ARTICLE

The Jurassic Danba hypozonal orogenic gold deposit, western China:indirect derivation from fertile mantle lithosphere metasomatizedduring Neoproterozoic subduction

Qingfei Wang1& Hesen Zhao1

& David I. Groves1,2 & Jun Deng1& Qiwei Zhang1

& Shengchao Xue1

Received: 10 September 2019 /Accepted: 9 October 2019# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020

AbstractThe genesis of hypozonal orogenic gold deposits is highly controversial, with both crustal metamorphic fluids and variouslyderived sub-crustal fluids suggested as fluid and metal sources. The Lower Jurassic Danba gold deposit, a rare Phanerozoichypozonal orogenic gold deposit on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton, China, provides an opportunity to resolve thesecontroversies. Danba is characterized by biotite–amphibole alteration and pyrrhotite-dominant ore assemblages formed at ~ 500–600 °C. The δ34S values of ore-related pyrrhotite range from + 3.1 to + 9.9‰, in sharp contrast to those of syn-sedimentarypyrrhotite fromDevonian host rocks which are between − 6.8 and − 9.5‰. The Pb isotope compositions of ore-related pyrrhotite,with 206Pb/204Pb = 17.85–18.25 and 207Pb/204Pb = 15.48–15.67, are less radiogenic and more variable than those of unalteredhost rocks. These differences, combined with the hypozonal feature of the deposit, indicate that ore metals and sulfur werederived from a sub-crustal, rather than a local crustal source. The PGE patterns of ore-related pyrrhotites are similar to those ofsulfides in Baltic mantle lithosphere that was metasomatized by aqueous fluids in terms of marked enrichment of Pd and Ru butsignificantly differ from those of magmatic intrusions and related magmatic–hydrothermal deposits. This suggests that the metalsthat formed the Danba deposit were transported via aqueous fluid from metasomatized mantle lithosphere rather than from amagmatic source. The δ18O of mantle fluid calculated from hydrothermal quartz and biotite ranges from 10 to 12‰. Theanomalously high S and O isotope ratios and variable Pb isotope ratios, together with PGE data, support a model in which theinferred mantle lithosphere source was significantly hydrated, metasomatized, and fertilized by fluid derived from subductedoceanic sediments with elevated δ34S and δ18O values. Geological evidence suggests that this subduction event wasNeoproterozoic in age. This study defines a model in which hydrated and metasomatized mantle lithosphere was formed duringearly subduction, but it was over 500 million years later, during later Lower Jurassic asthenosphere upwelling, that metal- andsulfur-rich fluid was released into the crust to form the Danba gold deposit.

Keywords Hypozonal orogenic gold . Metasomatized mantle lithosphere . PGE patterns . Sub-crustal gold source . Oxygen andsulfur isotopes

Introduction

The term orogenic gold deposit was defined by Groves et al.(1998), following Gebre-Mariam et al. (1995), to replace awide variety of terms that referred to gold-only deposits. Theorogenic gold deposits occupy a unique depth range for hy-drothermal ore deposits, with gold deposition from 12–20 kmdepth for hypozonal deposits to within 2–3 km of the surfacefor epizonal deposits, with mesozonal deposits as the mostcommon intermediate-depth group. Crustal and sub-crustalmetamorphic models are the two main alternative geneticmodels for orogenic gold deposits (Goldfarb and Groves2015). Metamorphic models propose that metals and fluid

Editorial handling: B. Lehmann

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-019-00928-x) contains supplementarymaterial, which is available to authorized users.

* Qingfei Wangwqf@cugb.edu.cn

1 State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and MineralResources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

2 Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia,Crawley 6009, Australia

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-019-00928-xMineralium Deposita (2020) 55:309–324

/Published online: January 20203

were derived during a crustal metamorphic transition fromgreenschist to amphibolite facies (Tomkins and Grundy2009; Phillips and Powell 2010). These models have beenquestioned because of a combination of the following: (1)the presence of hypozonal deposits formed at higher P–Tcon-ditions than this metamorphic transition (Kolb and Meyer2002; Kolb et al. 2005a, b, 2015), (2) the general late meta-morphic timing of orogenic gold deposits (Goldfarb andGroves 2015), and (3) the contrast between slowmetamorphicfluid release and rapidly formed mineralization (Yardley andCleverley 2015). The concept of a sub-crustal fluid source,elegantly argued by Wyman et al. (2016), was introduced byBierlein et al. (2006) and Hronsky et al. (2012) who suggesteda mantle lithosphere source, and this was emphasized byGoldfarb and Santosh (2014), Deng and Wang (2016), Wanget al. (2019a, b), and Yang and Santosh (2019), particularly fororogenic gold deposits adjacent to craton margins. For exam-ple, a sub-continental mantle lithosphere source for ore fluidsis now widely postulated for the Cretaceous Jiaodong goldprovince, in the North China Craton, where gold mineraliza-tion is almost 2000 my later than regional metamorphism (Liet al. 2012; Goldfarb and Santosh 2014; Groves and Santosh2016; Deng et al. 2017, 2019). Another important example isthe Danba hypozonal gold deposit (Zhao et al. 2019) in west-ern China, in which the high-T (> 500 °C) alteration and orefluid and late timing of the deposit strongly favor an ore fluidderived from underlying mantle lithosphere (Zhao et al.2019). Groves et al. (2019) even suggest that most orogenicgold deposits globally are compatible with a model in whichauriferous ore fluids were released from subducted slabs andsediment wedges or mantle l i thosphere that wasmetasomatized and fertilized by them. However, several as-pects of these models remain uncertain: (1) the geochemicalparameters of the mantle lithosphere source and how theyrelate to the geochemical and isotopic compositions of theorogenic gold deposits and (2) whether the ore fluid was re-leased directly from mantle lithosphere (Wyman and Kerrich1988; Kesarwani et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2019) or whether itwas generated as a magmatic–hydrothermal fluid via magmat-ic processes (Hronsky et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2015).

Stable (S, O) and radiogenic (Pb) isotopes have been wide-ly used to trace the origin of ore fluids and metals for orogenicgold deposits (Yang and Zhou 2001; Klein et al. 2005, 2006).Since Au(HS)2

− is the dominant gold–hydrosulfide complex(Benning and Seward 1996) to carry gold in the ore fluid andsulfides universally coexist with gold in orogenic gold ores,the S isotope ratios of sulfides is widely considered indicativeof the source of sulfur in ore fluids. Sulfides in orogenic golddeposits have a wide range of δ34S (δ34S ≈ 0~10‰: Goldfarband Groves 2015). The sulfur for sediment-hosted orogenicgold deposits has been considered to originate from wall rocksulfides formed by reduction of contemporaneous seawatersulfate from the perspective of the crustal metamorphic model

(Chang et al. 2008). However, it can also be explained bydesulfidation of contemporaneous sulfate-reduced sedimenta-ry sulfide that was subducted into the mantle lithosphere in thesub-crustal fluid model (Alt et al. 1993, 2012; Zhao et al.2019). Orogenic gold deposits commonly share a range ofδ18Ofluid of ore fluid from + 7 to + 13‰ (Bierlein andCrowe 2000), but the general overlap in metamorphic andmagmatic fluid δ18O ratios in this range makes O isotopeinterpretation equivocal (Goldfarb and Groves 2015). Thecontrast between the non-radiogenic signature of mantle Pband the more radiogenic nature of crustal Pb has long beenrecognized (Miller et al. 1994; Burton et al. 2012; Lee et al.2012), with Pb isotope ratios of sulfides from orogenic golddeposits commonly showing intermediate ratios betweenmantle and crust endmembers (Ayuso et al. 2005; Standishet al. 2014; Zeng et al. 2014). For these reasons, research onthe isotope compositions of orogenic gold deposits providesconfusing interpretations (Goldfarb and Groves 2015).Platinum group elements (PGEs) have been traditionally usedto study mantle melting and related sulfide segregation pro-cess (Barnes et al. 2015; Aulbach et al. 2016; Deng et al. 2017;Wang et al. 2018). However, the major advantage of the PGEsis that they behave differently during partial melting processesand fluid generation (Boudreau and McCallum 1992; Ripleyand Li 2013; Mungall and Brenan 2014; Barnes et al. 2015;Richards 2015), as emphasized by recent research on PGEcontents of sulfides from metasomatized mantle lithospherewedges (Alard et al. 2011; Rielli et al. 2018). Thus, PGEanalyses can place critical constraints on genetic models fororogenic gold deposit, yet they have only been rarely used(Sun et al. 2009).

This study of the Lower Jurassic Danba hypozonal orogen-ic gold deposit utilizes S and Pb isotope ratios of gold-relatedsulfides in the orebody and wall rocks, and the O isotope ratiosof quartz and silicate minerals to constrain the nature of theproposed mantle lithosphere source, combined with the PGEcompositions of sulfides in the ore environment to constrainthe metal source. On the basis of these analyses, a new geneticmodel is established for the Danba gold deposit, which mayprove applicable to other hypozonal orogenic gold deposits.

Regional geology

The Danba gold deposit is located on the northwestern marginof the Yangtze Craton and bordered by the Songpan-GarzêPaleotethyan basin to the north (Fig. 1a). On the northwesternmargin, the 860–750-Ma Panxi-Hannan arc assemblage, themetamorphic protolith of the Neoproterozoic crystalline base-ment, suggests an episode of Neoproterozoic subduction ofoceanic crust, possibly belonging to the Mozambique Ocean(Tucker et al. 2001) on the northwestern periphery of Rodinia(Cawood et al. 2017), eastward under the Craton (Zhou et al.

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324310

2002; Zhao and Zhou 2008; Zhou et al. 2008). In the Triassic,the Songpan-Garzê relict basin formed as a result of the con-vergence between the North China, South China, andQiangtang blocks during closure of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean(Fig. 1a; Deng et al. 2017). Triassic flyschoids filled the basin,unconformably overlying the Paleozoic metasedimentaryrocks and Neoproterozoic basement (Bruguier et al. 1997;Roger et al. 2004, 2010).

The northwestern margin of the Yangtze Craton is charac-terized by a > 1000-km domal domain (Fig. 1a; Chen andWilson 1996;Wallis et al. 2003). Around the dome containingthe Danba deposit, amphibolite–facies metamorphism peakedat ca. 190 Ma based on monazite U–Pb geochronology (Fig.1b; Huang et al. 2003; Billerot et al. 2017), and initial domingoccurred at 180~160 Ma as recorded by U–Pb ages of zirconmetamorphic rims and 40Ar/39Ar dating of amphibole folia-tion (Fig 1b; Zhou et al. 2002, 2008). Along the Craton mar-gin, extensive late orogenic (230–200 Ma) I-type and/oradakitic and late to post-orogenic (210–180 Ma) A- and S-type granites were emplaced in the region (Fig. 1b; Rogeret al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2006; Xiao et al. 2007). Crustal ex-tension, expressed by doming and A-type granitic intrusions,adakitic granites (Zhang et al. 2007), shoshonite and high Ba–

Sr granite (Yuan et al. 2010), and mafic enclaves in the gran-ites (Chen et al. 2017), has been interpreted to have beentriggered by asthenosphere upwelling after the closure ofPaleo-Tethys (Sigoyer et al. 2014; Zhao et al. 2019).Cenozoic lamprophyre dikes, considered to be products oflow-grade partial melting of metasomatized mantle litho-sphere formed during Neoproterozoic subduction (Guo et al.2005; Gan and Huang 2017), were emplaced along the west-ern craton margin.

Along the western margin of the Yangtze Craton, there arenumerous variably sized Mesozoic and Cenozoic orogenicgold deposits with total gold reserves > 500 t (Fig. 1a;Burnard et al. 1999; Sun et al. 2009). The Mesozoic Danbahypozonal gold deposit, hosted in the Late Devonian strata,formed at ca. 185 ± 9 Ma, later than the regional peak meta-morphism and broadly coeval with A-type granite intrusionand initial doming (Zhao et al. 2019). The Cenozoic golddeposits are mainly hosted by Neoproterozoic granite, aPaleotethyan ophiolite complex, and Silurian to Triassic sed-imentary rocks in the Ailaoshan belt. Most Cenozoic depositshave disseminated mineralization with exceptions, includingDaping, characterized by quartz vein ore bodies (Wang et al.2018). The source of ore fluids for the Cenozoic deposits is

Fig. 1 Geological map of the Danba dome area. a Simplified geotectonicmap of the western margin of the Yangtze Craton. b Regional geologicalmap of the Danba gold deposit showing the distribution of strata, graniteintrusions, structures, and metamorphic grades, modified after Huanget al. (2003) and Fan et al. (2013). Note that the deposit is located on

the edge of a metamorphic core complex (dome). Bt biotite, Chl chlorite,Gt-St garnet-staurolite, Ky kyanite, Mig migmatization, Sil sillimanite.Ages of doming are from Zhou et al. (2002, 2008); ages of granite arefrom Roger et al. (2004) and Jolivet et al. (2015)

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 311

proposed to relate to devolatilization ofmantle lithosphere thatwas metasomatized and fertilized in the Neoproterozoic(Wang et al. 2019b).

Deposit geology

The amphibolite–facies metasedimentary wall rocks in theDanba gold deposit form amonocline whose axial surface trends310–360° and dips 45–75° SW to W (Fig. 2). The immediatehost rocks to the ore bodies are quartzite, sillimanite–garnet–biotite schist, amphibole–biotite schist, and amphibolite (Figs. 2and 3a, b). Distal to the ore bodies, there are amphibolite andmarble to the northwest and granulite to the southwest (Fig. 2a).Metamorphic mineral assemblages in the wall rocks confirm thatpeakmetamorphism reached amphibolite–facies conditions, with

a typical amphibole–plagioclase assemblage together withcoarse-grained red-brown biotite (Fig. 4a, b). Opaque mineralsin these amphibolite–facies rocks are pyrrhotite, magnetite (Fig.4a, b), and trace ilmenite.

The total non-JORC-compliant gold resource at Danba,including the major lode and other minor ore bodies, is about50 t (1.6 Moz) gold (Fan et al. 2013). Ore bodies of the Danbagold deposit are mainly contained in a series of N–S trending,bedding-, and foliation-parallel shear zones (Fig. 2), which aretruncated by a set of NW-trending reverse faults. The majorlode is a thick quartz vein with a length of about 2 km and dipof 50–90°W. Exploration data show that the thick quartz veinhas a true thickness range of 0.8–27.3 m (mean 8.0 m) and agold grade range of 2.6–26.3 g/t (mean 7.0 g/t).

Subtle, millimeter to centimeter scale, symmetrical alter-ation zones of amphibole and biotite alteration, silicification,

Fig. 2 Geological map of the Danba gold deposit. a Geological map ofthe deposit, showing the amphibolite-facies metamorphic wall rocks, orebodies, and major ore-controlling shear zones. b Cross section of the

deposit. Note that ore bodies are mainly confined to shear zones and aresubparallel to bedding. Both modified after Fan et al. (2013)

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324312

and sulfidation typically surround auriferous veins (Figs. 3a, band 4c). Minor plagioclase and K-feldspar with a hydrother-mal origin are intergrown with amphibole and biotite in alter-ation zones and on the margin of the ore body. The Danbaproximal alteration assemblages of biotite–amphibole–plagio-clase (Fig. 4c) are characteristic of hypozonal orogenic gold

deposits (Groves et al. 1998; Vielreicher et al. 2002). Based onthe chemical compositions of alteration minerals, the temper-ature of formation of wall rock alteration assemblages is esti-mated to be 600 ± 50 °C (Zhao et al. 2019).

Gold-bearing sulfides are commonly distributed in thequartz vein ore body and the alteration zone (Fig. 3c). The

Fig. 3 Field and hand specimenphotographs of the Danba golddeposit. a Field photo of thecontact zone between auriferousquartz vein and wall rocks. bCentimeter-scale alteration zonewith sulfidation and silicificationat orebody margin. c Massivesulfide ore with some degree ofoxidation. d Late ore stage fine-grained gray quartz crosscuttingearly ore stage medium-grainedtransparent quartz

100 m

b

Qz+Pl

Amp

Mag+Po

cAlteration zone

1 mm 100 m

Early-stage ore

Au

Altered Bt Altered Amp

Qz

Po

d

a

Bt

Qz>Pl

Po

Unaltered schist Unaltered amphiboliteS2

S2

S2

S4

S2

S2

S1

S3

Grt

15.4

15.2

14.9

100 m

Fig. 4 Photomicrographs ofamphibolite-facies metamor-phism, alteration, and ore min-erals. a Unaltered garnet-biotite-schist. b Unaltered amphibolite. cAltered amphibole and biotite inalteration zone. d The dominantmetal sulfide, ore-related pyrrho-tite, containing gold. Red circlesand values are SHRIMP in situ Oanalytical positions and the cor-responding δ18O data. Amp am-phibole, Bt biotite, Gt garnet,Mag magnetite, Po pyrrhotite, Plplagioclase, Qt quartz

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 313

early ore stage is dominated by pyrrhotite and translucentquartz (Fig. 3d) with minor scheelite, molybdenite, pyrite,chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and trace gold and electrum (Fig.4d). The late ore stage is characterized by abundant Bi-tellurides and gray quartz (Fig. 3d) with minor chalcopyrite,sphalerite, galena, pyrite, and major gold. Analysis of H2O–CO2–NaCl fluid inclusions yields early ore stage P–T condi-tions of 525 ± 25 °C and 4.5 ± 0.5 kbar (Zhao et al. 2019).

Sampling and analytical methods

Sampling

Pyrrhotite from unaltered wall rocks (e.g., S1: Fig. 4a; S2:Figs. 2b and 4b) was selected for S isotopic analysis to com-pare with the published S isotope compositions of gold ores.In addition, pyrrhotite from ore (e.g., S4: Fig. 4d) and unal-tered wall rocks was sampled for Pb isotopic analysis, and ore-related pyrrhotite was chosen from various auriferous quartzveins for PGE analysis. Both whole-mineral and in situ Oisotopic analyses were carried out. Quartz and biotite fromgold-related alteration zones (e.g., S3: Fig. 4c), biotite fromunaltered biotite schist (e.g., S1: Fig. 4a), and amphibole fromunaltered amphibolite (e.g., S2: Fig. 4b) were chosen forwhole-mineral O isotope analysis. Quartz from both early-and late-stage ores (e.g., Fig. 3d), as well as unaltered biotiteschist (e.g., S1: Fig. 4a), was chosen for in situ O isotopeanalysis that was performed on carefully polished thin sec-tions. All minerals were handpicked individually under a bin-ocular microscope, after the samples were cleaned, crushed,and sieved to 40~60mesh, to attain over 99% purity separates.

Sulfur isotope analyses

The EA-ISOPRIME100 mass spectrometer was used for S iso-tope measurement, at the analytical laboratory of ChinaUniversity of Geosciences, Beijing. Sulfur isotope analyseswere carried out utilizing standard samples GBW04414 andGBW04415, according to the method DZ/T 0184.14-1997.Environmental conditions were 25 °C and 15% humidity. Thetemperature was 1150 °C in the oxidized column and 850 °C inthe reduction furnace. The S isotope values, with analyticalprecision of ± 0.2‰, are reported using the δ notation in permil, relative to the Cañón Diablo Troilite (CDT) standard.

Lead isotope analyses

Lead isotope compositions were analyzed using the NuPlasma 2 multi-collector ICP-MS at the Institute ofGeochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang.About 200 mg of each sample powder was completely dis-solved in a mixture of HF-HNO3 at ~ 150 °C for ~ 72 h. Lead

was separated and purified by a conventional anion exchangeprocedure using Bio-Rad AG1-X8 (200–400 mesh) resin withdiluted HBr/HCl as eluent. Routine Pb isotope ratios for thestandard sample NBS 981 are 208Pb/204Pb = 36.723 ± 0.007(1σ, n = 7), 207Pb/204Pb = 15.497 ± 0.003 (1σ, n = 7), and206Pb/204Pb = 16.941 ± 0.004 (1σ, n = 7), in agreement withthe reference value (Galer and Abouchami 1998): their preci-sion is better than 0.1‰ (e.g., 206Pb/204Pb). Total proceduralPb blanks were about 100 pg per analysis.

Oxygen isotope analyses

Oxygen isotope analysis of whole-mineral separates was car-ried out at the Oxy–Anion Stable Isotope Consortium(OASIC) in Louisiana State University. The O isotope ratiosof quartz were measured by using a CO2 laser fluorinationsystem with an analytical error of ± 0.8‰ for δ18O (Bao andThiemens 2000). Samples were loaded into the evacuated re-action chamber to react with BrF5 under CO2 laser heating.The evolved condensable gases, together with residual BrF5,were frozen with liquid nitrogen (LN2) for 5–10 min. Afterpassing through three LN2 traps, O2 was collected on to mo-lecular sieves (13X or 5A) in a sample tube, immersed in LN2.The molecular sieves were cleaned by baking at 200 °C for >10 min while pumping, with O2 then directly admitted to aFinnigan MAT 251 IRMS.

In situ oxygen isotope compositions of quartz were mea-sured using a SHRIMP SI ion microprobe at the RSES facilityof the Australian National University. Analytical methodswere similar to those described by Ickert et al. (2008).Sequences of sample analyses (typically three measurements)were bracketed by 1–2 analyses of standards. Corrected18O/16O ratios are reported in standard δ18O notation, relativeto VSMOW (Alexandre et al. 2006). All δ18O values werecalibrated against the UBS-28 quartz standard (δ18O =9.2‰, 2σ = 0.79‰; Spicuzza et al. 1998) and the UWQ1quartz standard (δ18O = 12.33‰, 2σ = 0.41‰; Kelly et al.2007). The spot-to-spot reproducibility (i.e., external preci-sion) was typically better than ± 0.30‰ (2σ).

PGE compositions

PGE contents of ore-related pyrrhotite were determined usingan ELAN DRC-e ICP-MS at the Institute of Geochemistry,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang. Analytical proce-dures were similar to those described by Qi et al. (2011) andare only briefly given here. About 2 g of each powdered sam-ple was used in the analytical procedure. Platinum, Pd, Ru,and Ir were measured by isotope dilution, and 194Pt was usedas an internal standard to calculate the abundance of themono-isotope element, Rh. The analyses were monitoredusing certified reference materials of UMT-1 andWPR-1 fromCCRMP (CANMET, Ottawa, Canada). The total procedural

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324314

reagent blanks were lower than 0.008 ng (Ru) to 0.033 ng(Pd). The detection limits range from 0.004 ng/g (Ir) to0.014 ng/g (Pt). Analytical precision is estimated to be betterthan 10% from the replication of reference materials.

Results

Sulfur isotopes

The δ34S data for pyrrhotite from unaltered Devonian wallrocks at Danba are presented in Fig. 5 and listed in ESMTable 1. Four analyses of wall rock pyrrhotite give relativelyconsistent negative values ranging from − 9.5 to − 6.8‰, witha mean of − 8.7‰. These values are in sharp contrast to gold-related pyrrhotite δ34S values from the Danba ore body, whichrange from + 3.1 to + 9.9‰ with a mean of + 7.8‰ (Zhaoet al. 2019). The positive δ34S values of gold-related pyrrho-tite at Danba fall within the normal δ34S range for orogenicgold deposits (0~10‰; Goldfarb and Groves 2015). They areclose to that of ore sulfides from other hypozonal gold de-posits globally, including Saligne in the French MassifCentral (Guen et al. 1992) and Beaver Dam in the Megumastrata of Nova Scotia, Canada (Kontak and Smith 1989), aswell as the Cenozoic Daping gold deposits in the Ailaoshan

belt (Zhang et al. 2018), and the Mesozoic Jiaodong goldprovince (Deng et al. 2015; Fig. 5), both in China.

Lead isotopes

Lead isotope ratios of pyrrhotite from both gold ores and un-altered wall rocks at Danba are shown in Fig. 6 and listed inESM Table 2. The 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pbratios for gold-related pyrrhotite are 17.85~18.25,15.48~15.67, and 37.85~38.51, respectively, showing inter-mediate ratios between those of typical mantle and crust,and specifically varying from the ~ 200-Ma point on the man-tle evolution line to 900~700 Ma on the crustal evolution linein Fig. 6a (Zartman and Haines 1988). They are less radiogen-ic and more scattered than the 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and208Pb/204Pb ratios of wall rock pyrrhotites, which are18.28~18.47, 15.62~15.64, and 38.55~38.82, respectively.The Pb isotope ratios of Danba gold ore contrast with thoseof regional granitoids, which represent the isotopic composi-tions of the crust in the terrane (Roger et al. 2004; Zhang et al.2006; Xiao et al. 2007). In contrast, they are broadly similar tothe gold ores of the Jiaodong gold province, which also plotover a range between the mantle and upper crust evolutionlines (Yang and Zhou 2001; Qiu et al. 2002; Tan et al. 2015;Guo et al. 2017).

Oxygen isotopic compositions of ore-related and wallrock minerals

Oxygen isotope results for the whole-mineral and in situ anal-yses are listed in Fig. 7 and ESM Tables 3 and 4. The whole-mineral δ18O ratios of quartz from gold-related alterationzones range from 13.0 to 13.8‰ (ESM Table 3), with thoseof hydrothermal biotite in those alteration zones ranging from9.3 to 9.4‰. In situ δ18O values of early ore stage quartz havea range of 13.6~15.5‰, whereas those of late ore stage quartzhave higher δ18O values of 17.8~19.2‰ (ESM Table 4).

The whole-mineral δ18O values of metamorphic biotitefrom unaltered garnet–biotite schist and those of amphibolefrom unaltered amphibolite are 7.6 to 9.6‰ and 8.4 to 10.0‰,respectively (ESM Table 3), whereas the in situ δ18O values ofquartz from unaltered garnet–biotite schist are 14.9~15.4‰(ESM Table 4).

The quartz and biotite pairs from gold-related alterationzones at Danba are demonstrably in oxygen isotope equilibri-um in view of their narrow and consistent range of δ18Ovalues (Beaudoin and Chiaradia 2016). Calculated quartz–biotite equilibrium temperatures for these alteration zonesrange from 615 to 515 °C (ESM Table 3), in general agree-ment with the high temperature (500~650 °C) of alteration andearly ore stage formation estimated from mineral geochemis-try and fluid inclusions (Zhao et al. 2019).

Fig. 5 Plot of δ34S values for pyrrhotite from the Devonian wall rocksand gold ore at Danba. Comparable data include ore-related pyrite fromDaping in Ailaoshan belt (Zhang et al. 2018), Jiaodong ore-related pyrite(Mao et al. 2008; Deng et al. 2015; Tan et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2017),sulfides from Saligne in French Massif Central (Guen et al. 1992), sul-fides from Beaver Dam of Meguma province (Kontak and Smith 1989),normal range for orogenic gold deposits (Goldfarb and Groves 2015),sulfides in metasomatized mantle wedge (Alt and Shanks 2006; Rielliet al. 2018), and average continental and oceanic crust (Rielli et al.2018 and references therein) and oceanic sediments (Ohmoto 1979;Strauss 1997). The normal mantle δ34S value ~ 0‰ is from Labidi et al.(2015).

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 315

Using 520 °C as the most realistic early ore stage tempera-ture (Zhao et al. 2019), the estimated ore fluid δ18Ofluid-ore,based on whole minerals including quartz and biotite in alter-ation zones, ranges from 11.1 to 11.9‰ (ESM Table 3), and orefluid δ18Ofluid-ore from in situ analysis of early ore stage quartzhas a similar range of 10.7 to 12.7‰. Using 320 °C as the lateore stage temperature, the δ18Ofluid-ore based on in situ late orestage quartz analysis yields a range of 11.4~12.8‰, consistentwith δ18Ofluid-ore for the early ore stage (Fig. 7; ESM Table 4).The δ18Ofluid-wall rock values of fluids, presumed to be in equi-librium with the wall rocks, were also calculated at the sametemperature of 520 °C. The δ18Ofluid-wall rock estimated from

whole-mineral analyses varies from 10.1 to 12.1‰ and from10.6 to 12.2‰ for biotite and amphibole, respectively, fromunaltered schist and amphibolite (Fig. 7; ESM Table 3), andδ18Ofluid-wall rock from in situ analyses of quartz in unalteredschist are between 12.1 and 12.6‰. It is evident that theδ18Ofluid-ore and δ

18Ofluid-wall rock calculated from different min-erals fall within a similar range.

The δ18Ofluid-ore from both early and late ore stages atDanba fall within the range of 7 to 13‰ recorded forPhanerozoic orogenic gold deposits (Bierlein et al. 2006),and they partly overlap δ18Ofluid-ore for the hypozonal orogen-ic gold deposits, including Yrieix in the FrenchMassif Central

amphibole (520°C)

Phanerozoic orogenic gold deposits

early-stage quartz (520°C)

18

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 30

early-stage quartz (520°C)

Jiaodong (240~345°C)

biotite (520°C)

biotite from schist (520°C)

Fluid

δ O ( )

late-stage quartz (320°C)

quartz from schist (520°C)

Beaver Dam,Meguma (500 °C)

Alteration zone

and orebody

whole

mineral

in situ

Wallrock

whole

mineral

in situ

Yrieix, French Massif Central (450 °C)

Fig. 7 Plot of estimated δ18Oratios of fluid from alteration zoneversus wall rocks at Danba, withcomparison to that of Daping inAilaoshan belt (Sun et al. 2009;Zhang et al. 2018) and Jiaodonggold deposits (Mao et al. 2008;Deng et al. 2015), Yrieix ofFrench Massif Central (Vallanceet al. 2004), Beaver Dam ofMeguma province (Kontak andKerrich 1995), and typical rangefor Phanerozoic orogenic golddeposits (Bierlein and Crowe2000). The isotopic partition co-efficients for minerals are fromZheng (1993a, b)

Fig. 6 Plot of Pb isotope compositions of pyrrhotite from the Danba oreand wall rocks, Jiaodong ore-related pyrite (Yang and Zhou 2001; Qiuet al. 2002; Tan et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2017), Songpan-Garze granites

(Roger et al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2006; Xiao et al. 2007), on the basis ofZartman and Haines (1988) with dots along each curve indicating pro-gressively older time in 0.1 Ga increments

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324316

(Vallance et al. 2004) and Beaver Dam in the Meguma prov-ince, Canada (Kontak and Kerrich 1995), and those forJiaodong epizonal to mesozonal gold deposits (5~10‰; Maoet al. 2008; Deng et al. 2015; Fig. 7).

PGE compositions of ore-related pyrrhotite

PGE compositions of pyrrhotite from the auriferous ores areshown in Fig. 8 and ESM Table 5. The total PGE concentra-tions of about 1~2 ng/g are depleted compared with primitivemantle (PM; Palme and O’Neill 2014). In general, the PM-normalized PGE patterns of the Danba ore-related pyrrhotitesare roughly horizontal, with an anomalous trough at Pt andpeaks at Rh and Pd. The PGEs have low Pt (0.26~1.12 ng/g)and Ir (0.02~0.11 ng/g) and relatively enriched Ru (0.21~0.45ng/g), Rh (0.16~0.35 ng/g), and Pd (0.26~1.12 ng/g). Thesecause elevated Pd/Pt (2.7~14.1) and Pd/Ir (6.4~44.2) ratios, aswell as high Ru/Pt (1.2~7.9) and Ru/Ir (3.7~15.7) values.

The Danba ore-related pyrrhotites show very similar PGEpatterns, particularly severe Pt depletion and moderate Ru andPd enrichment (Fig. 8a), to the sulfides in metasomatizedmantle wedges from southern France (Alard et al. 2011) andNorway (Rielli et al. 2018). They contrast markedly with PGEpatterns of regional lamprophyres (Guo et al. 2005; Gan andHuang 2017), the anomalous PGE-bearing Elatsite porphyryCu–Au (PGE) deposit in Bulgaria (Augé et al. 2005), andigneous intrusions related to porphyry Cu deposits in general(Cocker et al. 2015; Gao et al. 2015; Park et al. 2019), whichshow positively sloped patterns (Fig. 8a).

Discussion

Metasomatized mantle lithosphere as an ore source

The median δ34S value of ore pyrrhotite at + 7.8‰ isinterpreted to represent the δ34S value of the Danba ore fluidas fractionation between S2− of fluid and sulfide minerals isnegligible under high temperature and reducing conditions(Ohmoto 1979), the latter constrained by the dominance ofpyrrhotite in the high-T ores. The δ34S values of ore-relatedpyrrhotite contrast markedly with those of the pyrrhotite in thewall rocks (Fig. 5). Similarly, Pb isotope ratios of ore-relatedpyrrhotite have distinct ratios compared to those of pyrrhotitein wall rocks at Danba (Fig. 6) and those of regional granites.These clear differences in S and Pb isotope ratios indicate thatthe metals and S that formed the Danba deposit could not bederived either from the Devonian metasedimentary rocks orfrom other crustal rocks in the region. During the formation ofthe Danba deposit, its Devonian wall rock sequences wereexperiencing amphibolite–facies metamorphism, implyingthat underlying older strata and Neoproterozoic basementwould have been at even higher metamorphic grade and

therefore incapable of providing a crustal metamorphic fluidsource for gold mineralization. Thus, based on these geolog-ical constraints (Zhao et al. 2019), sub-crustal fluid, ore metal,and S source are the only alternatives, with mantle lithospherethe most logical source.

The δ34S ratios of (+ 3.1 to + 9.9‰) for ore-related sulfidesat Danba are higher than those of depleted mantle at ~ 0‰(Labidi et al. 2015). The significantly elevated δ34S ratios areconsistent with those reported from the sulfides formed inmantle lithosphere that was metasomatized as a result of oce-anic subduction. Examples include the following: pyrrhotitewith δ34S from + 6 to + 15‰ in diamond inclusions fromkimberlite in Sierra Leone (Eldridge et al. 1991; Shirey et al.2013); sulfide with δ34S up to 6‰ from Baltica mantlewedges, located in the Caledonian mountains of Norway, thatwere metasomatized in the Neoproterozoic (Fig. 5; Rielli et al.2018); and sulfide with δ34S up to 10‰ in serpentinite sea-mounts from theMariana fore-arc in the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 5;Alt and Shanks 2006).

Danba gold ores have more radiogenic and variable Pbisotopes than depleted mantle (Bell et al. 2015; Lassiter2018). The Pb isotope ratios imply addition of crustal radio-genic U and Th, and hence higher 207Pb and 208Pb contents,into the depleted mantle lithosphere during its inferred meta-somatism (Miller et al. 1994; Burton et al. 2012). Althoughthere is no evidence of synchronous subduction at ~ 185 Ma,the time of gold mineralization (Zhao et al. 2019), aNeoproterozoic subduction event had been well defined onthe western margin of the Yangtze Craton (Zhou et al. 2002;Zhao and Zhou 2008).

PGEs as indicators for aqueous fluid as carrierof metals from mantle to crust

The Danba ore bodies have no obvious post-gold hydrothermalalteration or quartz vein overprint to affect PGE ratios (Fig. 2),and any weathering would have had a minimal effect on PGEmobility (Song et al. 2006). Therefore, PGE contents of ore-related pyrrhotite, the dominant metal sulfide, should approxi-mate the PGE contents of the ore fluid. There is no Pt–Fe alloydetected during detailed scanning electron microscopy of bothearly ore stage pyrrhotite and late ore stage sulfides, and Pt de-pletion is consistently recorded in all PGE analyses (Fig. 8a).Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the primary Danba orefluid was depleted in Pt.

During partial melting, Ir group–platinum group elements(Ru, Ir) are retained in residual mantle where they are concen-trated in chromite and olivine (Mungall and Brenan 2014), orform laurite (Bockrath et al. 2004), whereas Pt group elements(Pt, Pd) are enriched in silicate melt (Barnes et al. 2015;Aulbach et al. 2016; Lorand and Luguet 2016). Thus, productsof partial melting would have increased Pd/Ir as the Ru/Ir ratiois relatively unchanged (Fig. 8b). Moreover, Pd is more

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 317

soluble in fluids than Pt (Barnes and Liu 2012), and Ru ismore mobile in hydrous fluids than Ir (Keays et al. 1982;Wood 1987; Lorand et al. 2008). Thus, fractionation in hydro-thermal systems results in increase of Pd/Ir and Ru/Ir (Fig.8b), as well as Ru/Pt and Pd/Pt ratios (Fig. 8c; Barnes et al.2015). On this basis, metasomatism of the mantle lithosphereby slab-derived aqueous fluid has been interpreted to explainhigh Pd/Ir, Ru/Ir, Ru/Pt, and Pd/Pt ratios of sulfides inmetasomatized mantle lithosphere from southern France(Alard et al. 2011) and Norway (Rielli et al. 2018). The sim-ilarity of these high Pd/Ir, Ru/Ir, Ru/Pt, and Pd/Pt ratios toPGE ratios at Danba (Fig. 8) implies that Danba sulfides werealso carried by aqueous fluid, implying the source was highlyhydrated and fertilized with metal and sulfur (Fig. 8).

The PGE ratios of Danba gold ores contrast with those ofregional lamprophyres (Guo et al. 2005; Gan and Huang2017), PGE mineral-bearing ores (Augé et al. 2005), and ig-neous intrusions related to porphyry deposits (Fig. 8a; Cockeret al. 2015; Gao et al. 2015; Park et al. 2019), which aregenetically linked to magmatic processes. These contrastssupport the interpretation that the Danba ore fluid was notderived from mantle partial melting nor evolved viamagmatic–hydrothermal processes. Hydrothermal sulfides inthe PGE-enriched Elatsite porphyry deposit from Bulgariahave high Pd/Ir and Ru/Ir ratios (Augé et al. 2005) similar tothose of Danba pyrrhotites, but these are caused by high con-tents of Pt group minerals, including merenskyite, moncheite,palladoarsenide, which are absent in the Danba ores.Collectively, the PGE compositions of Danba ore-related pyr-rhotite rule out any possible genetic link to magmatic–hydrothermal fluids. A hydrated and fertilized mantle litho-sphere source is clearly implicated.

Processes responsible for hydration and fertilizationof mantle source

As suggested by previous studies of mantle metasomatism viaexperiment and numerical modeling (Kessel et al. 2005;Hirschmann 2006; Hermann and Rubatto 2009; Castro et al.2010), two alternative agents could be responsible for the processof hydration of depletedmantle. The fluid could be released fromaltered oceanic crust (AOC) through the dehydration of zeolite,pumpellyite, prehnite, chlorite, amphibole, and phengite(Schmidt and Poli 2014) or alternatively could be derived fromsubduction of oceanic sediments. These alternative models arediscussed in terms of the O and S isotope ratios of the Danbamineralization system.

The δ18Ofluid-ore values for quartz and biotite from alterationzones fall within the range of 10 to 12‰ (Fig. 8), equivalent tothat of δ18Ofluid-wall rock values calculated fromunaltered biotite andamphibole in the host rocks at the ore formation temperature ofabout 520 °C. The ore fluid and local wall rocks could reachoxygen isotope equilibrium via water molecule diffusion at the

100

1000

10000

Sam

ple

/ P

rim

itiv

e m

antle

aDanba ore pyrrhotite (n=8)

Western Yangtze lamprophyres (n=10)

Sulfides in metasomatized mantle wedge

Norway (n=12) South France (n=13)

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd

Partial melting

residue

Partial melting

product

Porphyry

Cu-Au-(PGE)

Porphyry

Orogenic Au

Pd/Ir

Ru/Ir

0.01 1 100 10000

1

10

100

b

Porphyry rocks (n=48)

Elatsite

Porphyry Cu-Au-(PGE) ores

Pd/Pt

Ru/P

t

1 100 1000

0.01

1

10

100

c

Danba ore pyrrhotite (n=8)

Western Yangtze lamprophyres (n=10)

Sulfides in metasomatized mantle wedge

Norway (n=12) South France (n=13)

100.1

0.1

1000

Partial melting

product

Slab-derived

fluid

Elatsite porphyry Cu-Au-(PGE) ores (n=10)

Porphyry ro

cks

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324318

mineral scale (Giletti 1986; Farver and Yund 1991; Jenkin et al.1994; Bons and Gomez Rivas 2013). However, the similaritybetween δ18Ofluid-ore and δ18Ofluid-wall rock of the distal wall rock,tens of meters away from orebodies (e.g., Fig. 2b) cannot becaused by suchmicro-scale isotopic diffusion. Based on the stronginference of involvement of fluid from mantle lithosphere, it isreasonable to assume that the δ18Ofluid-ore of Danba is a combina-tion of δ18Ofluid-mantle and the δ

18Ofluid-wall rock ofDanbawall rocks,with which the primary mantle fluid reacted. If this is correct, thesimilarity between δ18Ofluid-ore and δ18Ofluid-wall rock indicates thatthe primary fluid derived from the mantle lithosphere should haveδ18Ofluid-mantle of around 11‰ (Fig. 8). Given the δ18Ofluid-mantle of11‰, the mantle lithosphere source for that fluid should haveδ18Omantle of ~ 9.5‰, which is consistently estimated fromolivine,pyroxene and phlogopite over a temperature range of 800 to 1200°C (Ongley et al. 1987; Xu et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2014; Banerjeeet al. 2018; Heinonen et al. 2018).

A relatively narrow range of O isotopic ratios (δ18O = 5.0–5.5‰) typifies depletedmantle, as represented by δ18O of olivinefrommantle xenoliths andmid-ocean ridges (MORBs) (Gurenkoet al. 2011; Korolev et al. 2018; Genske et al. 2013). The averageδ18O of AOC fluid is ~ 9%, slightly lower than that of theinferred mantle lithosphere source for the Danba deposit (Altet al. 2012). The input of fluid released from AOC into depletedmantle cannot alone yield a metasomatized mantle lithospherewith such a high δ18O value. In contrast, the average δ18O ofsubducted oceanic sediments is ~ 25‰ (Eiler 2001; Alt andShanks 2006; Heinonen et al. 2018), and the fluid derived fromhydrous minerals, such as micas and chlorite, would have δ18Ovalues greater than 25‰ (Zheng 1993a, b). Thus, involvement offluid derived from oceanic sediment is required to generate ametasomatized mantle with δ18O of ~ 11‰, the value calculatedfor the Danba ore fluid.

The metasomatism of mantle lithosphere via fluid derivedfrom oceanic sediments is also consistent with S and Pb isotoperatios of ore-related minerals. Sulfur-bearing AOC fluid has alow δ34S value of about 1.2‰ (Alt et al. 2012), much lower thanthe ore-related sulfides at Danba, but oceanic sediments can havemuch higher sulfide δ34S, reaching up to 20‰ (Alt and Shanks2006; Heinonen et al. 2018). Thus, the high δ34S values in gold-related pyrrhotite at Danba can be achieved viametasomatism by

involving fluid derived from oceanic sediments. Similarly, themore radiogenic and scattered Pb isotope ratios of Danba goldores can be explained by the high radiogenic Th and U contentsof fluids derived from oceanic sediments (Ryan et al. 1995;Hermann and Rubatto 2009; Schmidt and Poli 2014). Since theP–T conditions for fluid release from oceanic sediment and thatfrom AOC largely overlap (Schmidt and Poli 2014; Ryan et al.1995; Hermann andRubatto 2009), it seems inevitable that AOCfluid was also involved in the process of mantle metasomatism.This can also potentially explain the lower δ34S values within thetotal δ34S range of ore-related sulfides.

Genetic model for the Danba gold deposit

A genetic model for the Danba gold deposit is proposed that iscompatible with both its geological characteristics (Zhao et al.2019) and with the geochemical and isotopic data presentedabove.

In the Neoproterozoic, dehydration of subducted oceanic sed-iments together with AOC is interpreted to have caused hydra-tion and sulfidation of the mantle lithosphere, as well as elevatedδ18O and δ34S values of its components (Fig. 9a). The modelrequires a slow convergence rate and shallow subduction angle,in which partial melting of mantle lithosphere during oceanicsubduction was locally inhibited (Schmidt and Poli 2003,2014; Sun et al. 2015; Polat et al. 2018). During LowerJurassic asthenosphere upwelling (Zhao et al. 2019), themetasomatized and fertilized mantle lithosphere was heated toform localized zones of significant auriferous fluids (Fig. 9b).This auriferous fluid released from the metasomatized mantlelithosphere would then be focused along lithosphere-scale con-duits (Groves et al. 2019) into the crust to deposit the hypozonalDanba gold deposit in a second-order ductile shear zone.

The δ18Ofluid-ore and δ34S values of ore-related pyrrhotite from

Danba largely overlap those of other Phanerozoic hypozonalorogenic gold deposits (Kontak and Smith 1989; Guen et al.1992; Kontak and Kerrich 1995; Vallance et al. 2004) andmesozonal to epizonal orogenic gold deposits of the Jiaodonggold province (Deng et al. 2015; Figs. 5 and 8). These depositsshare high δ18O values (up to 10~12‰), high δ34S values (up to10‰), Pb isotope ratios with mixed mantle and crust signatures,and no genetic link between gold deposits and igneous intrusions(Vallance et al. 2004; Deng et al. 2015). It is plausible that amodel in which metasomatized mantle lithosphere was the metaland fluid source is equally applicable to other anomalous oro-genic gold deposits, particularly those adjacent to cratonmargins.

Conclusions

The Lower Jurassic Danba hypozonal orogenic gold deposit isanomalous in many respects, suggesting that its genesis maybe more complex than for the majority of orogenic gold

�Fig. 8 PGE characteristics of the Danba ore-related pyrrhotite. aPrimitive mantle-normalized PGE patterns for Danba ore-related pyrrho-tite, lamprophyres on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton fromGanand Huang (2017), sulfides in metasomatzied mantle lithosphere wedgefrom Alard et al. (2011) and Rielli et al. (2018), and ore samples fromporphyry deposits fromAugé et al. (2005) and felsic intrusions associatedwith porphyry mineralization fromCocker et al. (2015), Gao et al. (2015),and Park et al. (2019). b Pd/Ir vs. Ru/Ir plot showing comparison ofoxidation state between Danba ore-related pyrrhotite and otherendmembers, based on Rielli et al. (2018). c Pd/Pt vs. Ru/Pt plotdisplaying systematic difference of Pt enrichment/depletion among dif-ferent endmembers. The PGE compositions of primitive mantle are fromPalme and O’Neill (2014)

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 319

deposits. At Danba, positive δ34S ratios of ore-related pyrrho-tite contrast with negative δ34S ratios of pyrrhotite from unal-tered wall rocks but are similar to those of sulfides frommetasomatized mant le l i thosphere from Europe.Furthermore, Pb isotope ratios of ore-related pyrrhotite areless radiogenic and more variable than those of pyrrhotitefrom the Devonian wall rocks. The contrasts in both S andPb isotope ratios, together with the hypozonal nature of theDanba deposit, are consistent with a sub-crustal model inwhich the auriferous fluid was sourced from metasomatizedmantle lithosphere.

The PGE patterns of Danba ore-related pyrrhotite are almostidentical to those published from metasomatized mantle litho-sphere wedges, with enrichment of Pd and Ru, which are solublein aqueous fluids, and depletion of Pt which is preferentiallypartitioned intomagma during partial melting. It is suggested thatthe metals were carried by aqueous fluid directly sourced from

metasomatized and fertilized mantle lithosphere instead of viamagmatic–hydrothermal processes, which are also negated byspatial and temporal relationships between Danda gold oresand granite intrusions. The δ18O of mantle fluid calculated fromhydrothermal quartz and biotite ranges from 10 to 12‰, and,together with high δ34S ratios of ore-related sulfides, support aprocess in which fluid responsible for hydration and fertilizationof the mantle lithosphere source was mainly derived fromdevolatilization of subducted oceanic sediments, with lesser in-volvement of AOC fluids.

Based on the geochemical and isotopic evidence presented inthis paper, a genetic model for Danba is proposed that involvesmetasomatic introduction of hydrous fluid, sulfur, and metals intomantle lithosphere via Neoproterozoic oceanic subduction pro-cesses, with later Lower Jurassic release of auriferous fluid viadevolatilization of this metasomatized mantle lithosphere duringasthenosphere upwelling to form the Danba hypozonal orogenic

b

aFig. 9 Genetic model for theDanba hypozonal orogenic golddeposit. a In the Neoproterozoic,devolatilization of subductedoceanic sediments together withAOC caused the hydration,sulfidation, and fertilization of themantle lithosphere, as well aselevated δ18O and δ34S values.The subduction model ismodified from Garrido et al.(2005) and Schmidt and Poli(2014) b In the Lower Jurassic,asthenosphere upwelling heatedand devolatilized themetasomatized and fertilizedmantle lithosphere to release lo-calized zones of auriferous fluidthat was channelized along majorcrustal shear zones to form theDanba gold deposit in second-order ductile structures

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324320

gold deposit. As for all sub-crustal processes, a single piece ofevidence is unlikely to be definitive, but, in this case, the conjunc-tion of a number of lines of geological, geochemical, and isotopicevidence provides a compelling, if complex, genetic model.Similar models should be tested for other orogenic gold depositsthat are anomalous in terms of their high P–T conditions of for-mation and/or their tectonic setting adjacent to craton margins.

Funding information The research was jointly supported by the NationalKey Research and Development Project of China (2016YFC0600307),the National Key Basic Research Development Program (973 Program;2015CB452606), the fundamental research funds of university teachers(No. 2652016070), and 111 Plan under the Ministry of Education and theState Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs, China (B07011).

References

Alard O, Lorand JP, Reisberg L, Bodinier JL, Dautria JM, O'reilly SY(2011) Volatile-rich metasomatism in Montferrier xenoliths(Southern France): implications for the abundances of chalcophileand highly siderophile elements in the subcontinental mantle. JPetrol 52:2009–2045

Alexandre A, Basile-Doelsch I, Sonzogni C, Sylvestre F, Parron C,Meunier JD, Colin F (2006) Oxygen isotope analyses of fine silicagrains using laser-extraction technique: comparison with oxygenisotope data obtained from ion microprobe analyses and applicationto quartzite and silcrete cement investigation. Geochim CosmochimActa 70:2827–2835

Alt JC, Shanks WC (2006) Stable isotope compositions of serpentiniteseamounts in the Mariana forearc: serpentinization processes, fluidsources and sulfur metasomatism. Earth Planet Sci Lett 242:272–285

Alt JC, Shanks WC, Jackson MC (1993) Cycling of sulfur in subductionzones: the geochemistry of sulfur in the Mariana Island Arc andback-arc trough. Earth Planet Sci Lett 119:477–494

Alt JC, Garrido CJ, Shanks WC III, Turchyn A, Padrón Navarta JA,Sánchez Vizcaíno VL, Pugnaire MTG, Marchesi C (2012)Recycling of water, carbon, and sulfur during subduction ofserpentinites: a stable isotope study of Cerro del Almirez, Spain.Earth Planet Sci Lett 327:50–60

Augé T, Petrunov R, Bailly L (2005) On the origin of the PGE mineral-ization in the elatsite porphyry Cu–Au deposit, Bulgaria: compari-son with the Baula–Nuasahi complex, India, and other alkalinePGE-rich porphyries. Can Mineral 43:1355–1372

Aulbach S, Mungall JE, Pearson DG (2016) Distribution and processingof highly siderophile elements in cratonic mantle lithosphere. RevMineral Geochem 81:239–304

Ayuso RA, Wooden JL, Foley NK, Seal RR, Sinha AK (2005) U-Pbzircon ages and Pb isotope geochemistry of gold deposits in theCarolina slate belt of South Carolina. Econ Geol 100:225–252

Banerjee S, Kyser TK, Mitchell RH (2018) Oxygen and hydrogen isoto-pic composition of phlogopites and amphiboles in diamond-bearingkimberlite hosted MARID xenoliths: constraints on fluid-rock inter-action and recycled crustal material in the deep continental litho-spheric mantle. Chem Geol 479:272–285

Bao H, Thiemens MH (2000) Generation of O2 from BaSO4 using aCO2− laser fluorination system for simultaneous analysis of δ18Oand δ17O. Anal Chem 72:4029–4032

Barnes SJ, Liu WH (2012) Pt and Pd mobility in hydrothermal fluids:evidence from komatiites and from thermodynamic modelling. OreGeol Rev 44:49–58

Barnes SJ, Mungall JE, Maier WD (2015) Platinum group elements inmantle melts and mantle samples. Lithos 232:395–417

Beaudoin G, Chiaradia M (2016) Fluid mixing in orogenic gold deposits:evidence from the HO-Sr isotope composition of the Val-d’Or veinfield (Abitibi, Canada). Chem Geol 437:7–18

Bell K, Zaitsev A, Spratt J, Fröjdö S, Rukhlov A (2015) Elemental, leadand sulfur isotopic compositions of galena from Kola carbonatites,Russia—implications for melt and mantle evolution. Miner Mag 79:219–241

Benning LG, Seward TM (1996) Hydrosulphide complexing of Au (I) inhydrothermal solutions from 150–400 C and 500–1500 bar.Geochim Cosmochim Acta 60:1849–1871

Bierlein FP, Crowe D (2000) Phanerozoic orogenic lode gold deposits.Rev Econ Geol 103–139

Bierlein FP, Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Dubé B (2006) Lithospheric con-trols on the formation of provinces hosting giant orogenic gold de-posits. Mineral Deposita 40:874

Billerot A, Duchene S, Vanderhaeghe O, de Sigoyer J (2017) Gneissdomes of the Danbametamorphic complex, SongpanGanze, easternTibet. J Asian Earth Sci 140:48–74

Bockrath C, Ballhaus C, HolzheidA (2004) Stabilities of laurite RuS2 andmonosulfide liquid solution at magmatic temperature. Chem Geol208:265–271

Bons PD, Gomez Rivas E (2013) Gravitational fractionation of isotopesand dissolved components as a first-order process in crustal fluids.Econ Geol 108:1195–1201

Boudreau A, McCallum I (1992) Concentration of platinum-group ele-ments by magmatic fluids in layered intrusions. Econ Geol 87:1830–1848

Bruguier O, Lancelot J, Malavieille J (1997) U–Pb dating on single de-trital zircon grains from the Triassic Songpan–Ganze flysch (CentralChina): provenance and tectonic correlations. Earth Planet Sci Lett152:217–231

Burnard PG, Hu RZ, Turner G, Bi XW (1999) Mantle, crustal and atmo-spheric noble gases in Ailaoshan gold deposits, Yunnan Province,China. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:1595–1604

Burton KW, Cenki Tok B, Mokadem F, Harvey J, Gannoun A, Alard O,Parkinson IJ (2012) Unradiogenic lead in Earth’s upper mantle. NatGeosci 5:570

Castro A, Gerya T, García-Casco A, Fernández C, Díaz-Alvarado J,Moreno-Ventas I, Löw I (2010) Melting relations of MORB–sediment mélanges in underplated mantle wedge plumes; implica-tions for the origin of Cordilleran-type batholiths. J Petrol 51:1267–1295

Cawood PA, Zhao GC, Yao JL, Wang W, Xu YJ, Wang YJ (2017)Reconstructing South China in Phanerozoic and Precambrian super-continents. Earth-Sci Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.06.001

Chang ZS, Large RR,Maslennikov V (2008) Sulfur isotopes in sediment-hosted orogenic gold deposits: evidence for an early timing and aseawater sulfur source. Geology 36:971–974

Chen SF,Wilson CJ (1996) Emplacement of the Longmen Shan Thrust—Nappe Belt along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. J StructGeol 18:413–430

Chen Q, Sun M, Zhao GC, Yang FL, Long XP, Li JH, Wang J, Yu Y(2017) Origin of the mafic microgranular enclaves (MMEs) andtheir host granitoids from the Tagong pluton in Songpan–Ganzeterrane: an igneous response to the closure of the Paleo-Tethysocean. Lithos 290:1–17

Cocker HA, Valente DL, Park JW, Campbell IH (2015) Using platinumgroup elements to identify sulfide saturation in a porphyry Cu sys-tem: the El Abra porphyry Cu deposit, Northern Chile. J Petrol 56:2491–2514

Deng J, Wang QF (2016) Gold mineralization in China: metallogenicprovinces, deposit types and tectonic framework. Gondwana Res36:219–274

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 321

Deng J, Liu XF, Wang QF, Pan RG (2015) Origin of the Jiaodong-typeXinli gold deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, China: constraints from flu-id inclusion and C–D–O–S–Sr isotope compositions. Ore Geol Rev65:674–686

Deng J, Liu XF, Wang QF, Dilek Y, Liang YY (2017) Isotopic character-ization and petrogenetic modeling of Early Cretaceous maficdiking—Lithospheric extension in the North China craton, easternAsia. GSA Bull 129:1379–1407

Deng J,WangQF, SantoshM, LiuXF, Liang YY, Yang LL, Zhao R,YangL (2019) Remobilization of metasomatized mantle lithosphere: anew model for the Jiaodong gold province, eastern China. MineralDeposita 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-019-00925-0

Eiler JM (2001) Oxygen isotope variations of basaltic lavas and uppermantle rocks. Rev Mineral Geochem 43:319–364

Eldridge C, Compston W, Williams I, Harris J, Bristow J (1991) Isotopeevidence for the involvement of recycled sediments in diamondformation. Nature 353:649

Fan T, Ying YY,Wang Y, Zhao HS (2013) Exploration of theMeihe GoldMine in Danba County. Geology Bureau of Sichuan Province.Miner Deposit Exploration Rep 12 (in Chinese)

Farver JR, Yund R (1991) Oxygen diffusion in quartz: dependence ontemperature and water fugacity. Chem Geol 90:55–70

Galer S, Abouchami W (1998) Practical application of lead triple spikingfor correction of instrumental mass discrimination. Miner Mag 62:491–492

Gan T, Huang ZL (2017) Platinum-group element and Re-Os geochem-istry of lamprophyres in the Zhenyuan gold deposit, YunnanProvince, China: implications for petrogenesis and mantle evolu-tion. Lithos 282:228–239

Gao JF, Zhou MF, Qi L, Chen WT, Huang XW (2015) Chalcophileelemental compositions and origin of the Tuwu porphyry Cu depos-it, NW China. Ore Geol Rev 66:403–421

Garrido CJ, López SV, Gómez MT, Trommsdorff V, Alard O, BodinierJL, Godard M (2005) Enrichment of HFSE in chlorite-harzburgiteproduced by high-pressure dehydration of antigorite-serpentinite:implications for subduction magmatism. Geochem GeophysGeosyst 6:1–15

Gebre-Mariam M, Hagemann S, Groves D (1995) A classificationscheme for epigenetic Archaean lode-gold deposits. MineralDeposita 30:408–410

Genske FS, Beier C, Haase KM, Turner SP, Krumm S, Brandl PA (2013)Oxygen isotopes in the Azores islands: crustal assimilation recordedin olivine. Geology 41:491–494

Giletti BJ (1986) Diffusion effects on oxygen isotope temperatures ofslowly cooled igneous and metamorphic rocks. Earth Planet SciLett 77:218–228

Goldfarb RJ, Groves DI (2015) Orogenic gold: common or evolving fluidand metal sources through time. Lithos 233:2–26

Goldfarb RJ, Santosh M (2014) The dilemma of the Jiaodong gold de-posits: are they unique? Geosci Front 5:139–153

Groves DI, Santosh M (2016) The giant Jiaodong gold province: the keyto a unified model for orogenic gold deposits? Geosci Front 7:409–417

Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Gebre Mariam M, Hagemann S, Robert F(1998) Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed classification in the con-text of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposittypes. Ore Geol Rev 13:7–27

Groves DI, Santosh M, Deng J, Wang QF, Yang LQ, Zhang L (2019) Aholistic model for the origin of orogenic gold deposits and its impli-cations for exploration. Mineral Deposita 1–18

Guen M, Lescuyer J, Marcoux E (1992) Lead-isotope evidence for aHercynian origin of the Salsigne gold deposit (Southern MassifCentral, France). Mineral Deposita 27:129–136

Guo ZF, Hertogen J, Liu JQ, Pasteels P, Boven A, Punzalan L, He HY,Luo XJ, ZhangWH (2005) Potassic magmatism in western Sichuan

and Yunnan provinces, SE Tibet, China: petrological and geochem-ical constraints on petrogenesis. J Petrol 46:33–78

Guo LN, Goldfarb RJ, Wang ZL, Li RH, Chen BH, Li JL (2017) Acomparison of Jiaojia-and Linglong-type gold deposit ore-formingfluids: do they differ? Ore Geol Rev 88:511–533

Gurenko AA, Bindeman IN, Chaussidon M (2011) Oxygen isotope het-erogeneity of the mantle beneath the Canary Islands: insights fromolivine phenocrysts. Contrib Mineral Petrol 162:349–363

Heinonen JS, Luttinen AV,WhitehouseMJ (2018) Enrichment of 18 O inthe mantle sources of the Antarctic portion of the Karoo large igne-ous province. Contrib Mineral Petrol 173:21

Hermann J, Rubatto D (2009) Accessory phase control on the trace ele-ment signature of sediment melts in subduction zones. Chem Geol265:512–526

Hirschmann MM (2006) Water, melting, and the deep Earth H2O cycle.Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 34:629–653

Hronsky JM, Groves DI, Loucks RR, Begg GC (2012) A unified modelfor gold mineralisation in accretionary orogens and implications forregional-scale exploration targeting methods. Mineral Deposita 47:339–358

Huang M, Maas R, Buick IS, Williams IS (2003) Crustal response tocontinental collisions between the Tibet, Indian, South China andNorth China blocks: geochronological constraints from theSongpan-Garze orogenic belt, western China. J Metamorph Geol21:223–240

Ickert R, Hiess J, Williams I, Holden P, Ireland T, Lanc P, Schram N,Foster J, Clement S (2008) Determining high precision, in situ,oxygen isotope ratios with a SHRIMP II: analyses of MPI-DINGsilicate-glass reference materials and zircon from contrasting gran-ites. Chem Geol 257:114–128

Jenkin G, Farrow C, Fallick A, Higgins D (1994) Oxygen isotope ex-change and closure temperatures in cooling rocks. J MetamorphGeol 12:221–235

Jolivet M, Roger F, Xu Z, Paquette J-L, Cao H (2015) Mesozoic–Cenozoic evolution of the Danba dome (Songpan Garzê, EastTibet) as inferred from LA-ICPMS U–Pb and fission-track data. JAsian Earth Sci 102:180–204

Keays RR, Nickel E, Groves D, McGoldrick PJ (1982) Iridium and pal-ladium as discriminants of volcanic-exhalative, hydrothermal, andmagmatic nickel sulfide mineralization. Econ Geol 77:1535–1547

Kelly JL, Fu B, Kita NT, Valley JW (2007) Optically continuous silcretequartz cements of the St. Peter Sandstone: high precision oxygenisotope analysis by ion microprobe. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:3812–3832

Kesarwani M, Sarangi S, Srinivasan R, George B, Singh S, BhattacharyaS, Vasudev V (2019) Origin of granodiorite hosted Neoarchaeanorogenic gold ore deposits: stable isotopic and geochemical con-straints with example from the Dharwar craton, southern India.Ore Geol Rev 107:754–779

Kessel R, Schmidt MW, Ulmer P, Pettke T (2005) Trace element signa-ture of subduction-zone fluids, melts and supercritical liquids at120–180 km depth. Nature 437:724

Klein EL, Harris C, Giret A, Moura CA, Angélica RS (2005) Geologyand stable isotope (O, H, C, S) constraints on the genesis of theCachoeira gold deposit, Gurupi Belt, northern Brazil. Chem Geol221:188–206

Klein EL, Harris C, Renac C, Giret A, Moura CA, Fuzikawa K (2006)Fluid inclusion and stable isotope (O, H, C, and S) constraints on thegenesis of the Serrinha gold deposit, Gurupi Belt, northern Brazil.Mineral Deposita 41:160

Kolb J, Meyer MF (2002) Fluid inclusion record of the hypozonal oro-genic Renco gold deposit (Zimbabwe) during the retrograde P–Tevolution. Contrib Mineral Petrol 143:495–509

Kolb J, Rogers A,Meyer FM (2005a) Relative timing of deformation andtwo-stage gold mineralization at the Hutti Mine, Dharwar Craton,India. Mineral Deposita 40:156–174

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324322

Kolb J, Sindern S, Kisters AF, Meyer FM, Hoernes S, Schneider J(2005b) Timing of Uralian orogenic gold mineralization atKochkar in the evolution of the East Uralian granite-gneiss terrane.Mineral Deposita 40:473–491

Kolb J, Dziggel A, Bagas L (2015) Hypozonal lode gold deposits: agenetic concept based on a review of the New Consort, Renco,Hutti, Hira Buddini, Navachab, Nevoria and The Granites deposits.Precambrian Res 262:20–44

Kontak DJ, Kerrich R (1995) Geological and geochemical studies of ametaturbidite-hosted lode gold deposit; the Beaver Dam Deposit,Nova Scotia; II, Isotopic studies. Econ Geol 90:885–901

Kontak DJ, Smith PK (1989) Sulphur isotopic composition of sulphidesfrom the Beaver Dam and other Meguma-Group-hosted gold de-posits, Nova Scotia: implications for genetic models. Can J EarthSci 26:1617–1629

Korolev NM, Melnik AE, Li XH, Skublov SG (2018) The oxygen iso-tope composition of mantle eclogites as a proxy of their origin andevolution: a review. Earth-Sci Rev 185:288–300

Labidi J, Cartigny P, Jackson M (2015) Multiple sulfur isotope composi-tion of oxidized Samoan melts and the implications of a sulfur iso-tope ‘mantle array’ in chemical geodynamics. Earth Planet Sci Lett417:28–39

Lassiter JC (2018) On the equilibration timescales of isolated trace phasesin mantle peridotites: implications for the interpretation of grain-scale isotope heterogeneity in peridotitic sulfides. Earth Planet SciLett 498:427–435

Lee CTA, Luffi P, Chin EJ, Bouchet R, Dasgupta R, Morton DM, LeRoux V, Yin QZ, Jin D (2012) Copper systematics in arc magmasand implications for crust-mantle differentiation. Science 336:64–68

Li SZ, Zhao GC, Santosh M, Liu X, Dai LM, Suo YH, Tam PY, SongMC, Wang PC (2012) Paleoproterozoic structural evolution of thesouthern segment of the Jiao-Liao-Ji Belt, North China Craton.Precambrian Res 200:59–73

Liu CZ, Wu FY, Chung SL, Li QL, Sun WD, Ji WQ (2014) A ‘hidden’18O-enriched reservoir in the sub-arc mantle. Sci Rep 4:4232

Lorand JP, Luguet A (2016) Chalcophile and siderophile elements inmantle rocks: trace elements controlled by trace minerals. RevMineral Geochem 81:441–488

Lorand JP, Luguet A, Alard O, Bezos A,Meisel T (2008) Abundance anddistribution of platinum-group elements in orogenic lherzolites; acase study in a Fontete Rouge lherzolite (French Pyrénées). ChemGeol 248:174–194

Mao JW, Wang YT, Li H, Pirajno F, Zhang CQ, Wang RT (2008) Therelationship of mantle-derived fluids to gold metallogenesis in theJiaodong Peninsula: evidence from D–O–C–S isotope systematics.Ore Geol Rev 33:361–381

Miller DM, Goldstein SL, Langmuir CH (1994) Cerium/lead and leadisotope ratios in arc magmas and the enrichment of lead in thecontinents. Nature 368:514

Mungall JE, Brenan JM (2014) Partitioning of platinum-group elementsand Au between sulfide liquid and basalt and the origins of mantle-crust fractionation of the chalcophile elements. GeochimCosmochim Acta 125:265–289

Ohmoto H (1979) Isotopes of sulfur and carbon, 3rd ed. Geochemistry ofhydrothermal ore deposits, 509–567

Ongley JS, Basu AR, Kyser TK (1987) Oxygen isotopes in coexistinggarnets, clinopyroxenes and phlogopites of Roberts Victor eclogites:implications for petrogenesis and mantle metasomatism. EarthPlanet Sci Lett 83:80–84

Palme H, O’Neill H (2014) Cosmochemical estimates of mantle compo-sition. Planets, asteroids, comets and the solar system. Treatise ongeochemistry 2:567–678

Park JW, Campbell IH, Malaviarachchi SP, Cocker H, Hao H, Kay SM(2019) Chalcophile element fertility and the formation of porphyryCu ± Au deposits. Mineral Deposita 54:657–670

Phillips G, Powell R (2010) Formation of gold deposits: a metamorphicdevolatilization model. J Metamorph Geol 28:689–718

Polat A, Frei R, Longstaffe FJ, Thorkelson DJ, Friedman E (2018)Petrology and geochemistry of the Tasse mantle xenoliths of theCanadian Cordillera: a record of Archean to Quaternary mantlegrowth, metasomatism, removal, and melting. Tectonophysics737:1–26

Qi L, Gao JF, Huang XW, Hu J, Zhou MF, Zhong H (2011) An improveddigestion technique for determination of platinum group elements ingeological samples. J Anal Atom Spectrom 26:1900–1904

Qiu YM, Groves DI, McNaughton NJ, Wang LG, Zhou TH (2002)Nature, age, and tectonic setting of granitoid-hosted, orogenic golddeposits of the Jiaodong Peninsula, eastern North China craton,China. Mineral Deposita 37:283–305

Richards JP (2015) The oxidation state, and sulfur and Cu contents of arcmagmas: implications for metallogeny. Lithos 233:27–45

Rielli A, Tomkins AG, Nebel O, Raveggi M, Jeon H, Martin L, Ávila JN(2018) Sulfur isotope and PGE systematics of metasomatisedmantlewedge. Earth Planet Sci Lett 497:181–192

Ripley EM, Li C (2013) Sulfide saturation in mafic magmas: is externalsulfur required for magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) ore genesis? Econ Geol108:45–58

Roger F, Malavieille J, Leloup PH, Calassou S, Xu Z (2004) Timing ofgranite emplacement and cooling in the Songpan–Garzê Fold Belt(eastern Tibetan Plateau) with tectonic implications. J Asian EarthSci 22:465–481

Roger F, Jolivet M, Malavieille J (2010) The tectonic evolution of theSongpan-Garzê (North Tibet) and adjacent areas from Proterozoic toPresent: a synthesis. J Asian Earth Sci 39:254–269

Ryan JG, Morris J, Tera F, Leeman WP, Tsvetkov A (1995) Cross-arcgeochemical variations in the Kurile arc as a function of slab depth.Science 270:625–627

Schmidt MW, Poli S (2003) Generation of mobile components duringsubduction of oceanic crust. Treatise on geochemistry 3:659

Schmidt M, Poli S (2014) Devolatilization during subduction. Treatise onGeochemistry 4:669–701

Shirey SB, Cartigny P, Frost DJ, Keshav S, Nestola F, Nimis P, PearsonDG, Sobolev NV, Walter MJ (2013) Diamonds and the geology ofmantle carbon. Rev Mineral Geochem 75:355–421

Sigoyer J, VanderhaegheO, Duchêne S, Billerot A (2014) Generation andemplacement of Triassic granitoids within the Songpan Ganzeaccretionary-orogenic wedge in a context of slab retreat accommo-dated by tear faulting, Eastern Tibetan plateau, China. J Asian EarthSci 88:192–216

Song XY, Zhou MF, Keays RR, Cao ZM, Sun M, Qi L (2006)Geochemistry of the Emeishan flood basalts at Yangliuping,Sichuan, SW China: implications for sulfide segregation. ContribMineral Petrol 152:53–74

Spicuzza M, Valley J, Kohn M, Girard J, Fouillac A (1998) The rapidheating, defocused beam technique: a CO2-laser-based method forhighly precise and accurate determination of δ18O values of quartz.Chem Geol 144:195–203

Standish C, Dhuime B, Chapman R, Hawkesworth C, Pike A (2014) Thegenesis of gold mineralisation hosted by orogenic belts: a lead iso-tope investigation of Irish gold deposits. Chem Geol 378:40–51

Strauss H (1997) The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfur throughtime. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 132:97–118

Sun XM, Zhang Y, Xiong DX, Sun WD, Shi GY, Zhai W, Wang SW(2009) Crust andmantle contributions to gold-forming process at theDaping deposit, Ailaoshan gold belt, Yunnan, China. Ore Geol Rev36:235–249

SunY, Ying JF, Su BX, Zhou XH, Shao JA (2015) Contribution of crustalmaterials to the mantle sources of Xiaogulihe ultrapotassic volcanicrocks, Northeast China: new constraints frommineral chemistry andoxygen isotopes of olivine. Chem Geol 405:10–18

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324 323

Tan J, Wei JH, Li YY, Fu LB, Li HM, Shi WJ, Tian N (2015) Origin andgeodynamic significance of fault-hosted massive sulfide gold de-posits from the Guocheng–Liaoshang metallogenic belt, easternJiaodong Peninsula: Rb–Sr dating, and H–O–S–Pb isotopic con-straints. Ore Geol Rev 65:687–700

Tomkins AG, Grundy C (2009) Upper temperature limits of orogenicgold deposit formation: constraints from the granulite-hostedGriffin’s Find deposit, Yilgarn craton. Econ Geol 104:669–685

Tucker RD, Ashwal LD, Torsvik TH (2001) U–Pb geochronology ofSeychelles granitoids: a Neoproterozoic continental arc fragment.Earth Planet Sci Lett 187:27–38

Vallance J, Boiron MC, Cathelineau M, Fourcade S, Varlet M, MarignacC (2004) The granite hosted gold deposit ofMoulin de Cheni (Saint-Yrieix district, Massif Central, France): petrographic, structural, flu-id inclusion and oxygen isotope constraints. Mineral Deposita 39:265–281

Vielreicher NM, Ridley JR, Groves DI (2002) Marymia: an Archean,amphibolite facies-hosted, orogenic lode-gold deposit overprintedby Palaeoproterozoic orogenesis and base metal mineralisation,Western Australia. Mineral Deposita 37:737–764

Wallis S, Tsujimori T, AoyaM, Kawakami T, Terada K, Suzuki K, HyodoH (2003) Cenozoic and Mesozoic metamorphism in theLongmenshan orogen: implications for geodynamic models of east-ern Tibet. Geology 31:745–748

Wang QF, Deng J, Li GJ, Liu JY, Li C, Ripley EM (2018)Geochronological, petrological, and geochemical studies of theDaxueshan magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit in the TethyanOrogenic Belt, Southwest China. Econ Geol 113:1307–1332

Wang QF, Deng J, Zhao HS, Yang L, Ma QY, Li HJ (2019a) Reviews onorogenic gold deposits. Earth Sci 44:2155–2186 (in Chinese)

Wang QF, Groves DI, Deng J, Li HJ, Yang L, Dong CY (2019b)Evolution of the Miocene Ailaoshan orogenic gold deposits, south-eastern Tibet, during a complex tectonic history of lithosphere-crustinteraction. Mineral Deposita 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-019-00922-3

Wood SA (1987) Thermodynamic calculations of the volatility of theplatinum group elements (PGE): the PGE content of fluids at mag-matic temperatures. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 51:3041–3050

Wyman D, Kerrich R (1988) Alkaline magmatism, major structures, andgold deposits; implications for greenstone belt gold metallogeny.Econ Geol 83:454–461

Wyman DA, Cassidy KF, Hollings P (2016) Orogenic gold and the min-eral systems approach: resolving fact, fiction and fantasy. Ore GeolRev 78:322–335

Xiao L, Zhang HF, Clemens JD, Wang QW, Kan ZZ, Wang KM, Ni PZ,Liu XM (2007) Late Triassic granitoids of the eastern margin of theTibetan Plateau: geochronology, petrogenesis and implications fortectonic evolution. Lithos 96:436–452

Xu WL, Zhou QJ, Pei FP, Yang DB, Gao S, Li QL, Yang YH (2013)Destruction of the North China Craton: delamination or thermal/chemical erosion? Mineral chemistry and oxygen isotope insightsfrom websterite xenoliths. Gondwana Res 23:119–129

Yang CX, Santosh M (2019) Ancient deep roots for Mesozoic world-class gold deposits in the north China craton: an integrated geneticperspective. Geosci Front

Yang JH, Zhou XH (2001) Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Pb isotope systematics ofpyrite: implications for the age and genesis of lode gold deposits.Geology 29:711–714

Yardley BW, Cleverley JS (2015) The role of metamorphic fluids in theformation of ore deposits. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 393:117–134

Yuan C, Zhou M-F, Sun M, Zhao Y, Wilde S, Long X, Yan D (2010)Triassic granitoids in the eastern Songpan Ganzi Fold Belt, SWChina: magmatic response to geodynamics of the deep lithosphere.Earth Planet Sci Lett 290:481–492

Zartman RE, Haines SM (1988) The plumbotectonic model for Pb isoto-pic systematics among major terrestrial reservoirs—a case for bi-directional transport. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 52:1327–1339

Zeng QD, Wang ZC, He HY, Wang YB, Zhang S, Liu JM (2014)Multiple isotope composition (S, Pb, H, O, He, and Ar) and geneticimplications for gold deposits in the Jiapigou gold belt, NortheastChina. Mineral Deposita 49:145–164

Zhang HF, Zhang L, Harris N, Jin LL, Yuan HL (2006) U–Pb zircon ages,geochemical and isotopic compositions of granitoids in Songpan-Garze fold belt, eastern Tibetan Plateau: constraints on petrogenesisand tectonic evolution of the basement. Contrib Mineral Petrol 152:75–88

Zhang HF, Parrish R, Zhang L, Xu WC, Yuan HL, Gao S, Crowley QG(2007) A-type granite and adakitic magmatism association inSongpan–Garze fold belt, eastern Tibetan Plateau: implication forlithospheric delamination. Lithos 97:323–335

Zhang YY, Zhang D, Wu GG, Di YJ, Li XJ, Bu XC, Liu J (2018) Originof the Daping gold deposit in the Ailaoshan metallogenic belt, SWChina: insights from geology, isotope geochemistry and geochro-nology. Ore Geol Rev 96:1–12

Zhao JH, Zhou MF (2008) Neoproterozoic adakitic plutons in the north-ern margin of the Yangtze Block, China: partial melting of a thick-ened lower crust and implications for secular crustal evolution.Lithos 104:231–248

Zhao HS, Wang QF, Groves DI, Deng J (2019) A rare Phanerozoicamphibolite-hosted gold deposit at Danba, Yangtze Craton, China:significance to fluid and metal sources for orogenic gold systems.Mineral Deposita 54:133–152

Zheng YF (1993a) Calculation of oxygen isotope fractionation in anhy-drous silicate minerals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:1079–1091

Zheng YF (1993b) Calculation of oxygen isotope fractionation inhydroxyl-bearing silicates. Earth Planet Sci Lett 120:247–263

Zhou MF, Yan DP, Kennedy AK, Li YQ, Ding J (2002) SHRIMP U–Pbzircon geochronological and geochemical evidence forNeoproterozoic arc-magmatism along the western margin of theYangtze Block, South China. Earth Planet Sci Lett 196:51–67

ZhouMF, Yan DP, Vasconcelos PM, Li JW, Hu RZ (2008) Structural andgeochronological constraints on the tectono-thermal evolution of theDanba domal terrane, eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau. J AsianEarth Sci 33:414–427

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Miner Deposita (2020) 55:309–324324