The Mongols.pdf

7/27/2019 The Mongols.pdf

1/71

Mongols

The Mongols made no technological

breakthroughs, founded no new religions, wrote few

books or dramas

Why historically significant?

a conduit [not a creator] of civilization


2/71

To compare

Im agine i f the U.S., instead of being created bya group of educated merchants & wealthyplanters, had been founded by one of its illiterateslaves, who, by the sheer force of personality,charisma, & determination, liberated Americafrom foreign rule, united the people, inventeda new system of warfare, marched an army fromCanada to Brazil, and opened roads of

commerce in a free-trade zone that stretchedacross the continents. Jack Weatherford inGenghis Khan


3/71

A Quick B ackground Nomads

Genghis Khan chosen

leader

Need for water leadsto conquest - Central

Asia lacked rain for

agriculture

Greatest Opportunity

was trade horses!


4/71

Mongols Declared themselves to be

descendents of Huns whofounded the 1st steppe empirein late Classical era.

Called Tartars especially byWesterners (people fromhell), though a misnomer:Mongols conquered steppetribe Tartars, but because somany Tartars rose toprominence in the MongolEmpire, the name becamesynonymous with Mongols.


5/71

What w ere the key facto rs that al low edfewer than 125,000 no m ad ic w arrio rs to

bu i ld the largest em pire in w orld h istory? Military prowess

Adaptation of local societies / talents

Timing: fragmentation of postclassicalstates


6/71

Impact of the Mongols

The Mongols created a single economic,cultural, and epidemiological world system

Mongol ExchangeNew methods of warfare

Trade from Venice to Beijing and beyond

Demographic change via the plague and majorpopulation shifts

Altered the political histories of Russia, China,Europe

Unparalleled cultural diffusion


7/71

Chronology of the Mongol Empire

1206-1227 Reign of Chinggis Khan

1211-1234 Conquest of northern China

1219-1221 Conquest of Persia

1237-1241 Conquest of Russia

1258 Capture of Baghdad

1264-1279 Conquest of southern China


8/71


9/71

Strong Equestrians and Archers

The Mongols were orientedaround extreme mobility. They

carried their houses with them,

drank their own horse's blood

to stay alive, and could travel

up to 62 miles per day.

They had an elaborate priori ty-

mail-system which allowed

orders to be transmitted

rapidly across Eurasia.

Mongol archers were very

deadly and accurate

Their arrows could kill enemies

at 200 meters (656 feet)


10/71

Mongol War Equipment

The warrior carried aprotective shield made of lightleather armor which was impregnated with a

lacquer-like substance in order tomake it more impervious topenetration by arrows, swordsand knives, and also to protect itagainst humid weather

The Mongol warrior used towear Chinese silk underwear,if it could be obtained,because it was a very tough

substance If arrows are shot f rom a longdistance, it would not penetratethe silk

It would also prevent poison fromentering the bloodstream

During w inter they wore severallayers of wool as well as heavyleather boots with felt socks ontheir feet.

The legs were often protected byoverlapping iron plates resembling

fish scales, which were sewn intothe boots.

Each warrior carried a battle axe, acurved sword known as scimitar; alance, and two versions of theirmost famous weapon: the Mongolre-curved bow.

One of the bows was light andcould be fired rapidly fromhorseback, the other one washeavier and designed for long-range use from a groundposition


11/71

Psychological Warfare

Genghis Khan used combined fake retreats with accurateHorse Archers to pick off his European enemies.

Genghis Khan slaughtered a few cities, in an attempt to scare

all other cities to surrender without a fight. He, being a

practical leader, also valued smarts more than bravery

If enemies surrendered without resistance, the Mongols usuallyspared their lives, and they provided generous treatment for

artisans, craft workers, and those with military skil ls

In the event of resistance, the Mongols ruthlessly slaughtered

whole populations, sparing only a few, whom they sometimesdrove ahead of their armies as human shields during future

conflicts


12/71

Genghis Khan

In 25 years, subjugated more land & people than theRomans did in 400 years.

Destroyed LOTS of less important cities often alongless accessible trade routes to funnel commerce intoroutes that his army could more easily supervise andcontrol.


13/71

Genghis Khan Valued individual merit & loyalty

Fighting wasnt honorable; winning was.So, used any means necessary to win(trickery, etc.)

Conscripted peasants: Mongols just didntunderstand peasants who seemed likegrazing animals rather than real humans

who ate meat. They used same terms,precision, & emotion in rounding up yaksas peasants.

Refugees preceded Mongol attack aspeople from outlying areas fled to cities forprotection but overwhelmed the cities &

spread fear LOVED negative PR: allowed &

encouraged true or false stories to becirculated in order instill fear.

Fought on the move: didnt care if chasedor fled (unlike sedentary soldier-farmer),

just wanted to kill the enemy.


14/71

Genghis Khan innovations

Relied on speed & surprise and perfected

siege warfare (not relied on defensivefortifications)

Used resources of land instead of relyingon supply train

Allocated fallen soldiers share of loot towidow/children (ensured support)

Reorganized army so each unit had a mixof tribal/ethnic peoples and they had tolive & fight together ---transcend kinship,ethnicity, & religion.

Religious tolerance

Instituted postal system forcommunication

Ordered writing system created

Abolished torture & insisted on rule of law(to which even the khan was accountable)


15/71


16/71

Rule in conquered territories

Ruthless annihilation of resistance (terrortactics).

General benevolence when no resistance.

Cities generally left under native governors. Religious tolerance important in

consolidating rule, gain support of minorities

oppressed by Muslims. Administration commonly more benign, less

corrupt than pre-Mongol government.


17/71

Overland Trade and Plague

1. Mongol conquests opened overland trade

routes and brought commercial integration of

Eurasia.

2. Disease including the bubonic plague

spread among the world.


18/71

Pax Mongolica?

Under the Mongols, therewas unprecedented long-distance trade

Mongols encouraged theexchange of people,technology, andinformation across theirempire

Weatherford: theMongols werecivilizations unrivaledcultural carriers

Marco Polo en route to China


19/71

Pax Mongolica By the mid 13th c, the family of Genghis

Khan controls Asia from China to the

Black Sea creating a period of stabilityduring which trade flourishes to newheights along the Silk Routes. Beforelots of fighting in East Asia and fightingbetween Muslims & Christians in the SWAsia, but now stability brings trade inmore volume & people who now travelthe entire distance.

Encouraged great commercial, religious,intellectual exchange between the East &West.The Mongolsmade cul ture portable: it

was not enough to merely exchange

goods, because whole systems ofknowledge had to also be transported inorder to use many of the new products(e.g. drugs werent profitable trade itemsunless one possessed medicalknowledge for their use, so moved Arabdoctors to China & vice versa)

Mongol

Passport

Marco Polo traveling the Silk Roads


20/71

Pax Mongolica: look at all these routes!

E h D i th M l E


21/71

Exchanges During the Mongol EraFrom

Europe

From

Southwest Asia

From

South Asia

From

East Asia

Honey

Horses

Glassware

Slaves

Textiles

Rugs

Incense

Finished iron products

Finished gold products

Spices

Gems

Perfumes

Textiles

Gunpowder

Firearms

Rockets

Magnetic compass

Porcelain

Silk

Maritime Technology

Paper MakingPrinting

Tea

Christian missionaries

Italian merchants

European diplomats

Muslim merchants

Nestorian merchants

Muslim diplomats

Indian merchants

Indian diplomats

Buddhist religious objects

Chinese bureaucrats

Chinese artists, artisans

East Asian diplomats

Sugar cane Black Death

Intellectual Exchanges of Ideas, Art, Architecture, Knowledge was constant


22/71


23/71


24/71

War with Persia 1218-1222

War started after Persians put Mongolemissaries to death.

War of annihilation on both sides.

Mongol detachment sent to pursue

Shah across his own empire.

Following conquest of Persia, Mongol

troop circled Caspian.


25/71


26/71

Mongols vs. Islam =

End of Abbasid control and

world dominance.

Opened path for politicaldivision within Islam between the

Ottomans and the Mamluks.


27/71

Mongols in the Middle East Hulegu, another of Chinggis

grandsons, led expeditions into

Islamic kingdomsled to thecomplete end of Abbasidcaliphate (1258)

The honeymoon was short-lived, as the Mamluks of Egypt,with Christian help (wow,really?), rose in rebellionagainst Hulegus forces in 1260

These events, however, would

leave the door open for thecousins of the Mongols, theTurks of central Asia, to comeand invade the Middle Eastover the next 2 centuries


28/71

Regional Effects: SW Asia Muslim societies had highest levels of

commerce & had renowned civilization --

likewise, Mongol invasion did most damagehere.

They sacked Baghdad --the heart of theMuslim world -- using pontoon boats alongrivers, more powerful gunpowder, &exploiting religious differences amongpeople.

No other non-Muslim troops would conquerBaghdad until 2003 & not since the birth ofIslam had so much of the Muslim world beenruled by non-believers. While the Crusadershad only managed to seize a few ports, theMongols had then conquered every Muslim

kingdom & city from the Indus River to theMediterranean. -- Onlythe ArabianPeninsula & North Africa were outsidetheircontrol.

Under the Ilkhanate of Persia, Persianculture reemerged from centuries of Arab

domination.
http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/millwarj/website%20images/A92.jpg


29/71

The Mongols and Islam, 1260-1500

A. Mongol Rivalry

In the 1260s the Il-Khan Mongols murdered

the Abbasid Caliph because of religious

differences. However, Batu - the khan of the Golden

Horde in Russia, had converted to Islam and

vowed to attack the Il-Khan region.

Europeans attempted to pit the Mongols

against one another, but the Il-Khan ruler

Ghazan became a Muslim in 1295.


30/71

B. Islam and the State

The goal of the Il Khan state was to collect as much tax

revenue as possible.

In the short term the tax farming system was able todeliver large taxes, but over-taxation led to the rise ofthe price of grain and a severe economic crisis

1349 the Golden Horde destroyed the Il-Khan empire

As the Golden Horde and the Il-Khan empires declinedin the 14th century, Timur built the Jagadai Khanate andhis descendents - the Timurids - ruled the Middle Eastfor several generations.


31/71

C. Culture and Science in Islamic Eurasia

Juvaini wrote the first comprehensive work of therise of the Mongols under Genghis Khan

Rashid al-Din published a history of the world

Muslims under Mongol leadership made greatstrides in astronomy, calendar making, and thepredication of eclipses

Devised decimal fractions, calculated the value of pi,and had a significant effect on the development ofEuropean science and mathematics.


32/71


33/71

Invasions of Eastern Europe


34/71

The Mongol Drive to the West- Russia and Europe were added to the Mongols

agenda for world conquest, and subjugatingthese regions became the project of the armiesof the Golden Horde, which drove westward .

- Kiev was in decline by the 13th century, and

Russia was unable to unite before the Mongols(called Tatars by Russians)

- Chinggis Khans grandson, Batu, defeated theRussian armies one by one, resisting armieswere razed

- Kiev was taken by 1240 very few townssurvived (only Novgorod and Moscow becausethey submitted)


35/71

Russia in Bondage

- The Russians became vassals of the khan of the Golden

Horde, a domination which lasted for 250 years- Peasants had to meet the demands from both their own princes

and the Mongols, and many sought protection by becomingserfs, changing the Russian social structure until the 19thcentury

- Some cities like Moscow benefited from Mongol rule byincreased trade, but when the Golden Hordes powerweakened, it led the resistance

- Although Mongols remained active in the region through much

of the 15th century, Moscow became the center of politicalpower in Russia

- The Mongols influenced Russian military and politicalorganization, but most significantly isolated them fromdevelopments in Western Europe did not experience the

Renaissance or Reformation


36/71

Regional Effects: Russia under the Golden Horde

In RussiaMongol forces successfully attacked Russia in 1224 by

defeating Kiev Rus. Destroyed most cities & demanded high tribute.

However, the Mongols left Russia largely to its own devices & fewMongol officials were there (INDIRECT rule). Russia had lots ofindependent principalities, each required to send tribute or else.

New places --like Moscow (Muscovy) to the north --began to growwith the Mongols implementation of a postal system, financialstructures, & census. Moscow became a cultural & economiccenter.

Armenians, Georgians, & Russians thought Mongols were apunishment from God who fetched the Tartars against us for oursins.

Limited Russias interaction with Western Europe (e.g. Russiawas isolated from the cultural effects of the Renaissance) --aperiod of cultural decay except in northern Russia.

Lasted the longest of the all the khanates (until 1480)


37/71

Another description:

The Mongols were terrible to look at and

indescribable, with large heads like

buffaloes, narrow eyes like a fledglings, a

snub nose like a cats, projecting snoutslike a dogs, narrow loins like an ants,

short legs like a hogs, and by nature with

no beards at allAn Armenian observer


38/71

Mongols in Russia

Good :Centralization politicallyProtected Russia from attacks

(Teutonic Knights)

Bad :Russia cut off from political,economic, and intellectual

development


39/71

Mongol Incursions and the

Retreat from Europe Christians in western Europe were initially

pleased with Mongol success against Islammany thinking the Mongol khan was Prester

John, a mythical Christian monarch. As Mongols continued moving westward, they

became more concerned

With the death of Ogedei and the resultingstruggle for power, Batu was forced to withdraw

The Mongols did not return to Europe, satisfiedwith their rich conquests in Asia and the Middle

East

Regional Effects: Europe


40/71


Mongols defeated Germans, Poles, Bulgars, &

Hungarians (whose land was most desiredbecause of grassy plains).

Eastern Europe was poor compared to Chinese

& Muslim areas, so the Mongols turned awayfrom several areas leaving Europe to sufferthe

least from the Mongol attacks

Europe gained SO much from the advantagesof the contact through merchants & exchange

of diplomatic & religious envoys.


41/71


Clerics looked to Bible for answer & thought theMongols were a missing Hebrew tribe that wasacting in collusion with European Jews.

Unable to defeat the Mongols, the Europeans

could defeat the Jews (their imagined enemiesat home) and began attacking Jewish quarters incities throughout Europe: setting fire to homes,massacring residents, forcing Jews to flee asrefugees throughout Europe

prompting the Catholic Church to order Jews towear distinctive clothes & emblems in order toidentify newly arrived Jews in communities.

M Eff t E


42/71

More Effects on Europe Disappointed with loot from European

invasions, Mongols allowed Italian

merchants in Crimea to take many oftheir European prisoners to sell asslaves (esp. to Egypt) in exchange forlarge amounts of trade goods.

This began a long & profitable

relationship between Mongols &merchants of Venice & Genoa whoset up trading posts in Black Sea:Italians supplied Mongols withmanufactured goods in return for theright to sell the Slavs as slaves in theMediterranean market slaves whowould ultimately defeat the Mongolsas the Mamluks in Egypt.

Silk routes opened & then spreadPLAGUE to Europe.


43/71

New States in Eastern Europe and Anatolia

- Mongol armies drove to the outskirts of Vienna, but withdrew

in 1241 because they needed to elect a successor to thedeceased Great Khan Ogodei.

- Europeans then initiated a variety of diplomatic and trade

overtures toward the Mongols.

Mongol invasions and the bubonic plague caused Europeans

to question their religious beliefs.

After Mongol power began to wane in the 13th and 14th

centuries, strong centralized states such as Lithuania and the

Balkan Kingdoms began to assert their control over their

neighbors. Anatolia functioned as a route b which Islamic culture s read


44/71


45/71

The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History

Kubilai Khan, another grandson, moved against the

Song in China and by 1271 his dynasty became the

Yuan.

Kubilai forbid the Chinese from learning Mongol script,

intermarriage was forbidden, and he refused toreestablish exams for civil service.

Despite restrictions, Kubilai was fascinated with

Chinese civilization and adopted much of their culture

into his court. He built his capital at Tatu in the north,

a site occupied by previous dynasties, put the empire

on the Chinese calendar, and introduced Chinese

rituals and music into his own court.


46/71

Society in the Yuan Dynasty

A new social structure emerged:

Mongols at the top

nomadic and Islamic allies were next

then north Chinese

finally ethnic Chinese and peoples of the

south


47/71

Gender Roles and the Convergence of

Mongol and Chinese Culture

Mongol women remained aloof from ConfucianChinese culture, refusing to accept foot-binding andretaining property rights and control of the household,as well as freedom of movement.

Some Mongol women hunted and went to war.

Chabi, wife of Kubilai, was especially influential;convincing him that harsh treatment of survivors was

counter-productive and promoting Buddhists interestin government.

The Mongol period in China was too brief and theirnumbers too small to change Confucian patterns and

freedom of women declined after Kubilai

M l T l d F i


48/71

Mongol Tolerance and Foreign

Cultural Influence

The Mongol rulers were open to outside ideasand drew scholars, artists, and office seekersfrom many regions

Muslims were among the most favored, andthey brought much new knowledge into theChinese world

Kubilai welcomed foreign visitors mostfamous was the Venetian Marco Polo

He was interested in all religions Buddhists,Nestorian and Latin Christians, Daoists and

Muslims were all present at court


49/71

Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance

The scholar-gentry resented the Mongols refusal toreinstate the examination system, and regarded themas uncouth barbarians

Artisans and merchants prospered under Mongol rule,

and their patronage stimulated urban life includingpopular entertainment, especially musical dramas. Actors and actresses, who had long been relegated to the

despised status of mean people by the scholar-gentry,achieved celebrity and social esteem.

Peasantry land was protected and their tax and laborburdens lessened, and plans for establishingelementary education at the village level wereformulated

A d di t


50/71

And according to one

Chinese observer:

They smell so heavily that one

cannot approach them. Theywash themselves in urine


51/71

The Fall of the House of Yuan The Yuan dynasty was weakening by the time of

Kubilais death, as Song loyalists revolted in the south+ Mongol forces were defeated in Vietnam and Java

Kubilais successors were weak and theiradministration was corrupt.

Secret religious sects, claiming to have magicalpowers, such as the White Lotus Society, werededicated to overthrowing the dynasty.

The scholar-gentry called on the peasants, sufferingfrom famines, to drive out the barbariansand thedynasty was too weak to control (1350)

Many Mongols returned to central Asia as a peasantleader, Ju Yuanzhang, triumphed and founded theMing dynasty

H did J i t M l


52/71

How did Japan resist Mongol

invasion?

One series of events thatseverely weakened theMongols in China were theexpeditions to Japan

The Mongols attempted toinvade Japan twice[1274 and 1281]

Twicethey were repelledby typhoons

Kamikaze or divinewind


53/71

Inspiration for WW II kamikaze


54/71

The Mongo lsThe Good, the Bad & the Ugly

( li h t &


55/71

THE GOOD (accomplishments &contributions)

Military Strategy &Innovation Cavalry,Horse Archers, surpriseattacks, sieges - Genghisfirst needed to disbandtribal loyalties

Religious Tolerance(converted to all faiths inregion except Hinduism)

Common Legal Code Utilized skills of

conquered peoples artisans, soldiers

(accomplishments &


56/71

THE GOOD (accomplishments &contributions)

Discipline, obedience to own laws

Sense of honor and loyalty, respect for

these qualities in others, even opponents

High status of women

These qualities attested to even by

European observers who generallydetested the Mongols


57/71

THE GOOD, cont Golden Horde was the

only group to successfully

conquer Russia

Created largest

continental empire inhistory

TRADE source of

diffusion goods, ideas &

people - under Mongolrule it was less risky

Pax Mongolica


58/71

The Mongol Empire at its height


59/71

THE BAD (failures & struggles) Constant in-fighting for

power Khan

Genghis never setupcentralized rule, Kublai

struggled with it (YuanDynasty)

Kublai failed to conquerVietnam, Burma,Cambodia & Japan

Inability to control Chinawithout considerableforce

Over-spending


60/71

Shortly after Chinggis Khans death, his empire splitinto four Khanates


61/71

THE BAD, cont THE PLAGUE!!!

Over-extension loss of control in Persia

Struggle between nomadic lifestyle and need

to settle (centralized government)

(What!?! Those


62/71

THE UGLY (What!?! ThoseMongols were CRAZY!!)

Surrender or Die

Looting & Destruction of

Cities

Massacres (1.6 Million in

1 Afghan city, as many as

18.4 Million total killed)

Use of organized tactical

terror

All exemplified by the

Ilkhanates conquering of

Middle East (Persia)


63/71

THE UGLY, cont Lots of Babies - as many as

.5% of the Earths currentmale population can tracegenetic lineage back toGenghis (500 wives &concubines)

Plague catapults biologicalwarfare?

Strange diet, hairstyles and

odor Cannibalism?

Genghis funeral parade ofdeath?

Question


64/71

Question

How did the Mongol conquestsbring an end to the post-classical

civilizations in Eastern Europe,

Western Europe, and Islam?

Answer


65/71

Answer

Russia end of Kievan dominance

power shifts to Moscow

Byzantium Ottoman dominance

and fall of Constantinople (1453).Western Europe limited direct

impact but Black Death has latereffect. Trade increases with East.

After-Shock: Timur-i Lang (Timur the Lame) (Tamerlane)


66/71

Just as the world was recovering from theMongols, another group of invaders, the Turksof Central Asia, under the leadership of Timur,

began raids on the Middle East, India andsouthern Russia

Unlike the Mongols, Timurs invasionsrepresented ABSOLUTE BARBARISMlittletolerance for anything in his path

Pyramids of skulls, wanton slaughter of innocentpeoplehe did spare artisans and scientists fromMuslim lands though and took them back to hiscapital at Samarkand

For a brief period there was no increase incommercial tradea halt to cultural

exchangeinternal peace subsided His death in 1405 signified the end of the great

nomadic challenges to Eurasian civilizations asthe Turks under future leaders (Mehmed II)sought a sedentary empire

TIMURS WORLD


67/71

TIMURS WORLD


68/71

The Impact of the Mongols

POLITICAL

Mongol conquest left Russia more dividedculturally & less developed than WesternEuropean nations

Descendants of Genghis Khan & Timur

established the Mughal Empire in India Introduced new military techniques &

organization to Turks & Europeans such assmall organized units, the use of cavalry &

the effective use of gunpowder Mongol defeat of the Seljuk Turks in 1243 CEallowed for the later rise of the OttomanTurks in the Middle East


69/71


ECONOMIC

Global trade expanded dramatically under Mongolcontrol Italians were the primary beneficiaries inEurope; security, use of paper currency, control &management of Silk Road all increased trade in theEastern Hemisphere

Europeans were exposed to a much greater numberof Chinese goods on a large scale gunpowder &printing being among the most influential

The global trade network became more intertwined

Mongol decline made land travel more dangerous &

a shift to seafaring occurred in Europe & China after1400 CE

Mongol conquest likely spread the Black Plague tothe Europe which would have devastating economiceffects


70/71


SOCIAL

Mongols practiced religious toleration in the MiddleEast & Europe and often converted to local religions

allowed Islam & Orthodox Christianity to continueto thrive

Russia became isolated from European trends l ikethe Renaissance continued the spl it betweenEastern & Western Europe started w/ the ByzantineEmpire

The Black Plague devastated Europe in the 14th C

Mongol expansion & control of the Silk Road allowedfor cultural diffusion & exploration on anunprecedented scale including the journey ofMarco Polo


71/71

Global Connections The Mongol Linkages

Mongols brought the Muslim and European worldsnew military knowledge, especially the use of

gunpowder

Trade and cultural contact between different

civilizations throughout Eurasia became much easier

Trading empires established in their dominions by

Venetians and Genoese provided experiences for later

European expansion

An unintended consequence was the transmitting of

the fleas carrying the bubonic plague (black death) from

The Mongols.pdf

Documents

Transcript of The Mongols.pdf