The Legislative Branch - JENKINS SOCIAL STUDIES · intend that the legislative branch have more...

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T


Congressional Voting How welldoes your member of Congress represent your interests when he or she votes on bills? Track yourrepresentative’s vote on importantbills during this session of Congress. Post the votingrecord on a class bulletinboard. Write or E-mail yourrepresentative regardinghow well his or her votesmatched your class’spositions.

120

The LegislativeBranchThe LegislativeBranch

� The statue Freedom,cast in bronze withthe help of enslavedlaborers, stands ontop of the dome ofthe United StatesCapitol.

The CapitolTake a virtual tour of the Capitol Building in Washing-

ton, D.C., and discover first-hand how the legislativebranch works.

Glencoe’s Democracy in Action Video Program

The United States Capitol is a symbol of American government. TheDemocracy in Action videoprogram “The Capitol,” referenced below, showshow the Capitol has been the center of decision mak-ing throughout America’spast and continues to be the focus of the nation’sattention.

As you view the videoprogram, try to identifyseveral of the functionsthat the Capitol serves.

Also available in videodisc format. View the videodisc by scanning the barcode or by entering the chapter number on your keypad and pressing Search.

Disc 2, Side 1, Chapter 2

Hands-On ActivityUse library or Internet resources to find information

about your state capitol, where your state legislaturemeets. Create an information pamphlet about your statecapitol. Incorporate information about historic events, pre-sent-day uses, architectural influences, art objects or sym-bols in the building. Use a word processor to design andcompose your pamphlet.

� � � � � � � �

Electronic Field TripElectronic Field Trip

122

The Organizationof CongressThe Organizationof Congress

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Why It’s ImportantWhy It’s Important

Your Congress Beginning in January each year, 535 members ofCongress come together to determinesuch things as the safety of your work-place, the amount of taxes you pay,and how medical care will be provided.

To learn more about howCongress works and how

it impacts you, view the Democracy inAction Chapter 5 video lesson:

The Organization of Congress

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web siteat gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter5–Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

� � � � � � � � � �

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/govciv/usgov2002/chap5/overview.shtml

CHAPTER 5: THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS 123

The Founders did not intend to make Congress a privileged group, but they did intend that the legislative branch havemore power than any other branch

of government. The Constitution emphasized the importance of the lawmaking power by de-scribing Congress in Article I. As James Madisonsaid, Congress is “the First Branch of this Govern-ment.”

The United States Congress is a bicameral leg-islature—it is made up of two houses: the Senateand the House of Representatives. Most delegatesto the Constitutional Convention agreed to a bi-cameral legislature. Eighteenth-century coloniallegislatures had followed the English Parliamentwith its upper house and a lower house.

Today Congress plays a central role in formu-lating national policies. Congress initiates and ap-proves laws dealing with everything from healthcare to tax changes.

Congressional SessionsEach term of Congress starts on January 3of odd-numbered years and lasts for two

years. For example, the 106th Congress began itsterm in January 1999; the 107th Congress beganin January 2001.

Each term of Congress is divided into twosessions, or meetings. A session lasts one yearand includes breaks for holidays and vacations.Until about 1933 Congress remained in sessiongenerally beginning in December and ending inMarch. Because of an increasing workload andthe Twentieth Amendment, today a session ofCongress often lasts from January until Novem-ber or December.

Congress remains in session until its mem-bers vote to adjourn. Neither the House nor theSenate may adjourn for more than three dayswithout the approval of the other house. IfCongress is adjourned, the president may callit back for a special session.

Congressional MembershipS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Congress Votes Out PerksWASHINGTON, D.C., 1996

Rank had its privi-

lege, until Con-

gress heard rumblings

from the people. Pres-

sured by constituents,

senators decided to

hand over a few perks.

They voted out free

lunches, as well as

costly gifts and ex-

pense-paid junkets to

fancy resorts. Was the vote about politics or real re-

form? Wisconsin Democrat Russell Feingold said,

“We in the Senate have to show that we are not fun-

damentally different from other people.” The sena-

tors refused to surrender their free parking at the

National Airport, however.

Free parking at National Airport

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsbicameral legislature, session, census, reapportionment, redistrict, gerrymander, at-large,censure, incumbent

Find Out� How does apportionment of membership in the

House of Representatives in districts providerepresentation to local voters?

� What are the key common characteristics ofmembers of Congress?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes How well do you think members of Congress represent the people whohave delegated legal authority to them?

The United States Capitol�

Membership of the House With its 435 members, the House of Repre-sentatives is the larger body of Congress.

The Constitution does not fix the number of rep-resentatives in the House. It simply states that thenumber of House seats must be apportioned, ordivided, among the states on the basis of popula-tion. Each state is entitled to at least one seat in theHouse, no matter how small its population.

Qualifications The Constitution sets the qual-ifications for election to the House of Representa-tives. Representatives must be at least 25 years old,be citizens of the United States for at least 7 years,and be legal residents of the state that elects them.Traditionally, representatives also live in the dis-trict they represent.

Term of Office Members of the House of Rep-resentatives are elected for 2-year terms. Electionsare held in November of even-numbered years—for example, 1996, 1998, and 2000. Representativesbegin their term of office on January 3 following

124 CHAPTER 5: THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS

Political ProcessesHow does the physicaldivision into politicalgroups help the Speak-er of the House to mod-erate debates?

Past During sessions of the BritishHouse of Commons, “the Govern-ment,” (shown here) led by PrimeMinister William Pitt in the 1790s,sits on one side while the “opposi-tion” sits on the other side. Thespeaker sits in the center, betweenthe two parties.

Present British procedures influ-enced the U.S. House of Representa-tives. Each major political party sitson one side of the chamber, whilethe Speaker occupies a platform inthe front and center.

�

�

Division of the House

the November election. This means that every 2years, all 435 members of the House must run forreelection. It also means that the House reorga-nizes itself every 2 years. Because more than 90 per-cent of all representatives are reelected, however,there is great continuity in the House. If a repre-sentative dies or resigns before the end of the termof office, the governor of the state he or she repre-sented may appoint a temporary replacement untila special election can be called to fill the vacancy.

Representation and ReapportionmentIn order to assign representation according to pop-ulation, the Census Bureau takes a national cen-sus, or population count, every 10 years. The firstcensus was taken in 1790, and each state was ap-portioned its representatives. The next census willbe in 2000. The population of each state determinesthe new number of representatives to which each isentitled—a process called reapportionment. Stateswhose population increases less rapidly than othersor whose population decreases may lose represen-tatives, while states whose population grows fastermay be entitled to more representatives.

Originally the House had only 64 members.Over the years, as the population of the nationgrew, the number of representatives increased.After the 1810 census the House had 186 members.By 1911 the House had 435 members. After the debate sparked by the 1920 census, and concernabout the increasing size of the House, Congresspassed the Reapportionment Act of 1929 limitingthe House to 435 representatives. Now each censusdetermines how those 435 seats will be dividedamong the 50 states.

Congressional Redistricting After thestates find out their reapportioned representationfor the next 10-year period, each state legislature setsup congressional districts—one for each represen-tative. Representatives are elected from these

congressional districts. If a state is entitled to onlyone representative, it has one congressional dis-trict. In most states the state legislature draws theboundary lines for each congressional election dis-trict. The process of setting up new district linesafter reapportionment has been completed iscalled redistricting.

Over the years some state legislatures abusedthe redistricting power. They did so in two ways—by creating congressional districts of very unequalpopulations and by gerrymandering. During theearly 1960s, for example, there were some states inwhich the largest district in the state had twice thepopulation of the smallest district. In these states aperson’s vote in the largest congressional districtshad only half the value of a person’s vote in thesmallest districts.


Congressional Quarterly’sGovernment at a Glance

This apportionment map is based on the 1990 census.It will be adjusted after the census of 2000.What is the general trend in reapportionment because of population shifts?

Critical Thinking

Congressional ApportionmentWA

OR

CA

NV

ID

MT

WY

UT

AZNM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LA

MS AL GA

FL

SC

NCTN

KYWV

VA

MD

DE

NJ

CT

RI

MA

ME

NHVT

NY

PAOHIN

MI

IL

30/+3

4/-1

36/+1

52/+7

2

36

1

25

9/+1

1/-1 1

1

3

8

5/-1

9

4

9

6

7/-1

5 7 11/+1

23/+4

12/+1

6/-1

20/-2

916/-2

10 19/-2

3/-111/+1

8

1

13/-1

6

2

10/-1

2

21

31/-3

21/-2

6

AK1

HI2

Source: Bibby, Governing by Consent, 2d ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1995).

States gaining seatsStates losing seatsStates with no changeIndicates number of House seats+/– denotes gain or loss of seats

23/+4

Visit gov.glencoe.com and click on Textbook Updates–

Chapter 5 for an update of the data.

UPDATE

http://gov.glencoe.com

Redistricting Cases In a series of decisionsduring the 1960s, the Supreme Court addressedreapportionment issues in Tennessee, Georgia, andAlabama. In a case originating in Tennessee, Bakerv. Carr 1 (1962), the Court held that federal courtscould decide conflicts over drawing districtboundaries. Two years later, in Reynolds v. Sims2,the Court held that the equal protection clause ofthe Fourteenth Amendment required that seats inboth houses of the Alabama state legislature be ap-portioned on a population basis. In Wesberry v.Sanders 3 (Georgia, 1964), the Court ruled that theConstitution clearly intended that a vote in onecongressional district was to be worth as much as avote in another district. This principle has come tobe known as the “one-person, one-vote” rule. As aresult, today each congressional district containsabout 600,000 people.

Following the census of 1990, several statesdrew new district lines to increase the power of eth-nic or racial minorities. This approach had two re-sults. First, the number of minority representativesincreased. Second, the new districts tended to con-centrate the Democratic vote, leaving the neighbor-ing districts more Republican.

The Supreme Court upheld challenges toNorth Carolina’s 1992 redistricting (see mapabove) in 1996 and again in 1998. The second rul-ing forced the state to postpone its primary elec-tions. Because there are no clear guidelines for thestates on this issue, the Court has ruled on a case-by-case basis.

Gerrymandering Historically, state legisla-tures have abused their power to divide the state into congressional districts by gerrymander-ing. Gerrymandering means that the politicalparty controlling the state government draws a district’s boundaries to gain an advantage in elections. Gerrymandering often results in districtboundaries that have very irregular shapes.The term gerrymandering can be traced to Elbridge Gerry, an early Democratic-Republican


North Carolina Congressional Districts, 1992

1st District

12th District

Source: Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, June 15, 1996

What governing body has the final authority to determine whether legislative districts are constitutional?

Critical Thinking


While the 1st and 12th districts expanded African American representation,they also helped reduce the number of Democrats elected in the state.

2

3

6

7

3

34

811 9

5

10

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Baker v. Carr case summary, page 754. 2. Reynolds v. Sims case summary, page 764. 3. Wesberry v. Sanders case summary, page 767.

governor of Massachusetts. Gerry had signed a re-districting plan that gave his party a big politicaladvantage over the Federalists. To a map of oneparticularly irregular district that looked like asalamander, artist Gilbert Stuart added a head,wings, and claws. A newspaper editor publishedthe map as a cartoon and labeled it a “Gerryman-der.” Federalists popularized the term.

“Packing” and “cracking” are ways to gerry-mander. Packing a district means drawing the linesso they include as many of the opposing party’svoters as possible. Crowding the opposition’s vot-ers into one district makes the remaining districts

safe for the majority party’s candidates. Crackingmeans dividing an opponent’s voters into otherdistricts. This division weakens the opponent’svoter base.

The Supreme Court has ruled that congres-sional districts must be compact and contiguous,or physically adjoining. This requirement, plus theone-person, one-vote ruling, has cut down onsome of the worst examples of gerrymandering.Nevertheless, the competitive struggle of the two-party system continues to fuel the practice of ger-rymandering. Many districts today are still drawnin irregular shapes for political reasons.



75 17

Political Division of the Senate to 1967

5937

5145

68

4

32

Political Division of the House to 1967

Democrats Republicans

Independents

Political Division of the Senate Since 1987

260

267

258

175

176

231203

1

1

1

Political Division of the House Since 1987**

227207 1

1921–23

1937–39

1947–49

1965–67

1999–01

1989–91

1991–93

1993–95

1995–97

1997–99

167

Swings in Control of Congress

246188

295 140

13333

132

89

300

Democrats and Republicans historically have had periods of dominance in the House and Senate. When was the most lopsided division? Why?Sources: Stanley and Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics

1997–1998 (Washington, D.C.: CQ Inc., 1997); CQ Member Profiles(Washington, D.C.: CQ Inc., 2000).

Critical Thinking

55

56

57

45

44

43

5248

5545

223211 1 5545

258 177 1987–89 55 45

1

1

*

These results are the results on Election Day.*

Divisions of seats within a Congress change due to death, retirement, and party switching.

**

Republicans controlled Congress in the 1920s, but their power ended dramatically during the Great Depression. Democrats lost control briefly in 1947–49, but dominated Congress in the 1960s.

2001–03 50 50221212 12



UPDATE


Membership of the SenateAccording to the Constitution, the Senate“shall be composed of two senators from

each state.” Thus, each state is represented equally.Today’s Senate includes 100 members—2 fromeach of the 50 states.

Qualifications The Constitution provides thatsenators must be at least 30 years old, citizens ofthe United States for 9 years before election, andlegal residents of the state they represent. All votersof each state elect senators at-large, or statewide.

Term of Office Elections for the Senate, likethose for the House, are held in November of even-numbered years. Senators also begin their termson January 3, after the election held the previousNovember.

The Constitution provided for continuity inthe Senate by giving senators 6-year terms and byproviding that only one-third of the senatorswould run for reelection every 2 years. In fact, theSenate has more continuity than the Framersplanned because most senators win reelection.

If a senator dies or resigns before the end ofthe term, the state legislature may authorize thegovernor to appoint someone to fill the vacancyuntil the next election. The governor may also calla special election to fill the seat.

Salary and Benefits The Senate and the Houseset their own salaries. In 1789 salaries for both hous-es were $6 per day. Low pay in the early years de-terred some people from running for Congress.Congress has voted itself periodic salary increases.In 1991 it voted for a pay hike of $23,000, explainingthat the increase would be accompanied by a prohi-bition on honoraria—money paid for speeches.

Meanwhile, a constitutional amendment af-fecting legislative salaries was being considered.Originally proposed by James Madison in 1789,the Twenty-seventh Amendment1 was finally rat-ified by the required 38 states when Michigan castthe deciding vote on May 7, 1992. The amendmentprohibits a sitting Congress from giving itself a payraise. Any new congressional salary increase willtake effect after an intervening election.

Almost immediately a group of plaintiffs, in-cluding some legislators, used the new amendment

to challenge a cost-of-living adjustment to raisesalaries to $133,600 in January 1993. (Automaticcost of living adjustments raised salaries to$141,300 in 2000.) A United States District Courtjudge had ruled that:

“Automatic annual adjustments to congres-sional salaries meet both the language andthe spirit of the 27th Amendment. . . . Oneway to maintain high-quality governmentis to provide our elected officials with a living wage that automatically changes toreflect changed economic conditions.”—Judge Stanley Sporkin, 1992

In addition to their salaries, members of Con-gress enjoy a number of benefits and resources.These include stationery, postage for official busi-ness (called the “franking privilege”), a medicalclinic, and a gymnasium.

Members also receive large allowances to payfor their office staff and assistants, trips home, tele-phones, telegrams, and newsletters. All membersare entitled to an income tax deduction to helpmaintain two residences, one in their home stateand one in Washington, D.C. Moreover, when theyretire, senators and representatives may be eligiblefor pensions of $150,000 or more a year for life.

Privileges of Members The Constitutionprovides members of Congress certain protectionswhile they carry out their legislative duties. Theyare free from arrest “in all cases except treason,felony, and breach of the peace,” when they are attending Congress or on their way to or fromCongress. Members of Congress cannot be suedfor anything they say on the House or Senate floor.

This privilege does not extend to what membersmay say outside of Congress. In Hutchinson v. Prox-mire 2 (1979), the Supreme Court ruled that mem-bers of Congress may be sued for libel for state-ments they make in news releases or newsletters.

The Senate and the House both may judgemembers’ qualifications and decide whether toseat them. Each house may refuse to seat an electedmember by a majority vote. This power ofexclusion was later defined by the Supreme Court


See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799. 2. Hutchinson v. Proxmire case summary, page 760.

in the case of Powell v. McCormack (see SupremeCourt Cases to Debate on page 131). Each housemay also “punish its own members for disorderlybehavior” by a majority vote and expel a legislatorby a two-thirds vote. Only the most serious offens-es such as treason or accepting bribes are groundsfor expulsion. Members who are guilty of lesser of-fenses may be censured. Censure is a vote of for-mal disapproval of a member’s actions.

The Members of CongressCongress includes 535 voting members—100 senators and 435 representatives. In ad-

dition, there are 4 delegates in the House—1 eachfrom the District of Columbia, Guam, AmericanSamoa, and the Virgin Islands—and 1 resident

commissioner from Puerto Rico, none of whomcan vote. However, they do attend sessions, intro-duce bills, speak in debates, and vote in committees.

Characteristics Nearly half the members ofCongress are lawyers. A large number of membersalso come from business, banking, and education.Why are there so many lawyers? Because lawyers byprofession deal with laws, it is logical for them toserve as legislators. Training in law helps a legisla-tor understand the complex legal issues that mayaffect legislation.

Senators and representatives typically have beenwhite, middle-aged males. The average age of mem-bers of Congress is usually over 50. Slowly Congresshas begun to reflect the racial, ethnic, and gender diversity of the general population.


†

Agriculture

Business, Banking

Education

Law

Public Service

6

28

13

55

18

HOUSE

HOUSE

SENATE

SENATE

22

180

86

162

106

Other** 1465Sum may be more than total membership because of members with more than one occupational category.

Women 61

Men 374

Party Affiliation

Gender

Occupational Background

Democrat 212

Independent 2Republi

can

221

Democrat 50 Republica

n 50

Women 13

Men 87

HOUSE SENATE

Profile of the 107th Congress

Congress is changing slowly to reflect America’s diverse population. Which house of Congress is more diverse?


Critical Thinking

Hispanic*21 Asian and

Pacific Islanders5

Caucasian375

* Hispanics can be of any race

Source: CQ Member Profiles, (Washington, D.C.: CQ Inc., 2000).

Race and Ethnic Background

Caucasian97

AfricanAmericans39

Native American 1

HOUSE

SENATE

**

† All figures represent total number of seats.

†

Asian and Pacific Islanders2



UPDATE


Reelection to Congress Membership inCongress has changed very slowly because office-holders seldom lose reelection. One representativeput it simply: “All members of Congress have oneprimary interest—to be reelected.” Beginning withFranklin Roosevelt’s landslide presidential victo-ries in the 1930s, incumbency helped Democratsdominate Congress in all but a few years.

Between 1945 and 1990, about 90 percent of allincumbents, or those members already in office,won reelection. In some elections, many seats wentunchallenged because opponents knew that theywould have little or no chance of winning. One analyst said that winning an election to Congressfor most members was like removing olives from a bottle—“after the first one, the rest come easy.”

Why have incumbents been so successful? First,incumbents find it easier to raise campaign funds.Political action committees (PACs) provide sub-stantial campaign funds, usually supporting incum-bents. Second, incumbents may represent districtsthat have been gerrymandered in their party’s favor.Third, incumbents are better known to voters, whomay have met them at rallies or have seen them ontelevision, or read about them in newspapers. Final-ly, incumbents use their position and office staff tohelp solve problems for voters.

In the 1990s several factors worked together toboost the chances of challengers in congressionalraces. First came a growing wave of criticismagainst the entrenched power that seemed to ac-company lengthy terms in office. Then the publictargeted government as an institution that had to

change. In 1992 voters chose a new Democraticpresident and 121 new members of Congress.

The Voters Speak In 1994 the tide against in-cumbents resulted in a big turnabout in Congress,placing Republicans in control of both houses forthe first time since 1954. Powerful long-term sena-tors and representatives lost their seats. The stand-ing Speaker of the House, Democrat ThomasFoley, was defeated in that election. Almost half ofthe freshman members had never held an electedoffice. In 1996, however, incumbents returned totheir winning ways. More than 90 percent of in-cumbents, both Democrats and Republicans whowere running for reelection, won.

House Speaker Newt Gingrich and other Re-publicans projected gains for their party in the 1998elections. Democrats, however, won some keyHouse races, cutting the Republican majority toonly twelve seats. Gingrich then announced hewould resign as speaker and leave Congress. Re-publicans chose Dennis Hastert of Illinois as speak-er when the 106th Congress convened.

Political Processes What percentage of people believe that their representative doesnot listen to them? Formulate a questionnairethat surveys voters about this issue.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to

the one below, compare the qualifications for representatives and senators.

2. Define bicameral legislature, session, census,reapportionment, redistrict, gerrymander, at-large, censure, incumbent.

3. Identify Elbridge Gerry, Twenty-seventh Amendment, political action committee.

4. How does Congress reapportion House seatsamong the states every ten years?

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Members of Congress

spend part of their time working for reelection.Which house has a greater percentage of itstime remaining for legislative work? Why?

S e ct ion 1 AssessmentS e ct ion 1 Assessment


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 5–StudentWeb Activities for an activity about the Congres-sional membership.

GOVERNMENT

SenateHouse

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/govciv/usgov2002/chap5/webact.shtml

131

Background of the CaseAdam Clayton Powell, Jr., was reelected to

the House of Representatives in November 1966.However, a congressional investigation had alreadydisclosed questionable activities by Powell andmembers of his staff during his previous terms. The House refused to seat Powell. In March 1967Congress declared the seat vacant and notified thegovernor of New York to order a new election.

Powell charged that he had been unlawfully excluded from his seat in the House and broughtsuit in the federal courts. Speaker John McCormackand four other officials were named as defendants.They responded that Congress had authority underthe Constitution to judge the qualifications of itsown members.

The federal district court dismissed the com-plaint on the grounds that it did not have jurisdic-tion in this matter. The United States Court ofAppeals for the District of Columbia refused to hearthe case on the grounds that it was essentially apolitical question. The Supreme Court heard thecase of Powell v. McCormack in 1969. The 90thCongress, to which Powell had been elected, was

no longer in session. In the meantime (1968) Pow-ell had been elected again and seated in the 91stCongress. His lawyers now asked the Court for backsalary for the two years he was denied his seat.

The Constitutional IssueOne constitutional question was whether the

case was justiciable—could be decided by theCourt—under the Constitution. The defendants heldthat the case was not justiciable by the Court be-cause the Constitution gave Congress, not the Court,power to judge the qualifications of its members.

Further, defendants submitted that the ques-tion was “political” and therefore not justiciable bythe Court. Finally, defendants asked whether theCourt could coerce officers of the House or issue injunctions compelling officers or employees of theHouse to perform specific acts.

Powell’s lawyers believed that Congress did nothave the power to judge the moral qualifications ofmembers. The Supreme Court referred to debatesat the Constitutional Convention that related to giving Congress power to judge its members’ qualifications.

Questions to Consider1. What might be a far-reaching result if the Court

decided in favor of the Speaker?2. What might be a far-reaching result if the Court

decided in favor of Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.?

You Be the JudgeMust Congress accept a member if he or she

meets the three basic tests—age, citizenship, andresidency? Does Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., deserveback pay and restoration of his seniority rights?

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

The Constitution gives Congress the power to be the “Judge of the Elections,

Returns and Qualifications of its own Members.” It establishes the age,citizenship, and residence requirements for the House and Senate. Does theConstitution allow Congress to judge qualifications beyond these three spe-cific requirements? The case of Powell v. McCormack addressed this question.

Powell v.McCormack, 1969

CASES TO DEBATE

Adam ClaytonPowell, Jr.

Political division and debate is unavoidablein democratic government. Legislatorsmust have freedom to express their some-times inflammatory opinions. Rules are

necessary to help ensure fairness, to enable the leg-islature to conduct business, and to protect the mi-nority.

Article I, Section 51, of the Constitution says:“Each House may determine the Rules of its Pro-ceedings.” Thomas Jefferson compiled the first parliamentary manual for the Senate when he wasvice president. He emphasized the importance ofrules:

“It is much more material that there be arule to go by, than what the rule is; thatthere may be a uniformity of proceeding inbusiness not subject to the caprice [whims]of the Speaker or captiousness [criticisms]of the members.”—Thomas Jefferson, 1797

Rules for LawmakingThe main task of each house of Congressis the same—to make laws. Because the

House and Senate differ in many ways, eachhouse has organized itself to carry out its work ofmaking the laws. Complex rules and a structureof leadership enable Congress to carry out itslawmaking duties.

Complex Rules Each chamber has scores ofprecedents based on past rulings that serve as aguide to conducting business. The House andSenate each print their rules every two years.House rules are generally aimed at defining theactions an individual representative can take,such as limiting representatives to speaking forfive minutes or less during a debate.

The House of RepresentativesS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

A Floor Fight in CongressPHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA, 1798

Debate on the Sedition

Act has reached such

a furor that representatives

are no longer safe in cham-

bers. In a heated argument

yesterday, Mr. Griswold of

Connecticut attacked Mr.

Lyon of Vermont with a

cane. Mr. Lyon defended

himself with fire tongs.

Fire tongs cannot re-

move the hot coals from

speeches of Federalists who promote the Sedition

Act. Mr. Allen of Connecticut, who supports the

Sedition Act, read from the Aurora, “Where a law shall

have been passed in violation of the Constitution . . .

is there any alternative between abandonment of the

Constitution and resistance?” Mr. Gallatin addressed

the chamber to reveal the real purpose of the Sedi-

tion Act: to silence all Republicans.

Lyon defends himself


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsconstituents, caucus, majority leader, whips, bill,calendars, quorum

Find Out� Why are committees more important in the

House than they are in the Senate?� Why is the Rules Committee one of the most

powerful committees in the House?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy Why does the majorityparty often get the credit or blame for everythingCongress does?

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

The complex rules in the House are geared to-ward moving legislation quickly once it reaches thefloor. House debates rarely last more than one day.Moreover, leaders of the House of Representativeshave more power than leaders in the Senate. Forexample, the rules of the House allow its leaders tomake key decisions about legislative work withoutconsulting other House members.

Committee Work Committees do most of thework of Congress. In the House, committee workis more important than in the Senate. Because themembership of the House is so large, its membersmust organize themselves into smaller groups inorder to accomplish their work efficiently. In thecommittees representatives have more influencethan on the House floor, and they have the time tostudy and shape bills.

In addition, representatives tend to specializein a few issues that are important to their constituents—the people in the districts they rep-resent. For example, Major R. Owens, a representa-tive from Brooklyn, New York, is the only trained

librarian in Congress. He emphasizes the impor-tance of libraries in promoting literacy. As anAfrican American, Owens also supports fundingfor African American colleges and aid for under-privileged students. He explains:

“We need more role models who will opennew possibilities for those who have beenexcluded from the dreams that others takefor granted.” —Major R. Owens

Finally, because House members are electedfrom districts, much of their time is devoted toserving the interests of their constituents. John J.Duncan, Jr., of Tennessee said:

“I have a firm belief we have too many lawson the books now. . . . I’ve made it prettyclear I believe constituent service is mostimportant and is where a freshman can bemost effective.”—John J. Duncan, Jr., 1988


Vernon Baker

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference In 1944 Vernon Baker, a 25-year-old army second lieutenant serving in World

War II, was shot in the wrist by a German sniper. He spent twomonths in a segregated hospital,then returned to lead his meninto battle. On the morning ofApril 5, 1945, Baker destroyedtwo enemy bunkers, an observa-tion post, and three machine gun nests. His company wasnearly wiped out, but he ordered

the seven remaining men to retreat while he drewenemy fire. Somehow, amidexploding shells, LieutenantBaker escaped.

Although the army segre-gated African Americans duringthe war, Baker and his menfought like heroes. Asked why he fought so courageously

for a country that treated him as a second-class citizen, Bakerreplied, “I was a soldier with ajob to do, and I did it for the men I was leading.”

Presented with the Distin-guished Service Cross for his ser-vice in Italy, Baker remained in themilitary after the war. When he re-tired from the army in 1968, hetook a job with the Red Cross,counseling needy military families.

In 1990 Army officials reex-amined their records, looking forcongressional Medal of Honorcandidates among African Ameri-cans with outstanding service inWorld War II. Fifty years after hisact of bravery, Vernon Baker ac-cepted the medal in a WhiteHouse ceremony. “It’s a greatday. We’ve all been vindicated,”he said.

Medal of Honor

Importance of Party Affiliation Many proce-dures in Congress are organized around the politicalparty affiliation of members. In both the House andSenate, the Republicans sit on the right side of thechamber, the Democrats on the left. In each housethe party with the larger number of members, themajority party, selects the leaders of that body, con-trols the flow of legislative work, and appoints com-mittee chairs. The power to organize the Houseexplains why some conservative Democratsswitched to the Republican Party when it became themajority party in Congress after the 1994 election.

The Republican majority began sweepingchanges of House rules in 1995, promoted to makethe House more accountable. Some changes cen-tralized power in the speakership in order to helpRepublicans carry out their agenda. The new rulesprovided for fewer committees, fewer staff mem-bers, term limits for chairpersons and the Speaker,and an end to absentee voting in committees.Many Democrats supported the reforms becausethey were part of a trend begun when the Demo-crats were the majority party.

House LeadershipOrganized leadership coordinates the workof the 435 individual members of the House

of Representatives. These leaders serve 6 purposes:

(1) organizing and unifying party members; (2)scheduling the work of the House; (3) making cer-tain that lawmakers are present for key floor votes;(4) distributing and collecting information; (5)keeping the House in touch with the president;and (6) influencing lawmakers to support the poli-cies of their political party. The Constitution pro-vides only for the presiding officer of the House.Other than that, the House chooses all its otherleaders.

The Speaker of the House The Speaker ofthe House is the presiding officer of the House andits most powerful leader. The Constitution statesthat the House “shall choose their Speaker andother officers.” A caucus, or closed meeting, of themajority party chooses the House Speaker at thestart of each session of Congress, and the entireHouse membership approves the choice of Speaker.

As both the presiding officer of the House andthe leader of the majority party, the Speaker hasgreat power. Presiding over the sessions of theHouse, the Speaker can influence proceedings bydeciding which members to recognize first. TheSpeaker also appoints the members of some com-mittees, schedules bills for action, and refers billsto the proper House committee. Finally, the Speak-er of the House follows the vice president in theline of succession to the presidency.

Today, Speakers rely as much on persuasion ason their formal powers to exercise influence. On atypical day, the Speaker may talk with dozens offellow members of Congress. Often the Speakerdoes so just to listen to requests for a favor. As for-mer Speaker Thomas P. “Tip” O’Neill once put it,“The world is full of little things you can do forpeople.” In return, the Speaker expects representa-tives’ support on important issues.

House Floor Leaders The Speaker’s top as-sistant is the majority leader. The majority leader’sjob is to help plan the party’s legislative program,steer important bills through the House, and makesure the chairpersons of the many committees fin-ish work on bills important to the party. The ma-jority leader is the floor leader of his or herpolitical party in the House and, like the Speaker, iselected by the majority party. Thus, the majorityleader is not actually a House official but a partyofficial.


Freedom The bronze statue on top of the Capitol dome originally was called Armed Liberty by its sculptor, Thomas Crawford. He replaced her soft cap, like that worn by freed Roman slaves,with a feathered headdress to please Jefferson Davis,then secretary of war and later president of the Con-federacy. Davis feared the cap would inflame antislavery passions.

The majority leader has help from the majori-ty whip and deputy whips. These whips serve asassistant floor leaders in the House. The majoritywhip’s job is to watch how majority-party mem-bers intend to vote on bills, to persuade them tovote as the party wishes, and to see that partymembers are present to vote.

The minority party in the House also elects itsown leaders. These include the minority leaderand the minority whips. The responsibilities ofthese leaders are much the same as those of themajority party’s leaders, except they have no powerover scheduling work in the House.

Lawmaking in the HouseTo a visitor, the floor of the House of Repre-sentatives may seem totally disorganized.

Some representatives talk in small groups or readnewspapers. Others constantly walk in and out of

the chamber. Most representatives are not even onthe floor, because they are in committee meetings,talking with voters, or taking care of other busi-ness. Representatives reach the floor quickly, how-ever, when it is time for debate or a vote onproposed bills.

Usually, the House starts its floor sessions atnoon or earlier. Buzzers ring in members’ offices inthe House office buildings, committee rooms, andin the Capitol, calling representatives. The House isnormally in session from Monday through Friday.Mondays are for routine work. Not much is doneon Friday because many representatives leave to goto their home districts over the weekend. Thus,most of the House’s important work is done fromTuesday through Thursday.

How House Bills Are Scheduled All laws start as bills. A proposed law is called a billuntil both houses of Congress pass it and the


othe nstances.

Source: CIA, The World Factbook 1996 (Washington, D.C.).

Country

* Initial term was two years; changed to four after second election.

** Number varies. *** Normal attendance is 300, but many more vote on key decisions.

Legislative Chamber(s)Number of Members

Term of Office

Method of Selection

Date of Last Constitution

Japan Diet House of Representatives House of Councillors

512**252

4 yrs.6 yrs.

elected by local and national constituencies

1947

Israel Knesset 120 4 yrs. popular election 1949

Mexico Chamber of DeputiesSenate

40064

3 yrs.6 yrs.

popular electionpopular election

1917

Egypt National Peoples Assembly 454 5 yrs. popular election 1971

United Kingdom

House of CommonsHouse of Lords

651**300***

5 yrs.life

popular electionhereditary

no writtenconstitution

Selected National Legislatures

Critical Thinking Culture and history play large roles in how legislatures are formed around the world. In what two categories is the United Kingdom unique among the countries shown above?

Russia State DumaFederation Council

450178

4 yrs.*4 yrs.*

popular electionlocal election

1993

United States

House of RepresentativesSenate

435100

2 yrs.6 yrs.

popular electionpopular election

1789

COMPARING GovernmentsCOMPARING Governments

president signs it. According to the procedure currently in place, to introduce a bill in the House,representatives drop it into the hopper, a ma-hogany box that is accessible to all near the front of the chamber.

After a bill is introduced, the Speaker of theHouse sends it to the appropriate committee forstudy, discussion, and review. Of the more than10,000 bills introduced during each legislativeterm of Congress, only about 10 percent ever go to the full House for a vote. Bills that survive thecommittee process are put on one of the Housecalendars. Calendars list bills that are up for con-sideration.

The House has five calendars. Three are usedto schedule different kinds of bills for considera-tion. The Union Calendar lists bills dealing withmoney issues. Most other public bills are put onthe House Calendar. The Private Calendar listsbills that deal with individual people or places. Anybill that the House gives unanimous consent to de-bate out of regular order is listed on the ConsentCalendar. Finally, the Discharge Calendar is usedfor petitions to discharge a bill from committee.

The House Rules Committee The RulesCommittee serves as the “traffic officer” in theHouse, helping to direct the flow of major legisla-tion. It is one of the oldest House committees, andthe most powerful. After a committee has consid-ered and approved a major bill, it usually goes tothe Rules Committee. The Rules Committee canmove bills ahead quickly, hold them back, or stopthem completely.

Because the Rules Committee has the power todecide how and when legislation will be consid-ered by the House, it has often been the focus ofpolitical battles. From 1858 to 1910, the Speaker ofthe House, as chair of the Rules Committee, dom-inated the flow of legislation. In 1911 the House re-volted against Speaker Joseph G. Cannon’sauthoritarian leadership and removed him fromthe Rules Committee.

In 1975 Democratic majorities in the Houseonce again placed the Rules Committee undercontrol of the Speaker. The Democratic Caucusgave the Speaker the power to appoint, subject tocaucus ratification, all majority-party members ofthe Rules Committee. A former Speaker explained:


Like Congress, all deliberative as-semblies need rules to conductbusiness in a fair and impartial

way. Rules of order had their originin early British Parliaments. ThomasJefferson’s Manual of ParliamentaryPractice (1801) provided rules forthe new United States government.Many groups use Robert’s Rules ofOrder, first published in 1876 byU.S. army officer Henry M. Robert. Robert’s Rules addresses suchissues as: 1. How to make a motion and how

to amend a motion2. What rank or precedence various

kinds of motions have3. How to table or suspend a motion

4 How to close or extend debate5. How to raise the question of

consideration and how to vote6. What duties and powers the

presiding officer has

Activity1. Obtain a copy of Robert’s Rules

of Order. Appoint a small group tofind rules pertaining to the itemslisted above. Discuss the needsof a small group meeting (aboutthe size of your class). Write rulesfor such a meeting based onthese needs.

2. Choose a presiding officer for ameeting of your government classand a parliamentarian to enforcethe rules. Hold a meeting in whichthe class determines an issue todiscuss, hears opinions from thefloor, and decides whether to takeany action.



ParliamentaryProcedure

“The Rules Committee is an agent of theleadership. It is what distinguishes us fromthe Senate, where the rules deliberatelyfavor those who would delay. The rules ofthe House . . . permit a majority to workits will on legislation rather than allow itto be bottled up and stymied.”—Speaker Jim Wright, 1987

Republicans became the majority party in theHouse of Representatives in 1995. Their newSpeaker, Newt Gingrich, as minority leader in theprevious Congress had sparked an ethics investiga-tion that resulted in Speaker Jim Wright’s resigna-tion. Gingrich asserted the power to appointcommittee chairpersons, including the leader ofthe powerful Rules Committee.

Function of the Rules Committee Majorbills that reach the floor of the House for debateand for a vote do so by a “rule”—or special order—from the Rules Committee. As major bills comeout of committee, they are entered on either theUnion Calendar or the House Calendar in theorder received. The calendars have so many billsthat if they were taken up in that order, manywould never reach the floor before the end of thesession. To resolve this problem, the chairperson ofthe committee that sent the bill to the Rules Com-mittee may ask for it to move ahead of other billsand to be sent to the House floor. If the RulesCommittee grants the request, the bill moves

ahead. The Rules Committee may also include atime limit for debate on the bill and specify howmuch the bill may be amended on the floor.

Other Purposes of the Rules CommitteeThe Rules Committee also settles disputes amongother House committees. For example, the ArmedServices Committee may be considering a bill thatinvolves an area also covered by the Veterans’ Af-fairs Committee. The Rules Committee can helpresolve any dispute between the two committees.

Finally, the Rules Committee often delays orblocks bills that representatives and House leadersdo not want to come to a vote on the floor. In thisway the Rules Committee draws criticism awayfrom members who might have to take an unpop-ular stand on a bill if it reaches the floor.

A Quorum for Business A quorum is theminimum number of members who must be pre-sent to permit a legislative body to take official ac-tion. For a regular session, a quorum consists ofthe majority of the House—218 members. Whenthe House meets to debate and amend legislation itmay often sit as a Committee of the Whole. In thatcase, only 100 members constitute a quorum. Thisprocedure helps speed the consideration of impor-tant bills. The Committee of the Whole cannotpass a bill. Instead, it reports the measure back tothe full House with whatever changes it has made.The House then has the authority to pass or rejectthe bill.

Growth of Democracy Browse through currentnewspapers and magazines to find out whatlegislation the majority party in the House istrying to pass. Make a chart of the key legisla-tion and record its progress for several weeks.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the

one below, show three ways in which the RulesCommittee controls legislation.

2. Define constituents, caucus, majority leader,whips, bill, calendars, quorum.

3. Identify Rules Committee.4. How do committees help the House do its work?5. How does a representative introduce a bill in the

House?

Critical Thinking6. Understanding Cause and Effect Why are

changes in House rules more likely to occurwhen political control of the House shifts to another party?



Rules Committee

The Senate is a deliberative body. Senatorshandle issues of specific interest to themin their committees, but they also dealwith many other issues on the floor,

where there is plenty of time for debate. Senators,who represent entire states, are expected to knowsomething about and deal with many issues—from national defense to social issues to farming.

The Senate at WorkVisitors going from the House to the Senateare often startled by the difference. The Sen-

ate chamber is smaller than the House chamber.Usually only a few senators attend sessions. TheSenate chamber has 100 desks—one for each sen-ator—facing a raised platform where the presidentpro tem and another senator preside over sessions.The party leaders or their assistants stay in theSenate chamber at all times to keep the work mov-ing and to look after their party’s interests.

Informal Atmosphere In the Senate, therules are more flexible than in the House. Theyare designed to make certain that all senatorshave maximum freedom to express their ideas.For example, the Senate usually allows unlimit-ed debate on proposed legislation. Senate rulesare spelled out in fewer than 100 pages. Withfewer rules, the Senate has a more informal at-mosphere than the House. They may debate aproposal on and off for weeks or even monthsbefore taking action on an issue.

Senate Leaders Leadership in the Senateclosely parallels leadership in the House, butthe Senate has no Speaker. The vice presidentpresides in the Senate, but may not vote exceptto break a tie. Also, Senate procedures permitindividual senators more freedom in their ac-tivities. Consequently, party leaders in the

Senate may not have as much influence over othersenators as their counterparts in the House.

The SenateS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3


First Lady ElectedNEW YORK, N.Y., NOVEMBER 7, 2000

First Lady Hillary Clinton, the Democratic candi-

date for senator from New York, defeated Repub-

lican Congressman Rick

Lazio. At first, Clinton’s

race seemed an uphill one.

The problems of her hus-

band’s presidency lingered,

and she faced accusations

of being a carpetbagger.

Clinton campaigned hard,

however, and won by a

healthy 55-43 percent mar-

gin. She was helped by the

fact that her first opponent,

New York City mayor Rudolph Guiliani, dropped out

of the race mid-campaign.

Hillary Clinton

Reader’s Guide

Key Termspresident pro tempore, filibuster, cloture

Find Out � Why does the Senate have fewer rules and a

less formal atmosphere than the House?� Why does the Senate usually take longer than

the House to pass a bill?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy Why do floor debates in the Senate often include powerful speechescharged with emotion?

The Vice President The Constitution namesthe vice president as president of the Senate. Thevice president, however, does not have the samerole and power as the Speaker of the House. Thevice president may recognize members and putquestions to a vote. Because the vice president isnot an elected member of the Senate, he or shemay not take part in Senate debates. The vice pres-ident may, if the situation warrants, cast a vote inthe Senate, but only in the event of a tie. A vicepresident may try to influence the Senate throughpersonal contact with senators, however. Many re-cent vice presidents previously served as senatorsand thus had close relationships with their formercolleagues.

Most vice presidents find Senate duties un-challenging and devote much of their time to exec-utive branch activities, leaving little time to presideover the Senate. In the absence of the vice presi-dent, the president pro tempore (or president protem) presides. The term pro tempore means “for

the time being.” The Senate elects this leader. Thepresident pro tempore is from the majority partyand is usually its most senior member.

Majority and Minority Floor Leaders Themajority and minority leaders are the most impor-tant officers in the Senate. Elected by the membersof their political parties, the majority and minori-ty leaders in the Senate are party officials ratherthan official Senate officers. The majority leader’smain job is to steer the party’s bills through theSenate. To do this, the majority leader plans theSenate’s work schedule and agenda in consultationwith the minority leader.

The majority leader is responsible for makingcertain the majority party members attend impor-tant Senate sessions and for organizing their sup-port on key bills. The minority leader developscriticisms of the majority party’s bills and tries to keep senators in the minority party working together. As in the House, whips and assistant

The Filibuster—Then and Now

Present During a 1960 filibuster Colorado Republican Gordon Allott,draped in a bedsheet, left his cot toproceed with his oration.

Past In 68 B.C., Cato the Youngerinitiated a filibuster to block Caesar’selection as consul.

Legislative TechniquesOften senators simply threaten to filibuster to defeat legislative bills. Why would these threatswork?

�

�

139

whips assist the majority and minority leaders ofthe Senate by making sure that legislators are present for key votes.

How Senate Bills Are Scheduled As in theHouse, any member of the Senate may introduce abill. Procedures for moving bills through the Sen-ate, however, are more informal than in the House.Because it is smaller, the Senate has never felt theneed for a committee like the House Rules Com-mittee. Instead, Senate leaders control the flow ofbills to committees and to the floor for debate andvote. They do this by consulting closely with oneanother and with other senators.

The Senate has only two calendars. The Calen-dar of General Orders lists all the bills the Senatewill consider. The Executive Calendar schedulestreaties and nominations. The Senate brings billsto the floor by unanimous consent, a motion by allmembers present to set aside formal rules and con-sider a bill from the calendar. The procedure hasnot changed much through the years. In 1913Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge ex-plained that the Senate conducted most of its busi-ness through unanimous-consent agreements:

“Not only the important unanimous-con-sent agreements which are reached oftenwith much difficulty on large and general-ly contested measures, but constantly onall the small business of the Senate we de-pend on unanimous consent to enable usto transact the public business.”—Henry Cabot Lodge, 1913

The Filibuster Because the Senate usually al-lows unlimited debate on a bill, one way for sena-tors to defeat a bill they oppose is to filibusteragainst it. To filibuster means to keep talking untila majority of the Senate either abandons the bill oragrees to modify its most controversial provisions.Senators who have the floor may continue to standand talk. After the first 3 hours, they may talkabout any topic they want or even read aloud froma telephone book or a recipe book.

Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolinaset the record for a filibuster when he spoke againstthe Civil Rights Act of 1957 for 24 hours and 18minutes. A filibuster by a group of senators couldgo on for weeks or even months.

A filibuster can be stopped when three-fifths ofthe Senate (60 members) votes for cloture. Clotureis a procedure that allows each senator to speak only1 hour on a bill under debate. Obtaining a vote infavor of cloture, however, is usually difficult.

The filibuster is not as strong a weapon as itused to be because the Senate now has a two-trackprocedural system. If a filibuster starts, the Senatesets aside one time during the day for handlingother business. The filibuster then starts up againat the end of such business. However, the threat ofa filibuster is often enough to delay or defeat a bill.

Politics As in the House, Senate procedures areorganized around the members’ party affiliations.Republicans sit on the right side of the chamber,while Democrats sit on the left. More importantly,the majority party controls the flow of legislativework.


Growth of Democracy Search through a reference work of historic speeches. Use oneof the speeches as a model for a persuasivespeech of your own.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the

one at the right, show the relationship between the Senate majority and minority leaders, whips, and assistant whips.

2. Define president pro tempore, filibuster, cloture.

3. Identify Calendar of General Orders. 4. How does the Senate bring bills to the floor?

Critical Thinking5. Making Comparisons Compare the rules and

procedures of the House with those of the Senate.


majority minority

While the subject of R-rated moviesmakes for a dramatic hearing, muchof the detailed day-to-day work ofconsidering proposed legislation

takes place in committees that meet in congres-sional offices. Sometimes the hearings are moreexciting and informative than the floor debatesthat follow.

Purposes of CommitteesBoth the House and Senate depend uponcommittees to effectively consider the thou-

sands of bills that are proposed each session. Com-mittees help ease the workload and are the keypower centers in Congress.

The committee system serves several impor-tant purposes. First, it allows members of Con-gress to divide their work among many smallergroups. Lawmakers can become specialists on theissues their committees consider. This system isthe only practical way for Congress to operate be-cause no lawmaker can possibly know the detailsof each of the thousands of bills introduced ineach term of Congress.

Second, from the huge number of bills intro-duced in each Congress, committees select thosefew that are to receive further consideration.Committees are the places in which lawmakerslisten to supporters and opponents of a bill. It isin committees where they work out compromis-es, and decide which bills will or will not have achance to become law. Most bills never get be-yond the committee stage.

Third, by holding public hearings and in-vestigations, committees help the public learnabout key problems and issues facing the nation. Congressional committees have calledthe public’s attention to such issues as orga-nized crime, the safety of prescription drugs,hunger in America, airline safety, and manyother issues and concerns that have confront-ed the nation.

Congressional CommitteesS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4

Judiciary CommitteeLooks at Hollywood

WASHINGTON, D.C., SEPTEMBER 18, 2000

Ads for R-rated films

shown during television

programs with a large per-

centage of viewers under 17

have sparked a Senate inves-

tigation. A federal report

also found that underage

teenagers are easily sneaking

into R-rated movies.

Many people in Holly-

wood are suspicious because

the hearings are being held

less than two months before

a national election. “I think it’s a bunch of weasels

scrambling for votes,” said Larry Kasanoff, who heads

a company that makes movies based on action-ori-

ented video games like Mortal Kombat and Duke

Nukem.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsstanding committee, subcommittee, select committee, joint committee, conference committee, seniority system

Find Out � Why are several different kinds of committees

necessary in the House and Senate? � Why are committee chairpersons considered

the most powerful members of Congress?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes Why have committees become the power centers in Congress?


Studio executivetestifies.

The V-Chip

T roubled by studies that linked TV violence toaggressive behavior in young children, Con-gress gave parents more control over home

television viewing. Use of a V-chip is part of a newcommunications policy that became law in 1996.

The law requires manufacturers to install a V-chip in new television sets beginning in 1998. Thiscomputer chip enables parents to block out showsthat have been coded as violent, lewd, or inappro-priate for young children.

Legislators know that widespread use of the V-chip will come only after older television sets areno longer in service. However, the device provides

politicians a way of tak-ing action on TV vio-lence without stirring up acontroversy over censorship.Most children’s activists have welcomed the V-chip, although they realize it will not be effective without parents’ active participation.

Debate the Issue Do you think the V-chip is areal solution to violence viewed on television?Why or why not?

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

The V-chip

Kinds of CommitteesCongress has four basic kinds of commit-tees: (1) standing committees; (2) select

committees; (3) joint committees; and (4) confer-ence committees. Congress may, however, changethe method of committee organization and thenumber of committees.

Standing Committees Very early in its histo-ry, Congress set up permanent groups to overseebills that dealt with certain kinds of issues. Theseare called standing committees because they con-tinue from one Congress to the next. The Houseand Senate each create their own standing com-mittees and control their areas of jurisdiction,occasionally adding or eliminating a standingcommittee when necessary.

The majority party has power to write the rulesin Congress. Republicans made changes in thestructure and titles of several committees whenthey became the majority in 1995. They also set six-year term limits for committee chairpersons. Thelast major realignment of standing committees inthe Senate took place in 1977.

Because the majority party in each house con-trols the standing committees, it selects a chair-person for each from among its party members.The majority of the members of each standingcommittee are also members of the majority party.

Party membership on committees is usually divid-ed in direct proportion to each party’s strength in each house. For example, if 60 percent of themembers of the House are Republicans, then 60percent of the members of each House standingcommittee will be Republicans. Thus, a 10-mem-ber committee would have 6 Republicans and 4Democrats. However, the party in power in theHouse will often have a super majority on the mostimportant committees.

Subcommittees Nearly all standing commit-tees have several subcommittees. Each subcom-mittee specializes in a subcategory of its standingcommittee’s responsibility. Subcommittees, likestanding committees, usually continue from oneCongress to the next, although the majority partymay make changes. For example, House Republi-cans in the 104th Congress limited most commit-tees to no more than five subcommittees. Theexceptions were Appropriations with 13 subcom-mittees, Government Reform and Oversight with 7 subcommittees, and Transportation and Infra-structure with 6 subcommittees.

Select Committees From time to time, eachhouse of Congress has created temporary commit-tees. Usually, these committees, called select com-mittees, study one specific issue and report theirfindings to the Senate or the House. These issues

142

can include: (1) matters of great public concern,such as organized crime; (2) overlooked problems,such as hunger; or (3) problems of interest groups,such as owners of small business, who claim thatCongress has not met their needs. Select commit-tees usually cannot report bills to their parentchamber, however.

Select committees were usually set up to lastfor no more than one term of Congress. In prac-tice, however, select committees may be renewedand continue to meet for several terms of Con-gress. For this reason, both the House and Senatehave reclassified several select committees, such asthe Select Intelligence Committee, as permanentcommittees. In 1993 the House terminated four se-lect committees.

Joint Committees Made up of members fromboth the House and the Senate, joint committeesmay be either temporary or permanent. Like othercommittees, they have members from both politi-cal parties. These committees—such as the JointEconomic Committee—usually act as studygroups with responsibility for reporting their find-ings back to the House and Senate.

In theory, joint committees coordinate thework of the two houses of Congress. In practice,lawmakers usually limit joint committees to han-dling routine matters such as are handled by theJoint Committee on Printing, and the Joint Com-mittee on the Library of Congress. Some jointcommittees, however, have been set up to studymore volatile matters such as atomic energy,



Standing Committees of Congress

www.house.gov; www.senate.gov

Congressional committees have changed in recent decades. The House rules adopted in the 104th Congress limited most standing committees to no more than five subcommittees. What is the difference between standing committees and select committees?

Critical Thinking

HOUSE COMMITTEES

Health Human Resources Oversight Social Security Trade

SUBCOMMITTEES

SENATE COMMITTEESAgriculture, Nutrition, and ForestryAppropriationsArmed ServicesBanking, Housing, and Urban AffairsBudgetCommerce, Science, and TransportationEnergy and Natural ResourcesEnvironment and Public WorksFinanceForeign RelationsGovernmental AffairsJudiciaryHealth, Education, Labor and PensionsRules and AdministrationSmall BusinessVeterans’ AffairsIndian Affairs

AgricultureAppropriationsBanking and Financial ServicesBudgetCommerceEducation and the WorkforceGovernment ReformHouse AdministrationInternational RelationsJudiciaryNational SecurityResourcesRulesScienceSmall BusinessStandards of Official ConductTransportation and InfrastructureVeterans’ AffairsWays and Means



UPDATE


defense, and taxation. Joint committees do nothave the authority to deal directly with bills or topropose legislation to Congress.

Conference Committees No bill can be sentfrom Congress to the president until both houseshave passed it in identical form. A conferencecommittee is a temporary committee set up whenthe House and Senate have passed different ver-sions of the same bill. Members of the conferencecommittee, called conferees, usually come fromthe House and Senate standing committees thathandled the bill in question. Democrats and Re-publicans are represented in the same way here ason other committees.

The job of the conference committee is to re-solve the differences between the two versions ofthe bill. Conference committees play a key role inpolicy making because they work out a bill thatboth houses may accept and send to the president.The committee accomplishes this task by bargain-ing over each section of the bill. A majority of theconferees from each house must accept the finalcompromise bill—called a conference report—before it can be sent to the floor of the House and Senate. When the conference committee’s re-port—the compromise bill it has finally worked

out—reaches the floor of each house, it must beconsidered as a whole. It may not be amended. Itmust be accepted or rejected as it comes from theconference committee.

Choosing Committee MembersAssigning members to congressional com-mittees is an extremely important decision

in the organization of Congress. Assignment tothe right committees can also help strengthen amember’s career in several ways. First, member-ship on some committees can increase a lawmak-er’s chances for reelection. For freshmen, the bestcommittees may be those that deal with bills thatwill benefit a lawmaker’s state or district.

Second, membership on some committees canmean the lawmaker will be able to influence na-tional policy making. Committees that often helpformulate national policies include those dealingwith education, the budget, health, the judiciary,and foreign policy. Third, some committees enablea member to exert influence over other lawmakersbecause they deal with matters important to every-one in Congress. Some of these committees in-clude the House Rules Committee and taxationand appropriation committees.


Committee LeadershipMembers of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee,Richard Lugar (R-IN, left),Christopher Dodd (D-CT, second from left), JosephBiden (D-DE, third from left),and Chairman Jesse Helms(R-NC, right), greet Secretaryof State Madeleine Albright.Why would a senator seek assignment to foreign policy or budget commit-tees? To committees that could benefit his or her constituents?

Legislative Leadership

In the House the key committees are Rules,Ways and Means, and Appropriations. In the Sen-ate the most prestigious committees are Foreign Re-lations, Finance, and Appropriations.Assignment tothe Senate Foreign Relations Committee, for exam-ple, will give a lawmaker a chance to directly influ-ence American foreign policy. Senators on thiscommittee usually receive a great deal of publicity.

Assignment to Committees In both theHouse and Senate, the political parties assign mem-bers to the standing committees. Newly electedmembers of Congress who wish to serve on a partic-ular committee or veteran lawmakers who wish totransfer to another committee may request assign-ment to the committees on which they want to serve.Each member may only serve on a limited numberof standing committees and subcommittees.

The Committee Chairperson’s RoleAlong with party leaders, the chairpersons ofstanding committees are the most powerful mem-bers of Congress. They make the key decisionsabout the work of their committees—when theircommittees will meet, which bills they will consid-er, and for how long. They decide when hearingswill be held and which witnesses will be called totestify for or against a bill. In addition, chairper-sons may hire committee staff members and con-trol the committee budget. Finally, they managethe floor debates that take place on the bills thatcome from their committees.

Since the 1970s the powers of committeechairpersons have been limited somewhat. TheLegislative Reorganization Act of 1970 made thecommittee system more democratic by allowing amajority of committee members to call meetingswithout the chairperson’s approval. It also statedthat committee members who disagree with thechairperson must have time to present their viewsand that reasonable notice must be given for allcommittee hearings. Rule changes in 1995 prohib-ited the chairperson from casting an absent mem-ber’s vote and required committees to publish allmembers’ votes.

The Seniority System The unwritten rule ofseniority traditionally has guided the selection of chairpersons. The seniority system gave themember of the majority party with the longest un-interrupted service on a particular committee theleadership of that committee.

Criticism of the seniority system has resulted inseveral changes. Beginning in 1971, House Repub-licans voted by secret ballot to select the highest-ranking Republican on each committee. In 1973the Democrats, who were the majority party in theHouse, adopted the same procedure. In a historicaction in 1975, House Democrats voted to replacethree senior committee chairpersons. In 1995 Re-publicans also bypassed several senior members upfor chairs and ruled that chairpersons of Housecommittees could hold their positions for no morethan three consecutive terms.


Political Processes Watch coverage of a con-gressional committee on television, or readabout it in a newspaper. Outline the major issues presented in the testimony before thecommittee. Write a position paper in which you agree or disagree with the witnesses.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a Venn diagram, show how a

conference committee and a joint committee are alike and how they are different.

2. Define standing committee, subcommittee, select committee, joint committee, conferencecommittee, seniority system.

3. Identify Select Intelligence, Rules, Ways andMeans, Appropriations Committees.

4. List four important powers of a committee chairperson.

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Why did Republicans, when

they won control of Congress in 1995, institutemany rule changes?


Conference Jointboth

The work of Congress is so massive andcomplicated that lawmakers need trainedstaffs to help them do their work effec-tively. Staff members also carry out the

work of congressional committees. In addition, anumber of supporting agencies perform impor-tant functions for members.

House rules in 1995 cut the total of committeestaff by one-third compared to the levels of theprevious Congress. The Senate also made less dra-matic cuts—a 15 percent reduction in committeestaff. At the same time Congress adopted a resolu-tion to cut the legislative branch budget and re-duced the budget of the General AccountingOffice. Such staff reductions are rare.

Congressional Staff RoleWhen Lowell Weicker of Connecticut wasin the Senate, a woman wrote to him com-

plaining about the way an airline had handled herdog. The dog, shipped as animal cargo, had diedin flight. One of the senator’s secretaries men-tioned the letter to the press secretary, whothought that perhaps the incident had newsvalue. He phoned the Federal Aviation Agencyand other government offices and found thatthere had been many similar cases. After inform-ing the senator, the secretary wrote a draft of abill to authorize the Transportation Departmentto regulate air transport of animals. Senator Weicker later introduced the legislation on thefloor of the Senate. The story became headlinesin Weicker’s home state, and he received manyletters of appreciation.

This story illustrates that congressionalstaff members do much of the important workon legislation. Lawmakers rely on their staffs tohelp them handle the growing workload ofCongress, communicate with voters, help runcommittee hearings and floor sessions, draftnew bills, write committee reports, and attendcommittee meetings. Congressional staffs also

Staff and Support AgenciesS e c t i o n 5S e c t i o n 5

House Audits BooksWASHINGTON, D.C., JANUARY 1995

The new Republican

majority wasted no

time in “cleaning house.”

First, they ordered an audit

of House records. Then the

House Oversight Commit-

tee voted to trim staff in the

television office and reduce

staff in the photography of-

fice. Members of Congress

would now have to pay the full cost of such services

out of their own office funds. The new majority

party also cut 96 staff positions that were attached

to 28 legislative service organizations. The service

organizations dated back to 1959 when Congress

certified the Democratic Study Group to analyze

legislation.

Republican logo


Reader’s Guide

Key Termspersonal staff, committee staff, administrative assistant, legislative assistant, caseworker

Find Out � Why do members of Congress have large per-

sonal and committee staffs?� How could a committee staffer have more

influence than a member of Congress over aproposed bill?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes How do staffs and supportagencies help members of Congress carry out theirmany responsibilities?

help lawmakers get reelected. Staffers help mem-bers of Congress get publicity, keep an eye on po-litical developments back home, and writespeeches and newsletters. They also help raisefunds for election campaigns and meet with lob-byists and visitors from home.

Congressional Staff GrowthCongress has not always relied on staff toaccomplish its work. For almost 100 years,

senators and representatives had no personal aides.Occasionally they might hire assistants out of per-sonal funds, but Congress provided no paid staff.Inadequate staffing had become an urgent com-plaint by the time Congress considered the Legisla-tive Reorganization Act in 1946. After that thenumber of staff members increased dramatically.The House and Senate employed 2,000 personalstaff members in 1947, but more than 11,500 in1990. Committee staff increased from 400 to morethan 3,000 in that same period.

Congressional staffs grew as lawmaking be-came more complex after the early 1900s. Lawmak-ers could not be experts on all the issues that camebefore their committees or uponwhich they voted in Congress. Hav-ing a large staff became one way toget expert help. Also, the demandsthat constituents placed on lawmak-ers increased over the years. Mem-bers of Congress needed a largeoffice staff simply to deal with themany letters from people in theirstates or congressional districts. Inaddition to writing to their senatorsand representatives, voters in in-creasing numbers have turned totheir lawmakers for help in solvingproblems. One lawmaker explained,“More than half my total staff time isdevoted to resolving individual diffi-culties that have developed betweencitizens and their government.”

Personal StaffCongress includes two typesof staffs: personal staff and

committee staff. Personal staff

members work directly for individual senators andrepresentatives. Committee staff members workfor the many House and Senate committees.

The size of senators’ personal staffs varies be-cause allowances to pay for them are based on thepopulation of the senator’s state and distance fromthe capital. Senators each receive a yearly budgetto operate their offices. Most of this amount is topay staff salaries. About one-third of personal staffmembers work in the legislators’ home states. Therest work in Washington, D.C. Each member of theHouse has an allowance to pay for a personal staff.The House and Senate employ thousands of per-sonal staff aides. Lawmakers can hire and fire staffmembers at will.

Administrative Assistants Lawmakers usu-ally have three types of personal staff members intheir offices. The administrative assistant, calledan AA, is a very important legislative aide. The AAruns the lawmaker’s office, supervises the lawmak-er’s schedule, and gives advice on political matters.A good AA also deals with influential people fromthe lawmaker’s congressional district or state, whomay influence the lawmaker’s reelection.


Public Perceptions Members of Congress must balancethe need for large staffs with the need to cut governmentspending. What public perception of Congress does thecartoonist enhance with this cartoon?

An Expanding Government

Legislative Assistants Legislative assis-tants, or LAs, are a second type of personal staffmember. An LA makes certain that the lawmaker iswell informed about the many bills with which sheor he must deal. An LA does research, drafts bills,studies bills currently in Congress, and writesspeeches and articles for the lawmaker.

Another important part of the LA’s job is to assist the lawmaker in committee meetings and toattend committee meetings when the lawmakercannot be present. Senators and representatives are members of so many committees and subcom-mittees that they cannot possibly attend all the committee meetings.When they do attend com-mittee meetings, they often come in at the lastminute and briefly talk with their LA to find outwhat has taken place. The LA, who has followed themeeting and studied the bill in question, may haveprepared a short speech for the lawmaker or madeup a list of questions for the lawmaker to ask

witnesses. Often the senator or representative has not seen the speech or the questions but relies on the LA’s judgment.

LAs also keep track of the work taking place onthe floor of Congress, as well as bills that are incommittee. While routine legislative business goeson, the lawmaker may be in a committee meetingor talking with voters. When the buzzer rings, sig-naling time for a vote, lawmakers rush to the floorof the Senate or House from their offices or com-mittee rooms. They may not know what the vote isabout unless it involves a major bill that has beenscheduled long in advance. As they walk, they lookfor their LAs. In his book In the Shadow of theDome, former LA Mark Bisnow describes thescene:

“As the door of the “Senators Only” elevatoropened, their bosses would pour out. . . . Ifthey did not know what they were votingon (votes occurred frequently throughoutthe day, and it was hard to keep track), . . .they would glance to the side to see ifsomeone were waiting. A staffer mightwave and run up for a huddled conferencebehind a pillar; or if the senator were in ahurry . . . he [or she] might simply expecta quick thumbs-up or thumbs-down gesture.” —Mark Bisnow, 1990

Caseworkers Some personal staff membersare called caseworkers because they handle themany requests for help from people in a lawmak-er’s state or congressional district. In addition totheir offices in Washington, D.C., lawmakers arelikely to have offices in key cities in their home dis-trict. Caseworkers usually staff these offices.

Committee StaffEvery committee and subcommittee inCongress has staff members who work for

that committee. The larger a committee is, themore staff people it will likely have. The commit-tee chairperson and the senior minority partymember of the committee are in charge of thesestaff members. Committee staffers draft bills,study issues, collect information, plan committeehearings, write memos, and prepare committee


Influencing Congress Members of Con-gress, like Representative Maxine Waters, depend on their legislative aides. How mightlegislative assistants influence members of Congress?

Aiding Lawmakers

reports. They are largely responsible for the workinvolved in making laws.

Some senior committee staff membersare very experienced and are experts inthe area their committee covers,whether it be tax policy, foreign af-fairs, or health care. LaurenceWoodworth, who spent 32 yearson the staff of the Joint Commit-tee on Internal Revenue Taxa-tion, is a good example of suchan expert. As the committee’sstaff director for 14 years, he waslargely responsible for all changesin the tax laws. Later, Wood-worth left the committee tobecome assistant secretary ofthe treasury.

Too Much Power? The people do not electcongressional staffers. Yet they play a key role inlawmaking. Do they have too much influence?Some lawmakers believe they do. Other lawmakersdisagree. They say that the staff really collects in-formation and develops alternative courses of ac-tion for the lawmakers.

Support AgenciesSeveral agencies that are part of the legisla-tive branch provide services that help Con-

gress carry out its powers. Some of the servicesthese agencies provide are also available to theother branches of government and to private citi-zens. Congress has created four important supportagencies.

The Library of Congress Congress createdthe Library of Congress in 1800 to “purchase suchbooks as may be necessary for the use of Con-gress.” Today, it is one of the largest libraries in theworld. This great center of information containsmore than 100 million items, including books,journals, music, films, photographs, and maps.As the administrator of the copyright law, thecopyright office in the Library receives two freecopies of most published works copyrighted in the United States.

The Library has a Congressional Research Ser-vice (CRS) with hundreds of employees. Every

year, CRS answers thousands of requests for infor-mation from lawmakers, congressional staff, andcommittees. CRS workers will check out anything,from the number of kangaroos in Australia to thecrime rate in urban areas. Members of Congressuse the CRS to answer requests for informationfrom voters. They also use CRS for research onmatters related to bills before Congress.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Con-gress established the CBO in 1974 to coordinatethe budget-making work of Congress, study thebudget proposals put forward by the presidenteach year, and make cost projections of proposed


Congressional Research Congress establishedthe Library of Congress in 1800, and in 1815 purchased Thomas Jefferson’s private library ofabout 6,000 books. The Main Reading Room isthe center of the greatest research library in the United States. Why would members of Congressrequire research materials?

Supporting Congress

Thomas Jefferson

new programs. The CBO counterbalances thepresident’s elaborate budget-making organization,the Office of Management and Budget. CBO staffmembers study economic trends, keep track ofhow much congressional committees are spend-ing, and prepare a report on the budget each April.They also calculate how Congress’s budget deci-sions might affect the nation’s economy.

General Accounting Office (GAO) Estab-lished in 1921, this agency is the nation’s watchdogover the spending of funds Congress appropriates.A comptroller general appointed to a 15-year termdirects the GAO. The agency has a professionalstaff of about 5,100 people. They review the finan-cial management of government programs thatCongress creates, collect government debts, settleclaims, and provide legal service.

Many GAO staff members answer requests forinformation about specific programs from lawmak-ers and congressional committees. GAO staff mem-bers prepare reports on various federal programsfor lawmakers, testify before committees, developquestions for committee hearings, and provide legalopinions on bills under consideration. Almost one-third of the GAO’s work now comes from congres-sional requests for information.

Government Printing Office (GPO) TheGovernment Printing Office is the largest multi-purpose printing plant in the world. It does theprinting for the entire federal government. Every

day the GPO prints the Congressional Record, adaily record of all the bills introduced in bothhouses and of the speeches and testimony present-ed in Congress. Members of Congress can makechanges in speeches they have made before theyare printed in the Record. They can even havespeeches they never actually made in the House orSenate printed in the Record.

Congressional staff members spend a gooddeal of time preparing speeches for lawmakers be-cause those words will be inserted in the Congres-sional Record. Thus, when voters ask about thelawmaker’s position on a particular issue, the staffcan send a copy of the Record containing a speechthe lawmaker made on that issue to the constituentmaking the request.

Another valuable publication of the Govern-ment Printing Office is the Statistical Abstract of the United States, updated and printed everyyear since 1878. Published by the Bureau of theCensus, this volume provides statistical informa-tion about population, government finances, per-sonal income, business, agriculture, education, law enforcement, national defense, elections, andmany other topics. It is an invaluable source ofdata used by congressional staff as well as the gen-eral public.

The support agencies provide a vital functionfor Congress. They have helped the legislativebranch become less dependent on the executivebranch for information. This has helped Congressregain some of the power it held in earlier years.


Political Processes Create a political cartoonthat includes a caption about the role of com-mittee staff in Congress. Take a position onwhether professional staff members have toomuch power.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer like the one

shown, describe the differences between person-al staff and committee staff in Congress.

2. Define personal staff, committee staff, administrative assistant, legislative assistant,caseworker.

3. Identify Library of Congress, Congressional Budget Office, General Accounting Office, Government Printing Office.

4. Why did the numbers of congressional staff increase rapidly after 1900?

Critical Thinking5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Why do

you think the comptroller general who overseesthe General Accounting Office is appointed for a 15-year term?


committeepersonal

Making Generalizations

Generalizations set forth a widely appliedprinciple or rule based on particular facts.“Florida is warmer than Michigan” is a

valid generalization based on temperaturesrecorded over many years.

Learning the Skill

To make a valid generalization, follow thesesteps:

• Identify the subject matter.• Gather related facts and examples.• Identify similarities among these facts.• Use these similarities to form a general

statement about the subject.

Practicing the Skill

Abigail Adams wrote the following letter toher husband, John, who was attending the SecondContinental Congress in 1775. Read the excerptand complete the activity that follows.

“The reins of government have been so longslackened that I fear the people will notquietly submit to those restraints whichare necessary for the peace and security ofthe community. If we separate fromBritain, what code of laws will be estab-lished? How shall we be governed so as toretain our liberties? Can any governmentbe free which is administered by generalstated laws? Who shall frame these laws?Who will give them force and energy? It istrue your resolutions, as a body, have hith-erto had the force of laws; but will theycontinue to have? ”

151

Abigail Adams

Identify each following generalization as validor invalid based on the information presented.

1. There are many issues to answer if Americaseparates from Britain.

2. Some governmental controls are necessary in a community.

3. The colonies should adopt the British code of laws.

4. The Americans should adopt a new constitution.

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Over a period of weeks, read the editori-als in your local newspaper. Then write a list of generalizations about the newspaper’sposition on issues such as politics or crime.

Over a period of weeks, read the editori-als in your local newspaper. Then write a list of generalizations about the newspaper’sposition on issues such as politics or crime.

Congressional Quarterly’s

152

Duties of Constitutional LeadersOne of the duties of the Speaker of the Houseand the president of the Senate is to adminis-ter the oath of office to newly elected mem-

bers at the start of each Congress. Because the entireHouse is up for reelection every two years, all repre-sentatives take the oath each time. Members firstelect the Speaker of the House, who is sworn in by the most senior member of the House. The Speakerthen administers the oath to all other members asthey stand together in the chamber. The vice presi-dent, the president of the Senate, administers theoath to new senators.

SymbolsBoth the Senate and the House use a gavel as a symbolof authority. The Senate’s cherished symbol is a small,silver-capped ivory gavel. This gavel, retired from active

duty in 1954 when it began to disintegrate, is placed on the vice president’s desk before the opening of each Senate session.A replica of the old gavel, a gift from the government of India, hasbeen used by the presiding officer of the Senate since 1954.

Congressional Leadership The Constitution established a presiding officer for each chamber, but other congressional leaders have little writtenauthority for their roles. Their authority comes from tradition within theparties rather than formal rules that apply to Congress as a whole.

Congress A to Z

Speaker Dennis Hastert

Senate gavel

Vice President’s RoleThe vice president is already a presi-dent—of the Senate. A mostly ceremo-nial position, this part-time

responsibility entitles the vice president to aplush office in the Capitol and the singular ability tobreak a tie vote there. This power is rarely used, but isvital when administration proposals are at stake. During President Clinton’s first term, Vice President Al Gore cast three tie-breaking votes in the Senate:In 1993, he twice broke ties to ensure approval ofClinton’s deficit reduction package, and in 1994,he voted to uphold a federal rule concerning reformulated gaso-line and clean airstandards.

SenatorLyndonJohnson and SenatorTheodoreFrancis Green

Housemembers taking oath

Vice President Al Gore

Leadership by PersuasionPersonal style can contribute to or detract from a leader’s effectiveness. As Senate majority leader from 1955 to 1961, Lyndon B. Johnson

was known for his extraordinary ability to persuade colleagues to support him. In one-on-one encounters, Johnson applied the treatment—cajoling, touching an arm or shoulder for emphasis, leaning closer.

Reviewing Key TermsMatch each term below with one of the followingphrases or terms:

a. House b. Senate c. Both chambers

1. bill 6. joint committee2. majority leader 7. redistricting3. gerrymandering 8. reapportionment4. filibuster 9. censure5. constituents 10. incumbent

Recalling Facts1. What are the qualifications for members of the

House and Senate?2. Identify the most powerful committee in the

House of Representatives.3. How may Congress expel a member?4. List four advantages incumbents have in

running for office.5. How do House rules differ from Senate rules?6. What committee serves as the “traffic officer”

of the House?7. What position in the Senate does the vice

president serve?8. When do terms of Congress begin?9. List eight benefits members of Congress

receive in addition to their salaries.

Understanding Concepts1. Political Processes How does the census affect

the reapportionment of the House?2. Growth of Democracy Why does the Constitu-

tion provide for free and unlimited debate inCongress?

3. Political Processes How does the majority party in each house determine the flow of legislation?

Critical Thinking1. Making Inferences Why are bills that minority

party members introduce unlikely to be report-ed out of committee?

2. Formulating Questions What questions do youthink a new member of Congress considerswhen requesting committee assignments?

3. Making Comparisons In a graphic organizer likethe one below, compare the duties of a con-gressional administrative assistant with thoseof a legislative assistant.

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 5Chapter 5

Lawmaking Look at the entries under

“United States Government, Congress”

in the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Liter-

ature. Find articles that refer to a current

bill that is moving through Congress.

Check previous volumes of the Guide to

determine how long this bill has been

under consideration. Make a time line

showing the history of the issue and

congressional concern over it.

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 5–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

legislativeadministrative

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/govciv/usgov2002/quiz.shtml?BOOK=009&CHAPTER=5&TITLE=The+Organization+of+Congress

Cooperative Learning ActivityWriting Your Representative Asa class, choose four controver-sial current issues that con-cern you and your classmates.Divide the class into fourgroups. Each group will chooseone of the issues and decidewhat actions Congress shouldtake to deal with the issue.

Have each group assign individuals specific aspects of the issue to research. Thenbring the group together tocompile its research and writea letter urging support for thisposition to your member ofCongress.

Skill Practice ActivityMaking Generalizations Use thechart on page 129 to answerthe following questions:

1. What is the subject of the data presented in the chart?

2. What generalization can you make about theracial makeup of Congress?

3. What generalization can you make about thechances of reelection for incumbent membersof Congress?

Technology ActivityUsing E-Mail One of the ways thatmembers of Congress aretrying to keep in touch withtheir constituents is via theInternet. Most members have E-mailaddresses. Find a list of current congressional E-mail addresses by using a search engine. Send a short message to your representative requestinginformation about types of legislation Congress iscurrently considering. Ask for your representative’sposition on the legislation that is before Congress.Do you agree or disagree with his or her position?


Chapter 5Chapter 5

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity1. What is the subject

of this cartoon?2. What do the roots

of the tree trunksymbolize?

3. According to thiscartoon, how difficult is it to unseat an incum-bent in Congress?

Participating in LocalGovernmentThe idea of having a con-stitutional amendmentrequiring term limits formembers of Congress hasbeen debated in recent years.

•What are the arguments for and against a constitutional amendment on term limits?

•What is your view? •What are the views of your friends and

relatives?

Research this issue and write a letter to the editor of your local paper expressing your opinionfor or against term limits. Be sure to include atleast three arguments that support your position in the letter.

The Legislative Branch - JENKINS SOCIAL STUDIES · intend that the legislative branch have more...

Documents

Transcript of The Legislative Branch - JENKINS SOCIAL STUDIES · intend that the legislative branch have more...