, and their eventual invasion of Poland.

Nazi Germany

Road to World War 2 Issues predating WW1 are ongoing, they are: nationalism, expansionism, militarism, the

racial reason.

Effects of the Treaty of Versailles

Emergence of fascism

During the Locarno Spring era, all the chaos seems to disappear, yet it is only an illusion.

Great Depression:

o Event that in part ended the Locarno Spring era.

o Emergence of aggressive and anti-democratic regimes such as Italy, Showa Japan,

and the Nazis.

o The League at this point was diplomatically irrelevant.

o Isolation of the US (they were much more concerned with domestic issues)

o Stalin attempted to underplay the Comintern and associate with other parties against

fascism, but it backfired and Russia decided to initially side with Hitler.

o Self-serving and uncooperative nature of the Eastern European states (such as

Hungary) facilitates the expansion of the Nazis.

Therefore, Hitler’s role is foundational and most likely the most significant causes of

WW2, but he was not singular.

Historiography Hitler Motivations:

o The first perspective is that Hitler had a program with clear intentions regarding

German expansion and remained consistent with the details.

o The other perspective says that Hitler had no master plan and just took advantage

as situations arose (The Nazi system prompted this, but this did not really depend

on Hitler)

Nature of Foreign Policy:

o Some believe that Nazi Foreign Policy of 1930s was radically new and

completely different.

o Others believe that Hitler was not different from previous German rulers, and

Hitler was only acting with German interests.

Race Issue:

o One school presents that race was important, but ultranationalism and

hyperimperialism were also important.

o Another school showed that the race was a driving force of Nazi ideology and

expansionism, even labelling WWII the race war.

Consolidation of Power Hitler comes into power in January of 1933.

As a chancellor, he secures greater control of the state (not completely in control until

1938). Secures absolute control of his role by eliminating opposition in 1934.

Reichstag fire in 1933 as an excuse to blame the communists and get them persecuted.

o Hitler therefore gets a majority in the 1933 election and eventually passes the

Enabling Law (granting Hitler the right to make laws and treaties without the

approval of the Reichstag, similar to Mussolini)

Gleichschaltung (meaning “coordination”) meaning the Nazi and German parts merge.

All parties are banned, all governors and state heads are Nazi appointed, police falls under

control, it also establishes the racial laws.

In 1934, the President dies and Hitler becomes both Chancellor and President.

“Night of the Long Knives” where the leader of the SA (“Stormtroopers”) was assassinated

(rival to Nazis and an embarrassment as well, the leader was homosexual)

Domestically for the Nazis, the keys to progress were economic instability, rearmament,

racial and socio-cultural restructure of society to ensure racial purity.

Economic Policy

Massive unemployment in Germany

New Plan:

o Economic policy established a state control of the German economy (Schacht plan)

o Exacted goods of equal values and bought only essential material in order to recover

more rapidly than any economy of any other nation during the Great Depression.

o The plan created money for rearmament and granted employment to many people.

4 Year Plan:

o Emphasizes the importance of purchasing raw materials more than consuming

goods, all for the purpose of war preparation. Plan aimed at rearmament.

o Clear violation of the Versailles Treaty and humiliation of the League of Nations

Nazi Foreign Involvement Initial Phase (1933-1935)

Hitler is unapologetic about violating the Treaty of Versailles.

Nazis were not completely in control of the government yet. (army not controlled)

Germany withdrew from the disarmament conference and the League of Nations in 1933,

justified due to unequal treatment and militarization of France (fear of German aggression)

Stresa Front in 1934 where Hitler was forced to back off due to Mussolini.

Hitler generally “behaved himself” and was peacefully and traditionally diplomatic.

Polish-German Pact:

o Initiated a 10 years non-aggression pact, including an acknowledgement of borders.

o Hitler hoped this would undermine Polish relations with France.

o Gives Germany the time for remilitarization

o Makes USSR fearful of the German-Polish alliance

Anglo-German Naval Agreement:

o Germans were allowed to build the equivalent of 35% of the Royal Navy.

o Could be the first step towards an Anglo-German alliance

o Britain acknowledges German remilitarization despite its violation of Versailles.

1. Acted out of own self-interest, did not want other nations having a greater

Navy.

2. They did not want tensions with Germany

3. They wanted a say in German rearmament

4. Improvement of Anglo-German relations.

German aggressive rhetoric was not very concerning at the time because

1. Treaty of Versailles was dead anyway (reparations cancelled, Rhineland abandoned

by the Allies, etc.)

2. Pan-Germanism was seen as a version of self-determination

3. Nazism was a counterweight to communism, and from the Nazi’s perspective, a

savior of Europe.

Rhineland Invasion (1935-1936)

Decision in 1935 to remilitarize on a grand scale (done in the context of a good economy)

This includes mass conscription, building the army, navy, and invading the Rhineland.

Results of Invasion:

1. Raises Hitler’s popularity at home substantially

2. France and Britain see it as an invasion of their backyard, not gravely serious.

3. The League didn’t do anything, complete end of Versailles’ influence.

4. Provides Germany with important economic base (80% of coal production is

returned to Germany)

Spanish Civil War (1936)

German involvement is deceptive

Germany wanted to annihilate Western powers with their technology, needed a test run.

Able to develop their tactics, while creating divisions between GB, France, and Russia

while simultaneously bringing them closer with the Italians.

Hossbach Memorandum (1937)

Hitler’s expansionist aims were discussed with his military advisers.

They discuss Lebensraum (living space; territorial expansion to the East), the need for war,

and the invasion of Czechoslovakia and Austria.

Several generals protested the expansionism, and two of them were fired afterward.

Anschluss Attempt of 1938

Nazis annexed Austria, as an integral part of Hitler’s expansionism (Pan-Germanist

ambitions)

In 1935 Hitler declared he wouldn’t intervene in Austrian affairs, but it was only to exploit

any upcoming possibilities.

The problem in 1937-1938 was the reaction of the French, Italians, and British

o However, Mussolini was no longer much of a threat, and Hitler was convinced that

GB would not interfere.

Austrian Nazis attempted to destabilize the Austrian government, and there was an open

discussion about whether or not Austria wanted to be with Germany.

Eventually however, Hitler ruthlessly invades and takes over Austria, realizing Anschluss.

This terrifies Czechoslovakia, increases Hitler’s popularity, and weakens Italian standing.

Sudetenland Crises:

The Sudetenland is populated with around 3 000 000 Austro-Hungarian Germans. (Region

in Czechoslovakia)

However Czechs do not step down due to their strong army and alliance with Russia.

Hitler was expected to use gradual tactics to take over the Sudetenland, but circumstances

had changed drastically:

o Czechs ordered a partial mobilization of troops near the German border and calls

for Western intervention.

o The Germans mobilize as a result, Czechs offer to give autonomy to Germans in

Sudetenland, but Hitler rejects it.

o British PM calls a conference to give Germany autonomy in Sudetenland, but Hitler

says no again because he wants war.

o Mussolini acts as a mediator because he doesn’t want war.

o Germany wants war, Great Powers willing to sacrifice the Czechs to avoid war.

Munich Conference:

o 4-Power conference: Germany, Italy, France, and GB (Russia and Czechosovakia

were not there). Happens in October 1938.

o 1/3 of Czech population was lost to Germany, Hungary, and Poland.

o The Sudetenland was given to Germany, not considered a major concern.

o France and GB worried about overseas empires, very careful to avoid war.

o Temporarily delays war, giving France and GB time to rearm.

o The USSR was resentful of being left out of negotiations, becomes suspicious of

the West which leads to the eventual Molotov-Ribbentrop non-aggression pact

between Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany.