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The most complex problem
How to get from here
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The most complex problem
How to get from here to there
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LECTURE PRESENTATIONSFor CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lectures byErin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Animal Development
Chapter 47
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Figure 47.1
1 mm
A human embryo at about 7 weeks after conception shows development of distinctive features
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Development: cellular level • Cell division• Differentiation
– cells become specialized in structure & function
• Morphogenesis (organogenesis)
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Development: cellular level • Cell division• Differentiation
– cells become specialized in structure & function • if each kind of cell has the same genes,
how can they be so different?– shutting off of genes = loss of totipotency– Turning genes on based on chemical cues
• Morphogenesis (organogenesis)
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Development: cellular level • Cell division• Differentiation
– cells become specialized in structure & function • if each kind of cell has the same genes,
how can they be so different?– shutting off of genes = loss of totipotency– Turning genes on based on chemical cues
• Morphogenesis (organogenesis)– “creation of form” = give organism shape– basic body plan
• polarity– one end is different than the other
• symmetry– left & right side of body mirror each other
• asymmetry– look at your hand…
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Our model organisms
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Developmental events
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENTSperm
Adultfrog
Egg
Metamorphosis
Larvalstages
Zygote
Blastula
Gastrula
Tail-budembryo
FE
RT
ILIZ
AT
ION
CLEAVAGE
GASTRULATION
OR
GA
NO
-
GE
NE
SIS
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Fertilization in sea urchins: fast block and slow block to polyspermy
Basal body(centriole)
Spermhead
Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-bindingreceptors
Vitelline layer
Egg plasma membrane
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Figure 47.3-2
Basal body(centriole)
Spermhead
Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-bindingreceptors
Hydrolytic enzymesVitelline layer
Egg plasma membrane
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Figure 47.3-3
Basal body(centriole)
Spermnucleus
Spermhead
Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-bindingreceptors
Hydrolytic enzymesVitelline layer
Egg plasma membrane
Actinfilament
Acrosomalprocess
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Figure 47.3-4
Basal body(centriole)
Spermplasmamembrane
Spermnucleus
Spermhead
Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-bindingreceptors
Fusedplasmamembranes
Hydrolytic enzymesVitelline layer
Egg plasma membrane
Actinfilament
Acrosomalprocess
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Figure 47.3-5
Basal body(centriole)
Spermplasmamembrane
Spermnucleus
Spermhead
Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-bindingreceptors
Fertilizationenvelope
Corticalgranule
Fusedplasmamembranes
Hydrolytic enzymesVitelline layer
Egg plasma membrane
Perivitellinespace
EGG CYTOPLASM
Actinfilament
Acrosomalprocess
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Slow block to polyspermy: Change in Ca++ in the egg makes f.e.
10 sec afterfertilization
25 sec 35 sec 1 min500 m
500 m30 sec20 sec10 sec after
fertilization1 sec beforefertilization
Point of spermnucleusentry
Spreadingwave of Ca2
Fertilizationenvelope
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
CONCLUSION
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Egg Activation
• The rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol increases the rates of cellular respiration and protein synthesis by the egg cell
• With these rapid changes in metabolism, the egg is said to be activated
• The proteins and mRNAs needed for activation are already present in the egg
• The sperm nucleus merges with the egg nucleus and cell division begins
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Zona pellucida
Follicle cell
Spermbasal body
Spermnucleus
Corticalgranules
• When the sperm binds a receptor in the zona pellucida, it triggers a slow block to polyspermy (no fast block to polyspermy has been identified in mammals)
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(a) Fertilized egg (b) Four-cell stage (c) Early blastula (d) Later blastula
50 m
CLEAVAGE•Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a period of rapid cell division without growth•Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells called blastomeres•The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel
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Zygote
2-cellstageforming
4-cellstageforming
8-cellstage
Vegetal pole
Blastula(crosssection)
Gray crescent
Animalpole
Blastocoel
0.25 mm
0.25 mm
8-cell stage (viewedfrom the animal pole)
Blastula (at least 128 cells)
Cleavage in a frog embryo
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• Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations, involves
– Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo
– Organogenesis, the formation of organs
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 47.2: Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival
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ECTODERM (outer layer of embryo)
MESODERM (middle layer of embryo)
ENDODERM (inner layer of embryo)
• Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands, hair follicles)
• Epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas)• Epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts and ducts
• Germ cells• Jaws and teeth• Pituitary gland, adrenal medulla• Nervous and sensory systems
• Skeletal and muscular systems• Circulatory and lymphatic systems• Excretory and reproductive systems (except germ cells)• Dermis of skin• Adrenal cortex
• Thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands
Figure 47.8
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Animalpole
Blastocoel
Mesenchymecells
Vegetal plateVegetalpole
Blastocoel
Filopodia
Mesenchymecells
Blastopore
Archenteron
50 m
Ectoderm
Mouth
Mesenchyme(mesoderm formsfuture skeleton)
Blastopore
Blastocoel
Archenteron
Digestive tube (endoderm)
Anus (from blastopore)
Key
Future ectodermFuture mesodermFuture endoderm
Gastrulation in the sea urchin
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Key
Future ectodermFuture mesodermFuture endoderm
SURFACE VIEW CROSS SECTIONAnimal pole
Vegetal poleEarlygastrula
Blastocoel
Dorsal lip ofblasto-pore
BlastoporeDorsal lip ofblastopore
Blastocoelshrinking
Archenteron
Archenteron
Blastocoelremnant
EctodermMesodermEndoderm
Blastopore
Yolk plugBlastopore
Lategastrula
3
2
1
Gastrulation in frog embryo
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Future ectoderm
Migratingcells(mesoderm)
Blastocoel
Epiblast
YOLK
EndodermHypoblast
Primitive streak
Fertilized eggPrimitivestreak
Embryo
Yolk
Gastrulation in chicks
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Blastocyst reaches uterus.1
2
3
4
Blastocyst implants(7 days after fertilization).
Extraembryonic membranesstart to form (10–11 days),and gastrulation begins(13 days).
Gastrulation has produced athree-layered embryo withfour extraembryonicmembranes.
Uterus
Maternal bloodvessel
Endometrial epithelium(uterine lining)
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Blastocoel
Expanding region oftrophoblast
EpiblastHypoblast
Trophoblast
Expanding region oftrophoblast
Amniotic cavity
EpiblastHypoblast
Yolk sac (from hypoblast)
Extraembryonic mesoderm cells(from epiblast)
Chorion (from trophoblast)
AmnionChorionEctodermMesoderm
EndodermYolk sac
Extraembryonic mesoderm
Allantois
Embryonic development in humans
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Figure 47.12a
Blastocyst reaches uterus.1
Uterus
Endometrial epithelium(uterine lining)
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Blastocoel
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Figure 47.12b
Blastocyst implants(7 days after fertilization).
Maternal bloodvessel
Expanding region oftrophoblast
Epiblast
Hypoblast
Trophoblast
2
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Figure 47.12c
Extraembryonic membranesstart to form (10–11 days),and gastrulation begins(13 days).
Expanding region oftrophoblast
Amniotic cavity
Epiblast
HypoblastYolk sac (from hypoblast)
Extraembryonic mesoderm cells (from epiblast)
Chorion (from trophoblast)3
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Figure 47.12d
Gastrulation has produced athree-layered embryo withfour extraembryonicmembranes.
AmnionChorionEctodermMesoderm
Endoderm
Yolk sac
Extraembryonic mesoderm
Allantois
4
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Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes
• The colonization of land by vertebrates was made possible only after the evolution of1. The shelled egg of birds and other reptiles as
well as monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
2. The uterus of marsupial and eutherian mammals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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• The four extraembryonic membranes that form around the embryo in a reptile/bird:
– The chorion functions in gas exchange
– The amnion encloses the amniotic fluid
– The yolk sac encloses the yolk
– The allantois disposes of waste products and contributes to gas exchange
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Neuralation in a frog embryo
Neural folds
1 mm
Neural fold
Neural plate
Notochord
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Archenteron
(a) Neural plate formation
(b) Neural tube formation
(c) Somites
Neural fold
Neural plate
Neural crest cells
Outer layerof ectoderm
Neural crest cells
Neural tube
Eye Somites Tail bud
SEM
Neural tube
Notochord
Coelom
Neuralcrestcells
Somite
Archenteron(digestivecavity)
1 mm
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Organogenisis in a chick
Neural tube
Notochord
Archenteron
Lateral fold
These layersform extraembryonicmembranes.
Yolk stalk
YOLK
Yolk sac
Somite
Coelom
EndodermMesodermEctoderm
(a) Early organogenesis (b) Late organogenesis
Eye
Forebrain
Heart
Bloodvessels
Somites
Neuraltube
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Morpho-genesis results from cells changing shape
Ectoderm
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Figure 47.15-2 Ectoderm
Neuralplate
Microtubules
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Figure 47.15-3 Ectoderm
Neuralplate
Microtubules
Actinfilaments
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Figure 47.15-4 Ectoderm
Neuralplate
Microtubules
Actinfilaments
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Figure 47.15-5 Ectoderm
Neuralplate
Microtubules
Actinfilaments
Neural tube
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Elongation of tissue by convergent extension
ExtensionConvergence
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Concept 47.3: What determines how parts form; and messing with those determining factors
• Determination is the term used to describe the process by which a cell or group of cells becomes committed to a particular fate
• Differentiation refers to the resulting specialization in structure and function– Can result from: oocyte composition, logal signals, gravity
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Epidermis EpidermisCentralnervoussystemNotochord
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Blastula Neural tube stage(transverse section)
(a) Fate map of a frog embryo
64-cell embryos
Blastomeresinjected with dye
Larvae
(b) Cell lineage analysis in a tunicate
Fate mapping
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First cell divisionZygote
HatchingTim
e a
fter
fer
tiliz
ati
on
(h
ou
rs)
Intestine
Intestine
MouthEggs Vulva
Anus
1.2 mmANTERIOR POSTERIOR
Nervoussystem,outer skin,muscula-ture
Muscula-ture, gonads
Outer skin,nervous system
Germ line(futuregametes)
Musculature
10
0Figure 47.18
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Determination of germ cell fate in C. elegans.
100 m
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Control egg(dorsal view)
2
1a 1b
Graycrescent
Controlgroup
Experimentalgroup
Experimental egg(side view)
Graycrescent
Thread
Normal NormalBelly piece
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
How does distribution of the gray crescent affect the developmental potential of the first two daughter cells?
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Figure 47.7b
Animalpole
0.25 mm
8-cell stage (viewedfrom the animal pole)
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Figure 47.7c
0.25 mm
Blastocoel
Blastula (at least 128 cells)
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Can the dorsal lip of the blastopore induce cells in another part of the amphibian embryo to change their developmental fate?
Dorsal lip ofblastopore
Pigmentedgastrula
(donor embryo)Nonpigmented
gastrula(recipient embryo)
Primary embryo
Secondary (induced) embryo
Primary structures:Neural tubeNotochord
Secondary structures:Notochord (pigmented cells)Neural tube(mostly nonpigmented cells)
EXPERIMENT RESULTS
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Figure 47.24
Limb buds
50 m
AnteriorLimb bud
AER
ZPA
Posterior
Apicalectodermalridge (AER)
(a) Organizer regions (b) Wing of chick embryo
Digits
Anterior
Proximal
Dorsal
Posterior
Ventral
Distal
2
34
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• One limb bud–regulating region is the apical ectodermal ridge (AER)
• The AER is thickened ectoderm at the bud’s tip• The second region is the zone of polarizing
activity (ZPA)• The ZPA is mesodermal tissue under the
ectoderm where the posterior side of the bud is attached to the body
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Donorlimbbud
Hostlimbbud
ZPA
Anterior
Posterior
New ZPA
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
What happens when you put ZPA on both sides of a budding limb?
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Could you make a human with pinkies on both sides of their hands?
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What role does the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) play in limb pattern formation in vertebrates?
Donorlimbbud
Hostlimbbud
ZPA
Anterior
Posterior
New ZPA
4
4
3
3
2 2
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
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• Sonic hedgehog is an inductive signal for limb development
• Hox genes also play roles during limb pattern formation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Homeotic genes
• Mutations to homeotic genes produce flies with such strange traits as legs growing from the head in place of antennae.– structures characteristic of a particular part of the
animal arise in wrong placeantennapedia flies
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Homeobox DNA• Master control
genes evolved early
• Conserved for hundreds of millions of years
• Homologous homeobox genes in fruit flies & vertebrates– kept their
chromosomal arrangement
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Cilia and Cell Fate
• Ciliary function is essential for proper specification of cell fate in the human embryo
• Motile cilia play roles in left-right specification• Monocilia (nonmotile cilia) play roles in normal
kidney development
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 47.26
Lungs
Heart
Liver
Spleen
Stomach
Large intestine
Normal locationof internal organs
Location insitus inversus