THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS - DDSSU

THE JOURNAL OF

DIDACTICS

Volume 2, No. 2, December 2011

ISSN: 2067 – 4627

Editorial Board:

Editor-in-Chief:

Assist. Prof. Monica Diaconu

[email protected]

Executive Editor:

Lect. Adrian Costache

[email protected]

Editors:

Assist. Prof. Anca Porumb

[email protected]

Assist. Prof. Cristina Sărăcuţ

[email protected]

Lect. Raluca Petruș

[email protected]

Lect. Nicoleta Ciocean

[email protected]

Advisory Board:

Prof. Maurizio Sibilio

University of Salerno, Italy

Prof. Călin Felezeu

“Babeș-Bolyai” University,

Romania

Prof. Alina Pamfil


Romania

Assist. Prof. Livia Suciu


Romania

Assist. Prof. Cosmin Prodea


Romania

Assist. Prof. Ioana Tămâian


Romania

Lect. Mirona Stănescu


Romania

PROGRAM

The Journal of Didactics (JoD) is an academic journal published in electronic format by the Chair of Didactics of the Human Sciences (Faculty of

Psychology and the Sciences of Education) and the Department for the Formation of Educators of “Babeș-Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca (Romania). JoD is envisaged as a medium for disseminating the research in the human

and exact sciences and as an open space for the academic exchange of ideas between researchers and educators (at both university and pre-university level) from Romania and abroad. In this sense, the Editorial Board of JoD

encourages the publication, in English and Romanian, of:

# articles and qualitative and quantitative studies in the field of didactics;

# reviews of recent significant publications from Romania and abroad;

# translations into Romanian of landmark text from the (more or less) recent history of the field;

# comments and analyses of the ideas expressed in the pages of the present journal or of current issues regarding the Romanian and foreign educational

politics and policies

Because didactics itself is a cross-border discipline between the different sciences of education, social and human sciences, the Editorial Board of JoD

strongly encourages inter- and multi-disciplinary approaches.

JoD is published three times a year in March, October and June. The manuscripts can be sent to [email protected]. Each text received

for publication is subjected to double blind peer-review by the Editorial Board. Unpublished manuscripts will not be returned.

Table of Contents:

Dossier: Learning through Dialogue, Learning to Dialogue

Multimodal Conversations in the Teaching, Learning and Practice of

Science

Simon Brown….…………………………………………………………………………………………107

Dialogue and Creativity

Monica Diaconu…………………………………………………………………………………………115

Strengths and Limitations of Dialogic Communication. Intercultural

Perspectives in the Norwegian Classroom

Raluca Petruș……………………………………………………………………………………………137

On the Uses and Abuses of Dialogue in Education

Adrian Costache.………………………………………………………………………………………147

Miscellanea

L’écrit et l’activité notationnelle à l’enseignement de la physique: questions actuelles pour la recherche et les pratiques des enseignants

Konstantinos Ravanis……………………………………………………………………………….157

New Perspectives in Dance Teaching and Technique: Jean Georges

Noverre

Carmen Palumbo………………………………………………………………………………………170

Momentul de educație fizică în didactica activităților de învățământ preuniversitar

Cosmin Prodea & Remus Cristian Văidăhăzan…………………………………………175

Personalitatea – factor de influență a performanței sportive

Cosmin Prodea & Florina Marian Avram………………………………………………….181

Pedagogia: o Șeherezadă

Claudia Hulpoi…………………………………………………………………………………………..190

Book Reviews:

Serge Moscovici, Infuență socială, schimbare socială Reviewed by Casian Popa…………………………………………………………………………197 Idea #35/2011 Reviewed by Cătălin Vasile Bobb………..............................................200

Dossier:

Learning through Dialogue, Learning to Dialogue

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Multimodal Conversations in Teaching Science

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Multimodal Conversations in the Teaching, Learning and Practice of Science

Simon Brown, University of Tasmania, Australia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: conversation, experiment, language, science teaching, thinking, writing.

Introduction

The purposes of science education can lie anywhere on a continuum connecting the provision of science literacy to the training of professional scientists, although the proportion of even university science students that eventually work in science is small (Brown 1998). Nevertheless, the use of the language, attitudes and applications of science in so many aspects of everyday life, irrespective of whether it is appropriate to do so (Closkey 1983), means that everyone needs some appreciation of the practice of science in order to evaluate even a small part of the daily input.

Science is a tool for learning and a way of thinking, as well as a language and a body of knowledge. In classrooms, the emphasis is placed on ‘the’ scientific method, which is usually said to be centred on the iterated sequence of hypothesis, experiment and analysis. While some regard science as a tool for discovering ‘truth’, others consider that it is

simply one means of developing a consistent set of explanatory models. Irrespective of one’s view, there is an unfortunate tendency to present ‘the’ scientific method as somehow ideal and peculiarly logical (Bazerman 1988; McComas 1996), implicitly disparaging thinking that may sometimes be different, such as that exhibited by musicians, poets and many others. The proliferation of the application of this method is an indication of its success, but it is sometimes applied even when it might be inappropriate (McCloskey 1983). Despite the perception that scientists are entirely logical, such thinking is as rare among practising scientists as it is among the rest of the population and it is generally not the basis of the development of new ideas (Polya 1963; Daston 1998).

The learning, teaching and practice of science rely on questioning in several modes, which requires both the formulation of those questions (and the responses they elicit) and that they are heard and interpreted. This multimodal conversation is fundamental to the

The teaching, learning and practice of science rely on several modes of conversation. However, some aspects of the practice of science are misrepresented by scientists and this affects teaching and learning. For example, the emphasis on objectivity and ‘the’ scientific method and the reluctance of scientists to explicitly acknowledge the role of imagination and chance in their work contributes to the austere and formidable image of science. Moreover, it tends to promote an image of science as something to be learnt, rather than as a creative activity to which students might contribute. A ‘true’ dialogue about the multimodal conversations on which science and science teaching really rely would be helpful in fostering the inherent interest of students.


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daily practice of scientists and to the teaching of science. The critical steps in the learning of science are to understand the nature of this conversation and to begin to interpret it. In this respect “ one can learn only through conversation” (Gadamer 2001), but communication also depends on the relationship between those involved. For example, Richard Feynman (1964, 5) wrote that

the best teaching can be done only when there is a direct individual relationship between a student and a good teacher—a situation in which the student discusses the ideas, thinks about the things, and talks about the things.

While the suggestion that this is the only way may be debatable, it is unarguable that without mutual comprehension, the essential conversation between the teacher and the student is likely to be ineffectual. For a conversation to be ‘true’ each participant must have insight into the situation of the other (Gadamer 2004, 302). In an oral examination or a consultation between patient and doctor, where there need be no relationship, there is no ‘true’ conversation. The student must communicate knowledge and the results of thinking, and the teacher must be able not only to convey ideas and information in a manner that inspires the student, but must also diagnose miscommunication. In this sense teaching and learning must involve a ‘true’ conversation, for which both teacher and student are responsible to differing extents depending on the context, but the student must be prepared for learning just as the teacher must be prepared.

To facilitate ‘true’ conversations between teacher and student and among students, thereby enhancing both learning and teaching, we need to consider the real practice of science (O'Neill and Polman 2004) and show

the human face of the discipline that has become obscured by the formal discourse. Perhaps then the innate curiosity of young children can be extended into adolescence and beyond.

The conversational modes

Practising scientists regard thinking, writing and experimentation, as well as talking, as modes of conversation. As in all disciplines, extensive mental argument precedes, accompanies and succeeds written attempts to work through the problem of the moment or communicate it to colleagues. Discussions and experimentation test reasoning, draw in new information, precipitate insight and prompt questioning. The intention may be to learn, explore, develop new ideas, evolve new perspectives or to work through problems.

The language employed in a conversation is critical because inappropriate language can prevent or delay communication or impede progress (Ford and Peat 1988). The 'mindset' of the participants matters and they must share some common ground for communication to be effective. Irrespective of the participants, the intent, the language or the ‘mindset’, conversation is intrinsic to the practice of science.

As with all conversation, the success of the oral communication of science varies greatly. There are at least two reasons for this, one is related to language and the other is related to the experience and mindset of the participants. Even if two people share exactly the same view of a concept one might not describe it in a way that conveys their view to the other. This arises if the language used is not intelligible, for example, Erwin Chargaff (1963, 109) wrote that


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[e]ach science protects itself from its neighbors by a cordon of slogans and catchwords ... and as new disciplines are formed, so are new and mutually unintelligible languages: a Tower of Babel made of paper.

On the other hand, even ordinary language presents difficulties, as Bertrand Russell (1954, 85) stated

[o]rdinary language is totally unsuited for expressing what physics really asserts, since the words of everyday life are not sufficiently abstract. Only mathematics and mathematical logic can say as little as the physicist means to say. As soon as he translates his symbols into words, he inevitably says something much too concrete, and gives his readers a cheerful impression of something imaginable and intelligible, which is much more pleasant and everyday than what he is trying to convey.

The reverse is also possible: technical language in ordinary use can cause difficulties in the classroom. For example the word ‘osmosis’ has a colloquial meaning that conflicts with the technical meaning. It is often said that one particular idea has been acquired ‘by osmosis’, in which case that idea is analogous to a solute dissolved in a solvent of other indistinct ideas. Technically, however, it is the solvent that flows in osmosis rather than the solute. To the extent that any student considers such linguistic issues, it does represent a potential source of confusion.

These difficulties are both minimised and exacerbated by the formulaic language and style employed in most science writing (Medawar 1963; Feynman 1966; Eggleton and Guy 1988; Langdon-Neuner 2009). They are minimised because the standardisation provides a set of ‘rules’ to learn and apply.

While these may be challenging initially, with practice they become less onerous and the expectations are clear. The difficulties are exacerbated because the language can impede communication (Gopen and Swan 1990; Langdon-Neuner 2009) and contribute to the perception of science as austere and, to some extent, omniscient. The most common justification for this style is that it helps to preserve the objectivity that is said to be essential to ‘the’ scientific method.

The second determinant of successful conversation is that the participants should have some common experience, information or mindset. For example, the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to Dr Peter Mitchell for work that was initially radically heterodox because others in the field did not share his physical insights (Brown and Simcock 2011). It took more than 20 years for the idea to become orthodox and widely applied. Mitchell (1980) suggested that differences in “...the basic concepts and attitudes of mind” made communication between scientists difficult. Of course, as he admitted, the delay was exacerbated by the use of language that challenged the rest of the field (Mitchell 1980). One of his early converts later described their first encounter at a conference in 1961 writing that “[h]is words went into one of my ears and out the other, leaving me feeling annoyed they had allowed such a ridiculous and incomprehensible speaker in” (Jagendorf 1998, 222). Clearly, even experienced scientists with related research interests may not comprehend one another, so it is inevitable that a significant risk of mutual incomprehension arises in teaching.

Experimentation may also be a mode of conversation. For example George Wald (1968) opened his Nobel lecture by saying


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I have often had cause to feel that my hands are cleverer than my head. That is a crude way of characterizing the dialectics of experimentation. When it is going well, it is like a quiet conversation with Nature. One asks a question and gets an answer; then one asks the next question, and gets the next answer. An experiment is a device to make Nature speak intelligibly. After that one has only to listen.

Most experimental scientists would agree that each experiment prompts more questions than it answers. In this respect the experiment is a question-generating tool, and is the focus of much conversation and thought. It may be difficult to believe that experimentation might represent a ‘true’ conversation, but it is certain that the design of a good experiment requires insight. However, experiments need not be physical to be useful. ‘Thought experiments’ have been important sources of insight. Well known examples of ‘thought experiments’, such as Maxwell’s demon (Maxwell 1872, 308-309) or Schödinger’s cat (Schrödinger 1935), represent combinations of imagination, thinking and experiment based on questions and mental dialogue (Krimsky 1973) that must constitute a ‘true’ conversation.

Of course, other forms of internal conversation are also important aspects of the teaching, learning and practice of science. The private writing, sketching, calculating and thinking that are such important tools in every discipline are also forms of dialogue, whether or not they involve someone else (Mead 1925; Moffett 1982). At least some scientists use informal writing to explore problems and to clarify their own thoughts (Holmes 1987; Kovac 2003). This is distinct from the usual process in which the results of research are ‘written up’ after the event, which is what

students are trained to do after doing an experiment.

Naturally, many of these modes of conversation are not peculiar to science, but they are intrinsic to its practice. If students are to be able to make the most of them, they have to understand what the modes are and how they might be applied.

Is the conversation ‘true’?

One might imagine that scientific conversations would be ‘true’, but this is not always the case because ‘untruth’ is inherent in some fundamental aspects of them. Consequently, some elements of this are apparent in classrooms just because fundamental classroom conversations about science inherit ‘untruth’ from the discipline.

While science is presented in classrooms as objective and based on ‘the’ scientific method, there is doubt about how objective scientists can be (Ross 1994; McComas 1996; Kaptchuk 2003; Ioannidis 2005; Jeng 2006) and about ‘the’ scientific method (Grobstein 2005). Even if practising scientists privately acknowledge the importance of serendipity, imagination, guesswork and trial and error (van Andel 1994; Wong and Hodson 2009), this is rarely apparent from descriptions of ‘the’ scientific method. The absence of any significant reference to trial and error, guesswork and imagination in science teaching means that the conversation between teacher and student is, in part, a deception. To that extent the dialogue does not constitute a ‘true’ conversation, although it does reflect the usual practice of science. Moreover, the impression this conveys to students is that scientists think entirely logically and so the origins of an idea arrived at by guesswork become unnecessarily mysterious. For this reason, Pólya (1963)


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makes the point that teachers need to have some insight into scientific creativity because “[a] teacher who acquired whatever he knows in mathematics purely receptively can hardly promote the active learning of his students”. Of course, what Pólya says of mathematics applies just as much to any other science (and, no doubt, to non-sciences).

In formal presentations of science the material is always portrayed as free from error and perfectly thought through, and references to the unexpected aspects of the process are rare. Scientific discomfort with the role of imagination and chance in the scientific endeavour have a long history (Daston 1998). Consequently, whether written or oral, this style usually precludes a complete account of what happened thereby giving a misleading impression (Medawar 1963). Even applications to funding agencies, which one might imagine would have to be realistic, were described by Albert Szent-Györgyi (1971) as “... page after page of ... untruths”.

The scientific writing style is reflected in conference presentations, seminars and lectures. It is an impediment to learning and teaching because it is highly demanding, but also because it gives an impression of an omniscience that is completely alien to the practising scientist in other circumstances. This false impression has a number of effects, but the most important one is that it perpetuates the idea that there is always an answer and that science is merely something to be learnt or a method to be applied rather than a creative activity (McComas 1996). To the practising scientist, the ability to ask questions and recognise interesting phenomena is much more valuable than just knowing answers. For example, Albert Szent-Györgyi (1964, 1278) wrote that

[t]here is a widely spread misconception about the nature of books which contain knowledge. It is thought that such books are something the contents of which have to be crammed into our heads. I think the opposite is closer to the truth. Books are there to keep the knowledge in while we use our heads for something better. Books may also he a better place for such knowledge. ... I treasure my ignorance; I feel snug in it. It does not cloud my naiveté, my simplicity of mind, my ability to marvel childishly at nature and recognize a miracle even if I see it every day.

Of course, teachers do need to have a deep understanding of science, as Szent-Györgyi (1964, 1278) recognised, if they are to teach effectively and appreciate creativity (Polya 1963). The ability to identify the boundary of understanding is critical, because, as Erwin Chargaff (1963, 109) wrote, “[t]he greater the circle of understanding becomes, the greater is the circumference of surrounding ignorance”. Students often experience difficulties in comprehension or in carrying out experiments, which naturally undermines their confidence and saps their interest, and this is exacerbated by the apparent omniscience of science. If science teachers are to encourage the inherent interest of students (Dewey 1913), then a true conversation has to be established and recognition of the all the processes involved might be of assistance. Of course, this requires a sound relationship between student and teacher and an appropriate class environment if the conversation is to be ‘true’.

Conclusion

Most science teaching is relatively general, but everyone needs an appreciation of the practice of science in order to be able to evaluate the significance of scientific issues as they arise. Everything from global warming to genetically modified organisms and the teaching of


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evolution in schools requires some insight into the way science is conducted. Arguments about the reliability of climate science, the underlying data and the interpretation presented by scientists are a good illustration. It is important that scientists are not seen as resembling “ a priesthood protecting the temple from barbarians” (Tierney 2009), which would be facilitated by a ‘true’ conversation between scientists and non-scientists. Alison Gopnik (2004, 28) argued that

[i]f we could put children in touch with their inner scientists, we might be able to bridge the divide between everyday knowledge and the apparently intimidating and elite apparatus of formal science.

One step towards this is to engage in a ‘true’ dialogue about the multimodal conversations on which science and science teaching really rely.

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Brown, S., and D. C. Simcock. 2011. Half a century of the chemiosmotic hypothesis and the practice of science. Orbital submitted.

Chargaff, E. 1963. Essays on nucleic acids. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company.

Daston, L. 1998. Fear and loathing of the imagination in science. Daedalus 127 (1):73-95.

Dewey, J. 1913. Interest and effort in education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Eggleton, R.B., and R.K. Guy. 1988. Catalan strikes again! How likely is a function to be convex? Mathematics Magazine 61 (4):211-219.

Feynman, R.P. 1966. The development of the space-time view of quantum electrodynamics. Science 153 (3737):699-708.

Feynman, R.P., R.B. Leighton, and M. Sands. 1964. The Feynman lectures on physics. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

Ford, A., and F.D. Peat. 1988. The role of language in science. Foundations of Physics 18 (12):1233-1242.

Gadamer, H.-G. 2001. Education is self-education. Journal of Philosophy of Education 35 (4):529-538.


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———. 2004. Truth and method. Translated by J. Weinsheimer and D. G. Marshall. 2nd ed. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Gopen, G.D., and J.A. Swan. 1990. The science of scientific writing. American Scientist 78 (6):550-558.

Gopnik, A. 2004. Finding our inner scientist. Daedalus 133 (1):21-28.

Grobstein, P. 2005. Revisiting science in culture: science as story telling and story revising. Journal of Research Practice 1 (1):1-18.

Holmes, F.L. 1987. Scientific writing and scientific discovery. Isis 78 (2):220-235.

Ioannidis, J.P. 2005. Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Medicine 2 (8):e124.

Jagendorf, A.T. 1998. Chance, luck and photosynthesis research: an inside story. Photosynthesis Research 57:215-229.

Jeng, M. 2006. The Mpemba effect: when can hot water freeze faster than cold? American Journal of Physics 74 (6):514-522.

Kaptchuk, T.J. 2003. Effect of interpretive bias on research evidence. British Medical Journal 326:1453-1455.

Kovac, J. 2003. Writing as thinking. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 988:233-238.

Krimsky, S. 1973. The use and misuse of critical Gedankenexperimente. Zeitschrift für allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie 4 (2):323-334.

Langdon-Neuner, E. 2009. 'Scientific' writing. The Write Stuff 18 (2):69-72.

Maxwell, J.C. 1872. Theory of heat. 3rd ed. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.

McCloskey, D.N. 1983. The rhetoric of economics. Journal of Economic Literature 21 (2):481-517.

McComas, W.F. 1996. Ten myths of science: reexamining what we think we know about the nature of science. School Science and Mathematics 96 (1):10-16.

Mead, G.H. 1925. The genesis of the self and social control. International Journal of Ethics 35 (3):251-277.

Medawar, P.B. 1963. Is the scientific paper a fraud? The Listener 70 (12 September):377-378.

Mitchell, P. 1980. The culture of imagination. Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall 8:173-190.

Moffett, J. 1982. Writing, inner speech, and meditation. College English 44 (3):231-246.

O'Neill, D.K., and J.L. Polman. 2004. Why educate "little scientists?" Examining the potential of practice-based scientific literacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 41 (3):234-266.

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Ross, G.H. 1994. Advocacy, bias, and the herd instinct in medicine. Canadian Family Physician 40:661-663.

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Szent-Györgyi, A. 1964. Teaching and the expanding knowledge. Science 146:1278-1279.

———. 1971. Looking back. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 15 (1):1-5.

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van Andel, P. 1994. Anatomy of the unsought finding. Serendipity: origin, history, domains, traditions, appearances, patterns and programmability. British Journal of the Philosopy of Science 45:631-648.

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THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Dialogue and Creativity

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Dialogue and Creativity

Monica Diaconu, Assist. Prof., PhD, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: metoda dialogului, forme ale dialogului, cretivitatea, forme de creativitate scolara, nivele de creativitate scolara.

1. Creativity

John Dewey says that human experience has as a distinctive note the character of a reconstructive continuity of educational type (Dewey 1972, 21). Each experience lives as a sequel to the previous ones; therefore the main issue about an experience based on education is that of selecting the type of present experiences that would live fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experiences. The future must be taken into account during the educational process: the function of knowledge, assumed completely by school instruction, is also that of making an experience applicable within the frame of other experiences. In this way the training-educative approaches raise, among other things, the problem of creativity, because the applicability of an old experience to a new one is given not only by the concrete-objectives conditions of its application, but also by the person’s

capacity to adapt, by his/her capacity to personalize experience, to make it a subjective one and then again an objective one in its own terms. This approach is supposed to be creative, creating something new, original and adequate to reality. The verb “to create” itself means making something to exist, bringing it to life, causing, generating, producing etc. Similar terms to “to create” indicate in fact going from potency to action, embodying, and generating. We must state from the beginning that not every causal approach implies automatically, within the sphere of its effects, the existence of some notes, aspects and instances of creativity. Creativity supposes imagination, originality, outrunning the routine, inner freedom of expression, and talent.

2. Social factors and creativity

Articolul prezent trateaza problema raportului dintre metoda dialogului practicata in lectia de filosofie si formele de creativitate ce pot fi legate de aceasta, atat in ceea ce-i priveste pe elevi, cat si in ceea ce-i priveste pe profesori. Putem considera, be baza experientei didactice ,precum si a cercetarii efectuate, ca exista in principal doua categorii de forme de creativitate corelate cu metoda dialogului.Prima este reprezentata de suma acelor forme de creativitate ale elevilor si ale profesorilor,mainfeste in contextul metodei amintite care se origineaza direct din schimbul de idei , din cercetarea nuantata a adevarului si din edificarea in comun a raspunsului.A doua categorie de forme de creativitate se compune din acele manifestari creative ce nu par a avea o legatura directa cu metoda in sine, ci mai degraba, cu atmosfera dialogala care permite asumarea schimbului de idei ca forma a libertatii de expresie. In prezenta lucrare sunt prezentate relativ detaliat diferite forme de creativitate scolara,puse in legatura cu practicarea diferitelor forme de dialog.


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The phenomenon of creativity has a double determination: one of the factors determining the phenomenon is of individual nature. It is made of elements such as intelligence, aptitudes, motivation etc. We talk about the dowry possessed by a person, who actively relates to it and which, within certain limits, will dictate his further choices. The social factors influencing creativity can be seen at the crossing between yearnings and projects of a person related to life conditions imposed by a certain kind of society. Using terms like “determination” when talking about the role of inner, personal factors in generating acts and creative processes and “influencing” when talking about the role of external factors we would like to underline the pre-eminence of personal factors, by relating them to social factors, which are of a conditioning nature. In this view of understanding the relation between the individual and the social we consider it is necessary to underline the fact that a certain social and cultural context is not encouraging per se or restrictive: it gets a certain meaning only in relation with the possibilities, aspirations and yearnings (including the creative ones) of a person. Thus we can explain that the same environment may act as an inhibitor factor for some and as an encouraging factor for others. Furthermore, it may be that the limitations imposed by society can be converted in creative experiences of extraordinary value: the reflection of this conversion experience, of profound creative structure can be found in works of art of philosophical papers that imposed for good in the cultural sphere names like Dostoyevsky, Kafka, Kierkegaard, Camus etc.

On the other hand we admit that different social-cultural frames encourage the individuals’ creativity differently. If we consider creativity to be at the level of the humans’ general tendencies to upgrade themselves, to “become what he potentially is” (Rogers 1967, 35) we cannot leave out the existence of certain social contexts which “set

free” by giving proper conditions to this general human feature, while others tend to restrain it. Precisely because of these ways of functioning of the social reality, as the most general context of influencing individual and collective creativity, we have to enumerate and describe briefly its main systems that are certain to contribute to shaping creativity.

The impersonal social context, functioning through the system of state institutions and through the values system promoted by them on one hand, and on the other by the motivations, aspirations and pictures of the person and the collective person’s self, may influence creativity in a great manner. The general and positive attitude towards the creative phenomenon is expressed by a range of measures encouraging the manifestation of creativity pertaining to the society’s members. “All these measures, starting with the political-institutional ones and ending with the educative ones, circumscribe the strategy of promoting creativity and aim towards two major objectives: to discover the creative potential and to promote ways to stimulate it, going from potential creativity to actual creativity”. (Ionescu 2000, 135)

The values system promoted by the socio-cultural context may act as a restraining factor when the person cannot accept it and adopt it. The conflict between values and the lack of stable and justifying reference frames operate in a frustrating way, diminishing and even leveling the creative potential of a person. Thus, for instance, social instability generates a climate of uncertainty within which it is hard to see what is really a priority, what is important, valuable, significant or secondary, worthless and lacking significance for the self. Thus, it becomes harder and harder to state with certainty where the choices and the creative approaches should be leading to. Another example may be offered by the effect of the saturated information produced by mass media, which makes it


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difficult to operate with personal choices or according to expectations and motivations that govern the inner person.

Value requirements must direct any approach of setting the goals of education. The lack of values within the educational system, for instance, is unconceivable. It is well-known that in a society there may function in the same time, competing in harmony or in conflict, more ideals of values aiming at the human personality. In the social expertise area they may generate tensions and lack of compatibility concerning the idea of man. Pedagogical theory and practice should select and promote those values which on the one hand go for the maximum value of man on humanity path, and on the other hand bring him closer and integrate him in the society and the time he belongs to and represents. The goals of education, as dynamic units between ideal, goal and objective, are engaged in a perpetual renewal and fitting: they allow openings towards different and new values aiming to person as well as to society. Otherwise, the new hierarchy of educational objectives within the existing education, where the main goal is to build certain attitudes and spiritual capacities, then to gain certain skills and only after should these assimilate some knowledge (Văideanu 1987, Cucoş 2000) comes to fulfill this demand. The new hierarchy sets itself as a useful instrument for a selective, autonomous and fitting-creative attitude of the person to social contexts in a perpetual change. “By aiming to new priorities (of objectives), as well as by turning the final results into valuable gaining, education may get new capacities […] with direct emphasis on facilitating the insertion of persons within the shifting contemporary realities”. (Cucoş 2000, 91)

The social context uses different social representations in which persons are absorbed involuntary or to which they adhere out of various reasons (professional, cultural, religious, political, ethnic etc.). Social

representations are complex structures containing, in different amounts, ideas, theories, doctrines whose components belong, in part, to systematic conscience and in part to the common conscience; also, they are made of collective states of mind and feelings, common traditions and values belonging to those in the structure. They can strongly mark the person, leading him/her to certain choices, generating an encouraging frame for creative expression of the person. When social representations of a certain moment are built on ethnic grounds these aspects are more manifest. Intercultural pedagogy responds to this reality, emphasizing the phenomenon of cultural interaction, with its natural corollary that is to be found in intercultural education curricula. They contain major perspectives, axiological and of action, encouraging the creativity phenomenon and operating new openings in favor of their specific expression.

On the other hand, the reverse of what we have described is circumscribed by the relation between self and the general Other. “Almost any education system and any life experience – says G. Liiceanu – tend to settle in someone else’s project that, in time, becomes yours. Most people freeze in model projects that become theirs to the extent that they become good servants of those projects […]. The lesser are the alternatives offered by the society, the tighter are the persons’ projects bound to those very few projects and standards officially recognized, the lesser the space for the doubting culture and learning to lose a habit the society gives, the more the freezing in the project will settle in and the bigger the sclerosis of that society”. (Liiceanu 1994, 91)

True freedom consists in choosing a project on one’s own and according to one’s possibilities. “Getting someone in a project”, meaning others taking decisions for somebody else is an act of high gravity and responsibility, which questions the balance between individuality and otherness. “It is


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done by getting the other within the sphere of my freedom, in order to set him free”. (op.cit. 103) Authentic society is the one able to “form selves capable of making decisions, not only to obey decisions made for them” (op.cit. 127). It creates the conditions for a fluent transfer, flexible and mutually favorable, from society towards the person and the other way around.

The culture’s structure and dynamic in a certain social context plays in a mediate or a direct way a role in influencing the choices and creative manifestations of a person. It is well-known the fact that, for instance, the humanist culture, as well as the technical one, favored and called for certain directions for manifesting creativity. According to the dynamic of the social transformation, the culture dynamic imposed a privileged way and certain channels of transfer and influence: for the present context is specific, for instance, an increased number of channels of information, as well as the number of certain arts of representation, such as the music of the new generation and the cinema. Under the rule of their reception, the youths’ value system is shaped, tending to identify with models present in these ones and with the values symbolized there implicitly or explicitly. They represent a real competition for the educational and formative approaches included in and lead by the educational system, representing for quite a few youths, an authentic alternative brought in by the real life, comparing to the safe/ecological environment within the school. We believe that the individual and the collective experience has certified that the more the education makes us more sensitive towards authentic values, the more it drags us towards them, by cultivating the need to experience and multiply them by our own creation. The assimilation of the cultural values is a real chance for what the ethicist call “moral personality”, characterized by the freedom of choice, of will, and of wish. The direct consequence of this achievement is the diminishment of the addictions or the

acknowledgement and the taming of them, leading to the self-determination of the person, which represents a necessary premise of any act or creative approach.

Another factor acting at a macro-social level and encouraging creativity is the level of economic development and, correlated to this one, a certain level of civilization development. “Creatively confronting the present – despite endless transformation – means determining the future”. (Landau 1979, 109) We admit that a society raises certain problems and projects them at the level of its goals and priorities and that according to these factors one must secure his living first, before living in a cultural space and among cultural values; furthermore, as they actually live, people represent their own reality and relate to it by adapting to it. This perpetual adaptation is marked itself by productive creativity, which increases its constructive dimensions as the level of economic development and civilization is advancing.

At a micro-social level, the family represents one of the factors influencing a person’s behavior, by staging a complex of educational mediation. Within the family environment, the child relates (generically) to a significant Other identified with one or both parents. Step by step, by widening the contacts with the exterior, in this significant Other may be included some members of the extended family, family friends etc. The world reveals itself to the child by these mediations, which are, essentially, of educational structure and mark profoundly the long-term evolution of the person. Within the context of these mediations there are shaped the first models of life, models that may represent referential frames of perpetual value. Creativity can be “practiced” within the family environment through various activities bringing forward certain abilities of the child, even certain aptitudes. The family may sustain their practice by the simple repetition of the conditions of their manifestation, or by


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supporting the child to attend some organizations and study groups organized according to various areas of interest. Identifying the elements which sketch the potential creativity and revaluating them through the education of creativity at all stages of childhood represents one of the goals of education in general: the premise on which this statement rests is that the phenomenon of creativity can be trained and evaluated. The fact that the educational system has certain models, strategies and techniques of general and specific character of different areas of activity makes school education the best environment for manifesting a child’s creativity. The family and the school working together in a continuous and consequent effort makes possible not only the manifestation of creativity, but also its development and affirmation in a more authentic way.

Chosen groups, such as the group of friends, the groups formed within extracurricular contexts, like study groups (literature, poetry, IT, philosophy etc.) may have a great influence upon creative manifestations of young people. Chosen groups not only reevaluate the existing potential, but also make possible a positive – competitive relationship between young people within their area of common interests. When we underline the necessity of such a constructive and positive competition, by strengthening the pupils’ motivation in order to manifest their creative potential, we keep in mind the fact that the competitive factor may not always have benefic effects on them: the pupils’ desire to distinguish themselves outgoes sometimes their creative capacities, their real possibilities. That’s why the competition may inhibit somebody from doing something, opposing the pupils to each other rather than getting them together. Fair competition, based on certain values and productive criteria is authentic when at the end of it we get to see the best pupils. Such a

competition, involving the person’s revaluation encourages creation.

A creative attitude assumes also a realistic (self) estimation of the person, of his/her capacities and gestures. These can only take place by relating them to each other in a realist manner. This way of always being connected to those who, like you, succeed in their own stages, forms and ways to express their creative potential, indicates not only your place in a certain system of revaluating creativity, but also the system of expectancies you can have as regards your own possibilities. The distortions provoked by massive intrusion of subjectivity may create a series of behavior patterns discouraging creativity, behavior such as:

- Exaggerating or the tendency to overestimate the value of someone’s own creation or person;

- Simplifying or minimizing excessively other people’s value;

- Vulgarizing or purposely undermining a creation;

- Indifference or lack of a reevaluating attitude towards someone’s accomplishments;

- Passivity or lack of interest towards goals, projects, perspectives etc. existing at a certain moment.

3. The pedagogical concept of creativity

The dynamic and complex processes taking place nowadays, which undergo in all the domains of activity, transform the creativity problem in a priority. These tendencies made possible the coinage of the term “society creativization”. The creativization of the society must begin, as M. Ionescu has said “within its very core” […] “meaning in the education area in general and


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in the scholar education in particular”. (Ionescu 2000, 129)

Within the educational process the cultivation of potential creativity and the education of pupils’ creativity are represented by the following objectives that have some general features (apud Ionescu, op.cit.129-130):

- Forming a positive attitude (towards progress, novelty elements and introducing them in someone’s own actions);

- Training the pupils to accept novelty as an indicator of progress, innovations and human creativity;

- Encouraging pupils’ manifestations characterized by original approaches and results;

- Training and developing aptitudes and capacities to reconsider work strategies, integrating them in new, dynamic, flexible and efficient systems;

- Training the creative capacities by stimulating new connections, by promoting the elaboration of new ideas, conceptions and original representations, by building ideal or material models etc.

Training and developing creativity as a priority objective of education means reshaping the educational process at all levels, keeping in mind in the same time the fact that this one must be under the constant intervention of the systemizing rule, without which the functioning of the parts and of the whole is not possible. The systemic perspective towards modernizing the educational system (also) towards cultivating creativity is manifest, therefore, at the following levels (apud Ionescu, op. cit. 130):

- Re-structuring and/or re-writing the school curriculum;

- Useful and efficient pedagogical projects;

- Creating a scientific educational management;

- Using a didactic methodology that is prospective and operational;

- Enriching the organizing structures of the system of training – educative activities;

- Making school exams and evaluation more efficient;

- Making pupils’ self-examination and self-evaluation more efficient;

- Perpetual re-adjusting of the didactic approaches and training-educative approaches;

- Modernizing the teacher – pupil relationship etc.

4. General directions of action for a creative education in socio – humanist sciences

A series of approaches have been assumed in view of the humanist vocation of these subjects and their exceptional formative role. These approaches are:

- Assuring an open atmosphere of trust during the class, where pupils may express their own opinions without reservations and precautions suffocating creative manifestations. Such a method can be of success when meeting various humanist subjects curricula; in its frame the pupils could expend their understanding and action horizon, including creative action. Recent research studies prove that during the classes taught at these subjects, the results of this mutual investing with trust between teacher and pupils lead to creating a specific environment, which stands as an original and stable structure during all years of school. The same research studies show the fact that the teacher has an especially important role when organizing


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and directing class activity in order to let pupils manifest creatively. We are talking about bringing within their sphere of choice a certain moral and cultural model which, at first mimetically followed and then focused on higher levels of judgment and decision, may represent a good reference point for allowing people to manifest creatively in the future:

- Projecting the teaching – learning – evaluating activity (also) towards the cultivation of the creative exercise, towards cultivating the pupils’ thinking autonomy, towards adaptation, construction, originality, freedom of thought and action;

- Modernizing, as a whole, the methods of teaching – learning – evaluation and orienting them towards a new understanding of the teacher – pupil relationship, where the latter one is an active participant in the paideic act, along with the teacher;

- Developing the flow of ideas and associations made by pupils, as well as producing a diversity of opinions and work hypothesis during the classes;

- Cultivating thought flexibility in pupils, encouraging sundry and varied connections, cultivating reflexivity and self-interrogation, as well as the critic – constructive spirit;

- Cultivating the inner motivation for taking part in solving problem approaches and the courage to engage in building a discussion with a common meaning;

- Initiating pupils in reading historical, philosophical etc. texts, and getting the freedom to select the questions and interpret them in a personal manner;

- Selecting the methods of work, during classes, according to the pupils’ necessities and curiosities, to the need of developing the capacity of analysis, synthesis,

argumentation and free exchange of opinions;

- Perpetual evaluation and revaluation of the pupils’ creative experience, revaluation of their perceptive faculty as well as their capacity to operate with multiple interdisciplinary connections, acquired while studying various subjects and their re-contextualization within the theoretical frame set by the study of humanist subjects.

5. The dialogical praxis and creativity during the Philosophy class

One of the best examples that we can give and which are tightly connected with stimulating the pupils’ creativity within the Philosophy class is the one related to the benefits of using the method of dialogue. The method consequently assumed and put into practice offers a certain environment specific to the Philosophy class, builds a certain teacher - pupil relationship, teaches coherent communication in view of the theme and the arguments provided, creates the need for meaningful confrontation and brings forth new ideals. Many of these were highly improbable to be possessed by the dialogue partners.

The dialogic praxis is circumscribed, as it can be seen from what has been said, by a frame of dialogue methods in general use in the teaching of philosophy, by the typology of the dialogues used and the combination of these, by the dimensions and instructive-educative value of the practices employed, by the way in which the coherence of the plurality of ideas produced is assured, by the extent to which the rules that coordinate and organize the dialogic practice are followed in the time frame of the class. This “core” is surrounded by a net of relations that are introduced by the teacher as frames to keep the proper progress of the dialogue during the philosophy lesson


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and that that could be called, in general, the “ambient” of this lesson. These may be: the specificities of communication, the way in which the students’ reactions and interests, relative to the subject of the dialogue, are used, the way the teacher works to strengthen the students’ motivation towards the need of useful exchange of ideas in general, by the need for an offer and exchange of ideas that comes from the confrontation with the given philosophical theme, the preparation and the upholding of an atmosphere of curiosity towards the world of philosophy.

We will try, as follows, to individuate the main creative dimensions offered by each type of dialogue that may be found in the philosophy lesson, considering the good premises for personal development, as regards the cognitive dimension, the results of the work and the good use of the student’s creativity.

5. 1. The problem-based dialogue

As to the knowledge aspect, by the simple fact that this kind of dialogue takes up a philosophical problem without appealing to the philosophical texts first, but formulates the issue-question and initiates the essential tension, it invites to solution searching and the overcoming of the tension: the analysis, synthesis, argumentative engagements crystallized around the terms of the issue provokes creative practices like:

- Rethinking old knowledge

- Structuring it in new notions and concepts

- Engagement in interdisciplinary, intra-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary connections and formulation of new and unexpected opinions

- Increase in the production of opinions and ideas, that come from the multi-faced character of the issue

As to the aspect of acquisitions in the working field of ideas that this method forms as instruments of creativity we are talking about:

- The development of critical thinking

- the development of reflexive and auto-reflexive thinking

- the development of the capacity to construct, in relation to the argument of a colleague, furthering it in new and unsuspected directions.

As to the aspect of putting to good use the creative possibilities that come with the communications relations built through the argument and opinion exchange during the dialogue, as well as in constructing the common direction of the debate we have a crystallization of a form of group creativity that contributes to the positive evaluation, capable to induce and amplify the creative contributions of the students; it marks the group, stabilizes inter-group relations, as well as the relations with the teacher and develops constructive sentiments regarding its problem-solving and creative possibilities.

5.2. History-based dialogue

As to the knowledge aspect the history-based dialogue contributes to:

- Forming the critical approach to a text, as a first sign of detachment from it and filtering through the flux of one’s own thinking and life experience the classical response given by the textbooks: giving a reasoned personal point of view is not necessarily a creative act, but it indicates an emancipation of one’s thinking and the possibility that it may generate, at times, a new point of view;

- Developing the capacity to make an argument for a classical position through one’s own knowledge, based on examples, represents an exercise of creativity at the


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school age. It indicates the capacity to discover various examples, that may constitute, at least in part, a fragment of a puzzle that would put in a new light classical solutions;

- the participation to problem solving practices implies the students’ possibility to express their creativity by giving new solutions, different from the classical ones and unexpressed before.

As to the aspect of work acquisitions that would imply directly the creativity of the students we have in mind the reasoned argument, as a major step in finding the limits of analyzed solutions, and the need to formulate a new response, more adapted to the needs and expectations of the students; as it is well known, the philosophical solutions tend to remain open to further debates, to new interventions from ever new perspectives and never completely satisfactory: to keep the solutions to the issues always open and to foster interrogation and investigation beyond the boundaries of the philosophy lesson means to show a road on which the students’ creative thinking may develop to become independent and strongly personalized.

5.3 Hermeneutical dialogue

As to its cognitive aspect, the hermeneutic dialogue, with its disjunction between signification and intention, creates an original situation that generates the dialectic of explanation and understanding: the signification can be constructed, practically, in multiple ways because the language requests the art of “deciphering” it in diversity. In this context, the students’ creativity is greatly stimulated and the process of discovering the significance of certain aspects may generate even further issues, besides the main problem. It is an open process, in which the interrogation of the self-facing the text, done over and over again through re-reading beyond the lesson’s framework, creates not only new meanings, but can lead to a

reinterpretation of the text. This could generate at a given moment an original application for example in the field of art or human action.

As to the aspect of communication relations, the partial or total revision of opinions through dialogue can configure new relations with the significant Other, may that be a text, an author, a philosophical current or professor, a group of students etc. This revision of communicational options may also indicate a kind of preferential opening oriented towards the “source”, in which the students’ creative potential can grow to an unsuspected degree.

5.4. Pyramid-type dialogue

As to its knowledge aspect this method engages a very diverse and multiple “base” of elements of dialogue, that precisely through the diversity, liberty and spontaneity with which these are uttered they can prove to be creative. There should be added to the participation in the dimension of knowledge the affective participation of the students in generating opinions, something that also indices creativity. There may appear a new collective response in the process of progressive selection of the opinions produced. This would be under the sign of cooperation and collaboration; it is precisely this that gives the effective formulation of the common significance of the debates and can be referred back to as optimistic premise for further attempts.

As to the work acquisition aspect that cultivates creativity through this type of dialogue, we are talking about the capacity of the students to select and re-combine opinions, arguments, etc. in new ways, unforeseen in previous debates. Also, in searching for the solutions of the problem-solving practice the students’ creativity can be applied “touching” and restructuring the existing connections, in new and original ways. Generally, this form of dialogue, through its


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large “base” generates diverse opinions in the students, and the problem-solving practice produces forms of creative reasoning, and a new construction.

As to the communicational aspect, it participates to the consolidation of the ethical behavior through the practice of accepting an argumentative or innovative problem-solving process and through the provocation itself that is present in this act, for overcoming and innovating ideas.

5.5. Hegelian type dialogue

As to the knowledge aspect the Hegelian type dialogue, built around a powerful organizing structure of thesis – antithesis – synthesis is a generator of creativity on the contradiction between thesis and synthesis, as well as the problem-solving practice that is specific to the synthesis. It is a question of searching, rejecting, analyzing, giving examples, making comparative judgments, choosing successive partial solutions and common participation at the achieving of the synthesis; these operations that determine each other may facilitate not only innovation in the produced synthesis as a result of the knowledge engaged and reorganized. It is possible, precisely because of this, that new nuances may appear that are the expression of the collective effort to dialogue, the implication of the students with the totality of their personality, not only their cognitive dimension, but also that of beings possessing will and emotions, an assumed system of values, that are in process of consolidation. This entire causal frame needs to be expressed in forms and ways that are completely unanticipated at the beginning of the dialogue.

It is possible to emerge in the common participation of the professor and the students in the dialogue various communicational consolidations, as a natural result of the exchange of arguments and of the

engagement in giving a common significance to the dialogue.

5.6. The spiral type dialogue implies the complex and nuanced argumentation, with more and more profound demonstrative revisions, structured either in a problem oriented, or a hermeneutical way. The experience of this dialogic practice produces new knowledge that is structured in dynamic arguments, open to revision and reformulation. Creativity manifests itself not only in generating new knowledge, but also in the process of revision, selection and periodical revisiting of previous formulations; also, a position that is nuanced and opened to revision generates novelty, a modified horizon that would permit a new view of the issue that is debated.

5.7. Essay

In the school practice the essay represents for the students an exercise in free and personal expression, as well as an exercise in creativity on their part. Beyond the appearance of monolog, the essay presupposes to relate to the other. It also presupposes the existence of a real recipient (that may be the author) or an imaginary one, in relation with whom the argument is articulated. Given the conditions of freedom in its writing (the philosophic essay is written in privacy, where there are no ethical restrictions and well established communication rules) it can lead the thinking towards surprising argumentative directions. We are talking about carefully constructed connections (in a reasonably large time span), in which the mind has the time to analyze itself and, maybe, to reformulate its initial premises and arguments. In this dimension of taking up and revisiting premises we can identify a first act of creativity in respect to the issue and in respect of its traditional progress. We also have in mind the possibility of analogies, not only varied, but also surprising through their originality and freshness. Also, in a place that is “made secure” through temporary isolation


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and meditation, the problem-solving practice will be charged not only with options in the dimension of knowledge, but in value options that are more difficult to express in the span of a lesson. The originality of the essay given by the students’ affective input should not be overlooked. We should also mention that the style of the essay, the expressivity of the argument and its fluency are expressions of originality and creativity. We admit, of course, that style can be borrowed from elsewhere (how many of us did not dream to become essayists like Camus or Cioran etc.?) from works that function already (for a time span that we cannot foresee) as right models. Even this assuming of elements of style belonging to a reference or a model considered as an example, at the level of the students’ cultural experience, may function as a good exercise in the search of a more authentic expression of the self by an other.

With the openness and the generous engagements that it presupposes, the essayistic exercise of the students may crystallize not only in works on different subjects given by the professor, but also by choosing a topic from the area of interest of certain students. Let’s take the example of the human condition and we will witness the multitude of perspectives from which it can be approached (biological, psychological, social, cultural, religious etc.). This indicates, this time, not so much the engaging in depth of the thematic aspects, but their range: this kind of “group-essay” throws in the debate a multitude of dimensions of the issue, as well as a diversity of connections that can give way to new points of view and perspectives.

The school essay can be considered, furthermore, as a paper with a fixed time limit (of 3 to 5 minutes, for example), that takes place during the class and that every student has to write. This is not so much an essayistic approach to an issue, as a fostering of many opinions regarding the issue or a given problem. The students’ creativity can manifest

itself, in this case, in the form of a multitude of concepts enunciated, that will be available to be used later on in dialogues and proper essays.

In view of the details and aspects discussed, we notice that the manifestation of the students’ creativity is not only determined in multiple ways but it is multiple in its possibilities of manifestation. It progresses from potency to act by putting to good use the knowledge that is present in a dimension that is constituted by notions, concepts, theories, elements of common representations about the world, elements of knowledge received through the influence exercised by various factors etc. The putting to good use that was mentioned before is amplified by the subjective, emotional, affective involvement and the engagement of the totality of the sides and dimensions of the personality of the students in a poly-functional dialogue that would enable the emerging of new knowledge, of new forms of cooperation and relations, as well as new ways of using the debating capabilities, the analysis and synthesis, in a contexts that implies an open and generous “horizon”.

In order to synthesize the aspects previously discussed we offer a synthetic image of these, structured along the axis: types of dialogue – expected effects in the field of knowledge, work acquisitions and communication relations.

The dialogic frames of creativity for the philosophy lesson


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Types of dialogue

Knowledge aspect The aspect of work acquisitions

The aspect of communication relations

The problem-based dialogue

The need to overcome the internal tension of the problem by:

- Rethinking old knowledge

- Structuring them in new ideas and concepts

- Provoking inter and trans-disciplinary connections

- Increasing the appearance of ideas and opinions that would come from multiple and successive confrontations with the problem

- Developing critical spirit

- Developing reflexive and self-reflexive thinking

- Developing the capacity to question and question oneself

- Developing the capacity to build by critical approach to the argument of others

- Democratizing the exchange of ideas and opinions

- The collective participation to the definition process of the sense of the problem-solving process

History-based dialogue

- Fostering the critical approach to a text

- Evolving the capacity to argue for a classical position with one’s own opinions

- Identifying possible solutions for solving the problem

- Justified criticism

- Reasoned justification of the questioning

- Cultivating self-questioning

- Critical approach to a philosophical text

- Correlating the philosophical text with the cultural and historical context of its formulation

- Fluent communication between the students

- Free and open communication between the student and the teacher

- Common participation to the problem-solving process

Hermeneutical dialogue

- Understanding the philosophical text

- Describing its significance

- Reinterpreting previous knowledge

- Re-signifying some knowledge correlations

- Obtaining the capacity to understand a philosophical text

- Obtaining the exercise of interpreting a philosophical text

- Periodical revision of one’s knowledge

- Periodical reinterpretation of the correlation between what is known

- Cultivating the need for

- Cultivating dynamic relations relative to the interpretative experience

- Cultivating the need to communicate with other students and the teacher

- Participation through an open exchange of ideas in the problem-solving process and in determining the


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reflection common sense

Pyramid-type dialogue

- Great production of diverse ideas

- Developing the capacity to analyze and successive selection of opinions

- Developing the capacity to compare

- Developing the capacity to argue

- Developing the capacity to find solutions to a philosophical problem

- Justifying diversity through unity

- Cultivating freedom and spontaneity in communication

- Participation in the common effort of determining the common sense of the problem-solving practice

- Developing responsibility for one’s own uttering

- Developing the capacity to criticize constructively and in a reasoned way the arguments of others

Hegelian type dialogue

- Developing the capacity to make comparative judgments

- Developing the capacity to choose successively between partial solutions

- Developing the capacity to synthesize

- Developing divergent thinking

- Developing the capacity to cyclically critically examine and to use them in with new texts

- Gaining the habit to judge

- Gaining the ability to select successively partial solutions on the basis of arguments

- Gaining the capacity to make correlations between the different dimensions of a problem in order to discover its unity

- Cultivating the openness offered by the Hegelian-type dialogue in relations between students and between students and teachers

- Consolidating communication relations in the practice of critically reexamining the arguments put forth

- Communicational consolidation by constructing the problem-solving practice

The spiral type dialogue

- Developing the capacity to make a nuanced argument

- Using the re-actualization of the argument through new contexts

- Cultivating the building of dynamic and flexible ideas, able to self-correlate and renew

- Forming the habit of periodical revisions of gained knowledge

- Forming the habit to criticize one’s own ideas and to renew them

- Forming the habit of constructing and periodically revisiting an idea.

- Developing communication between students and between students and teachers

- Participation in the critical evaluation of the proposed solutions

- Participation in the reconstruction of an idea and the defining process of the common


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cyclically sense of the issue

Essay - Developing the capacity to make an argument in relation to an idea or thing

- Developing the capacity for very nuanced investigation of the issue

- Assuming responsibility in the knowledge dimension regarding offered solutions

- Forming and developing the capacity to argue in a personal manner

- Forming the habit of considering an idea from various points of view

- Forming the habit of proposing personal solutions

- Free communication with a virtual or symbolic partner

- Affective and emotional participation to the communication process

- Personal involvement in communication

6. Levels of creativity in the philosophy lesson

The question of student creativity in the study of philosophy in high school is based on:

- The generalization of the data obtained by participating in the classes of assistance in the framework of the students’ educative practice;

- Summarizing the discussions had with high school philosophy teachers, regarding the creative output of their students, during class, as well as, during school contests;

- Reading the student essays and their works on various proposed subjects, or subjects chosen by the students themselves;

- Evaluating the documentary files of the students (where this practice exists) as well as the illustrative didactic materials prepared by students with the teachers or by themselves;

- Discussions had with the practicing students regarding the working style during philosophy class, the used methodology and the elements of creativity present in the context of the

lesson; these discussions bring also comparative approach to the ways in which lessons take their course

Summarizing this data we arrived to a series of notes that we are to present next:

The use by students of unexpected, spontaneous and suggestive comparisons regarding the concepts (situations) imposed by the discussion of a philosophical problem. These are manifest especially in the field of comparison between the thematic context and the knowledge experience of the students, obtained by studying various subjects. This comes as a follow up to a long history of observational experience, on the basis of which it is apparent the primary attitude of the students involved in the thematic context, preferably on the basis of school experience, strongly influenced by subjective elements with partial projections. These engage not only elements of knowledge, but states of mind, motivations that are strongly personal, intimate “certitudes”, etc. This manifestation of creative participation on the part of students as regards the dialogue is characteristic more to the moment of interrogation over the issue, which is an important moment to involve the students, to encourage spontaneous comparisons, without prejudices. We say this because given the importance of the openness, mutual trust, self-expression, without preconceived models and stereotypes acquired in school and


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outside it. Invoking this experience of open climate that should be fostered by the philosophy lesson and by the teacher we are referring to, on the one hand, to the specificity of the philosophy lesson, as an organized frame of an ever more free participation of the students to the dialogue, and on the other hand, to the fact that the dialogue itself, in ever more authentic forms is not possible, unless within such an open practice.

Of great importance is the way in which the teacher presents the lesson, establishes goals and purposes and redirects these in ways presented by the school context and the specificities of the groups of students that the teacher works with. This last aspect makes the difference between the particular forms that are very specific, by which a lesson, with its goals and purposes, differs from one class to another, with the same teacher. That is why, in preparing every lesson the philosophy teacher will prepare beforehand the opening questions in different ways, in order to involve as much and as productively as possible the students of each group. We have to note one more aspect, regarding the teacher’s role in involving the free, spontaneous and creative participation of the students. It deals with the teacher’s experience in cultivating the dialogic praxis, how consequential is he/she in organizing it, not only as to the acquisitions of new knowledge on the part of the students, but also as to the cultivating of formative ideals that this practice requires. If practiced systematically these can bring major contributions in changing attitudes, forming habits of comparative approach to facts, aspects, domains that have no apparent connection.

In practice, the level of creative expression brings fewer metaphors than comparisons. This is explained by the fact that from the stage of project the lesson tacitly points to differentiating and unifying, or, more correctly, unifying by differentiating the

different dimensions that constitute an issue. It starts by revising the differences and ascends gradually to unifying notions and concepts. This way of approach, by itself, indicates, either in the case of a distinct form of dialogue (problem-based, history-based or hermeneutical), or in the case of combinations in various degrees between these, a creative way of understanding and a didactical approach that no other subject can offer. This is not the case of creativity in the proper sense. What this is about is the approaching of philosophy and deepening its study presuppose, for the first time in the cultural experience created in the school environment, the simultaneous operation with difference and unity, plurality and coherence, in the organizational context of the study of philosophy.

Productive creativity

This level of creativity is represented mainly by the production of ideas during the lesson. The productivity related to the students’ ideas is determined by a series of factors, among which the following are to be mentioned:

- The continually increasing real capacity to analyze and compare situations, knowledge, experiences, ideas and concepts of greater or smaller importance;

- The capacity to make intra-disciplinary and interdisciplinary connections that amplify in range and depth the field of investigation and interrogation;

- The way of critical and selective approach to the ideas already brought forth, through their progressive polishing an continuous (re)ordering, in the thematic context of the lesson;

- The capacity to relate to a philosophical text, to understand, critique and


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interpret it, in the context of the significations that emerge step by step through the dialogue.

We note that the productivity of ideas that the students manifest in the context of the philosophy lesson does not represent an authentic novelty as regards the content or the interpretation if we compare it to the level of systematic production of ideas characteristic to philosophy in the proper sense: it is new regarding the correlations discovered, the knowledge discovered and the significations brought forth, often in relation to what the student did know up to that point. We wish, by mentioning this aspect, to underline the fact that the manifestation of student creativity remakes, in part, the context of a problem’s history and thus inaugurates a new horizon for the students, unforeseen by them. On the other hand, we cannot ignore the possibility that, in the context of remaking the “interior horizon” of an issue, the students would participate in a truly creative manner, bringing certain elements of novelty that the problem’s history itself does not bring up.

We can say, with a high degree of confidence, that at this level of creativity the activity of the teacher is paramount. This role is evident in two dimensions that are interconnected and inter-conditioned. We are referring to the working schedule with the students, which shows at least the following aspects:

Fostering analytical practices combined with the synthetic practices and exercising the convergent thinking alternatively with the divergent thinking: solely by lingering on analytical practices the ascent towards ideas and concepts of great generality is not possible unless the knowledge is summed up and there is no interpretative synthesis: remaining in the analytic-descriptive dimension serves only as a starting point in the philosophical practice and, maybe, further revisiting for interpreting it; engaging distant

dimensions, associated through divergent thinking makes possible the emergence of veritably new knowledge (and spectacular, sometimes), through which the productivity of ideas itself grows, precisely by the enlarging of the range of the issue towards new dimensions.

Cultivating and developing student capabilities combined with modes of thinking, originality and richness in expression; encouragement of the intuition that overcomes numerous intermediary links between various ideas proposed and encouragement of its free expression; consolidating the motivation of the students for discovering, investigating, enabling new learning experiences, for creativity.

The second level regards the activity of the teacher, and has, in its turn, various aspects:

One of these aspects includes the activity of preparing for the lesson and in this context the teacher connects the goals, the objectives and the purposes looked for with that particular class. It is evident that understanding precedes creativity and, therefore, we think that this is the proper starting point for motivating the students’ creativity in the class, that is, from the connection between the elements included in preparing the lesson and their correlation with the specificities of each class. An elitist dialogue, that goes on between the teacher and a small group of the students only inhibits the majority of the participants and takes away their motivation regarding any further involvement: this is the context in which the dialogue fails and turns into questioning, context in which the students do not have anything more to do then to replicate previous knowledge, already learned, without the creative intervention on these, accomplished by reconnections, reflection and interpretation;

Another aspect regards generating an exploration on the students’ knowledge that is


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possessed up to a given moment; this provocation deals with intra-disciplinary connections, justified by the progress in the study of philosophy itself, by the interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary connection without which the complete vocation of the philosophical discourse is suppressed. Cultivating the game between what is known with certainty and what is to be found as existing in the tacit knowledge provokes interest and motivates the students in approaching philosophy. This is something that the teacher has to take into account.

Provoking the exploration on the already acquired knowledge may contribute to the (re)correlation of things known and the revision of these: from this exercise, that is not always easy, because it pulls out the subject from the comfort of representation that is considered “acquired” and available as such in various contexts, it is born, on one hand the realization of limitations in projecting and interpreting and, on the other hand the need to overcome them through critical reexamination of what is known, through selection and re(composition) in a context newly created that is itself generator of creative openness.

This approaching of philosophy from the part of the students, that we invoke so often, is itself a creative trajectory, characterized by meanders, hesitations, mistrust, and temporary or definitive breaks. The effective and affective implication of the teacher in this everyone’s trip does not have to regard only the scholastic performance and the results arrived at by evaluation and accounting of grades: the implication of the teacher regards another level as well, that of Socratic “partnership” in the context of which the meditation on the good, just and beautiful etc. is an attribute of the thinking of anyone. In the context of this “partnership”, highly charged with subjectivity, the construction is easily observed not only at the level of the student’s experience, but in the experience of

the teacher as well, who relates creatively to the one to be educated. We arrive at an observation made by John Dewey at the beginning of the century, namely that education is to be growing together of the taught student and the teacher, seen as partners of a dialogic with acquisitions for both parts, because no other action brings benefits on education and educators, we would say, then a little bit of education.

Lastly, the creativity of the teacher is manifested at the level of methods and their combination. In this sense we wonder what other methods, then those consecrated by the philosophical thinking, are the most appropriate to give the experience of approaching philosophy and being initiated therein? Of course, the answer is obvious, in the sense that the dialogic methods are serving best these purposes. On the other hand, the dialogical methods specific to the philosophical thinking (problem-based, history-based, and hermeneutical) cannot be found in a pure state in the philosophy lesson, but in a contexts signed by the pedagogical expectations of the scholastic context and that is influenced the local factors of teaching philosophy in high school, factors that regard a given segment of the school population, a given level of knowledge and life experience of this and not least, the time factor, that limits the teaching of philosophy in high school class to an hour or at the most two per week. These conditionings impose a combination of classical dialogic methods, of inductive or insertive type, as well as dialogic methods based on cooperation, adapted to teaching Philosophy. Also, in didactic experience we can find a combination based on dialogic method and heuristic ones, with an accent on the resolution moment of the problem going quickly over the moment of questioning the theme and sketching of the aporetic tension of the problem, as well as combinations of dialogical methods and expository methods, as a follow up to the necessity of explaining certain concepts or


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presenting an orientation or a thinker etc. The sequence of these combinations is creative in itself for teachers and represents a generator of creativity for pupils. We state a few precautions as regards the method and combinations of methods chosen:

- Never abuse method combinations to the teaching’s detriment – learning philosophy;

- Never keep a methodological formula without a reflexive attitude upon it and upon its consequences at the level of school curriculum and at the level of pupils relationship with the teaching subject;

- Never experiment abusively methodologies and transform this experience in a purpose in itself, apart from the pupils’ interests and those of the subject’s.

There is also another aspect of the teacher’s creativity referring to the methods combination chosen to be used in the classroom. This is not manifested through the project, but within the concrete teaching experience. It is possible that the project of teaching through a methodological combination solicits its ongoing reformulation, in the sense that the students are either unprepared (given their inevitably limited experience) to react favorably to it, or they simply cannot, for the time being, rise to the “level” that the teacher requires without giving attention to the specificities of different classes and the real needs and possibilities of the students. In this situation it is absolutely necessary to modify the methods anticipated for the lesson project, in order to fulfill the goals, which were proposed to the students. This modification of the methods in the context of the lesson, and because of it, can be in itself a creative experience, since it responds to real needs, of a real world that requires access to the understanding of the content and towards forming work habits as a consequence of the considered facts.

We cannot end this topic without underlining the possibility of having more creativity in the activity of the teacher when we are talking about the relation between the teaching, the learning and the evaluation process. From the perspective of an innovative vision on this relation, the evaluation does not represent anymore the final stage of the teaching – learning process, but an integrated stage in the structure of this relation. As a direct consequence, the evaluative practice that goes on continually will indicate itself certain methodological and relational flexibilities, in order to facilitate learning, discovering, pleasure and the joy of progressing in philosophy. The transformation of the evaluative moment from the end goal into a motivating instrument, which would facilitate the adaptation of the students’ creativity to the teacher, strengthens the growth together of the partners in dialogue, which we mentioned, the teacher and the students, in the scholastic experience. This “growth” refers to, this time, to the evaluation too, as well as to its correlative: auto-evaluation. It regards the awareness of the teacher as regards the merits and limits of his own teaching initiative, on the one hand, as well as the careful, objective and continuous overview of the effects of the work on the students, on the other hand. This permanent evaluative and auto-evaluative overview, through the awareness of the limitations, indicates not only what teaching is, but also what it should be. Because of this, the permanent evaluation and auto-evaluation are sources of a practice of authentic renewal and creativity.

Inventive creativity can manifest itself at the level of student activity, at least in the following ways:

Discovering new intra-disciplinary correlations, in the light of which the necessity of reformulating certain objects takes shape: although this way of manifesting student creativity is not frequently observed,


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it may be mentioned as exceptional case in the practice of teaching philosophy in high school. When we take in consideration this possibility, we are bound to note that it is correlated directly with the interest manifested by the students for philosophy, with the systematic and organized reading, with exercises of evaluation and re-evaluation of knowledge regarding certain philosophical and scientific concepts, for example. It is not the case of manifesting occasional interest for philosophy anymore, but to have the adequate level knowledge that gives the tension to push for searching for new solutions, re-examinations and successive verifications. In this context, the psychological explanation of the discovering of the new is doubled by cognitive factors that are pushing for towards an innovative and authentic problem solving practice. Even if apparently, the manifestation of the new discovery seems to be the result of an intuition, the discovery has at its basis a multitude of trials, excursive practices in philosophy and science (keeping with our example) that, if we are permitted this pun, keeps permanently tensioned the “essential tension” (Kuhn 1982, 267) of the given problem, impressing on the mind of each participant to this knowledge experience the need to resolve it;

Another way is that of essayistic creations that the students produce in the context of given school contests (national and international philosophy contests). At this level we are talking about the creativity engaged on the field of vast and diverse philosophical reading, that permit profound and new connections, as well as new perspectives in taking up the philosophical problem from new points of view. Also, it is a question of expressivity in the language that has been perfected and received distinctiveness through the multiple philosophical readings and exercises. So, we are talking about creativity in the sense of promoting new ideas and perspectives and in the sense of manifesting it through language

understood as a creative act. This is a natural path, on which by advancing in the philosophical knowledge the language undergoes transformation and reaches expressivity. Motivation is needed for sustaining the change maintained by the desire to perfect, experiment in the benefit of the students and of the teaching of philosophy, by a continuous and concentrated practice. Also, the mere enumeration of these lines of becoming in the direction of methodological innovation cannot constitute an infallible recipe: as we said, the continuous actualization of the dialogic praxis is needed, the ongoing signification of the received feed-back, passionate implication in the work with the students, pedagogical talent and, probably, other elements as well, that escape us. Leaving open the enumeration we wish to underline once again the complexity of the phenomenon of authentic creation in the space of didactical experience, and also its pluri-determined character.

The originality and novelty of a method (or plurality of methods) cannot be judged solely in itself, or in relation to the already existent methodological complex, but in relation to the beneficial changes that it brings in the field of teaching experience. When we talk about beneficial changes induced as a result of methodological creativity we have in mind not any occasional change for the better, but those changes that induce a long term motivation for students to learn, on the one hand, and accessibility of the content given through the method, on the other. Taking up the discussion on the creativity of the teacher at this level we have in mind the following experiences:

Tutoring students with inclination towards philosophy. The work of tutoring and orienting these students presupposes itself a creative act on the part of the teacher, on the basis of repetitive practices (exercises, textual commentaries, philosophical works, etc.). The creative act is determined by the acquisition


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of new work habits, that have not been exercised in the everyday practice and that are situated at the intersection between the provocation of the philosophical reading, the knowledge and understanding of the students’ expectations and possibilities and the expectations of the teacher regarding the results of the work with the students. This creative act requires not only a privileged organization of the work with the students, but also an innovation on the methodological and relational level, so that we can talk about the originality of an authentically new work style of the teacher. Once the original work style is worked out with a small group of gifted students, he can “get down” by certain elements of it to the level of ordinary teaching, for the benefit of all students.

The methodological innovation made by the teacher may have other sources. The most productive source is the one that comes from the generalization of the teaching experience and the noticing on this large basis of the existence of limitations and stereotypes of unproductive nature. Simply noticing these aspects generates search and possible innovations. That is why we consider that only by being attentive to a large range of references, in the context of which the method is validated statistically over a period of some years of experimentation, can we discern between what is valuable, what can be seen as opportunism and what is of no value.

Another source of didactic innovation and creation at the methodological level may be constituted by the methodological import from the teaching of physical sciences and the linguistic subjects. Over the last decade the practice of teaching philosophy in high school has been the area of a lot of experimentation of this kind. From the generalization offered by these experiences we may formulate at least the following conclusions:

The methodological import from one subject to another has to consist in an act of

creativity adapted to the specificities of the subject taught, the type of discourse used, the notional and conceptual specificities of it; we should quickly remind ourselves the fact that a method is “good” because it has a good relation with the content that will be “delivered” to the students and because its profitable effect in the field of their knowledge experience;

The non-selective and non-adapted use of a method that is not suited to the specificities of a subject not only runs the risk of wearing out the method (even in the experiential field that validated it), but it can generate grave deterioration of the sense of the instructive-educational act, of the relation between the teacher and the student and the role itself of the teacher.

Blocking creativity

The blocking of creativity in the context of the philosophy lesson can be the result of at least three kinds of factors.

1. Emotional blocks that include

- The fear of getting out of conformism, of appearing extravagant by saying something;

- The fear of being in minority, even if the thesis, idea or notion advocated is valuable and can be demonstrated as such

- Stopping prematurely at the first discovered solution and resignation in relation to the students involved in the dialogue, by over-evaluating their argumentative and problem-solving capacities.

- The desire to remain in the perimeter of certain knowledge and the incapacity to enter in the challenging atmosphere of aporetic tension;

- Excessive dependence on the opinion of the colleagues and the teacher;


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- Reservation in engaging in the problem-solving practice and the identification of possible solutions.

2. Cultural blocks that include:

- The wish to belong to the group on the part of unassimilated students, because of diverse reasons, such as: non-acceptance of the representations shared by the group of influence, ethnicity, religion, urban or rural background, etc.;

- Incapacity to translate in personal terms the issues, themes, ideas and reproducing them word for word

- The tendency to adjudicate the solving of the problem, the finding of the best solution etc.;

- Deformation of the opinion on one’s own dialogical capabilities by invoking universal “solutions” – valid, advanced sometimes by the group of influence or the invocation of pragmatic criteria, one of the most common being “time”

- Exaltation regarding the group and admitting without reflection and critical spirit its ideas.

3. Perceptive blocks, such as:

- Incapacity to define notions and concepts etc.;

- Incapacity to distinguish between cause and its effect;

- Incapacity of differentiating, as to their value, between the arguments presented in the dialogue;

- Reduced capacity to modify, during the dialogue, arguments suppositions, hypotheses, etc.;

- Incapacity to build on the argument of someone else and its complete rejection, because the absence of selectivity;

- Incapacity in grasping the multiple senses of some notions, concepts etc.;

- Not differentiating between the common sense and the philosophical sense of a concept;

- Difficulty in making connections between distant levels of a problem or between ideas found on distinct levels and, apparently, without connection;

- Incapacity to understand and comment a philosophical text.

Directions for cultivating creativity by practicing the dialogue during the philosophy lesson

In prefiguring the manifested tendencies of creativity in teaching-learning philosophy we can differentiate between two levels that have an inter-conditioned dynamic and development.

The activity of the students that presupposes:

- Developing and using the students’ spirit of observation, which can be considered as a premise of the manifestation of creative habits;

- Developing by the students a kind of fluidity in ideas and associations of ideas through the formulation of as many and diverse opinions, suppositions, hypotheses as possible etc.;

- Cultivating the flexibility in thinking by:

• Encouraging inter, intra and transdisciplinary connection;

• Cultivating reflexivity and (auto) critical spirit, that would have as a result the re-examination of gained knowledge through the study of various subjects;

• Separating the valuable elements of a dialogue and putting them to good use in new contexts of ideas;


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- Developing curiosity for the philosophical literature and for the classical ways of solving philosophical problems: noticing the limits and merits of the various solutions that appeared in the philosophical thinking;

- Cultivating and developing the students’ problem-solving capacities, their courage in coming up with solutions to the debated problems, as well as motivating them in building the common sense of the discussion.

The level of teacher activity, that presupposes:

- Putting to good use the creative tension that results following the interrogation (questioning) on philosophical themes;

- Putting to good use in the context of exchange of ideas of the dialogue, knowledge experience of the students and engaging it in new endeavors in the field of ideas;

- Initiating the students in the philosophical reading and the obtaining of the exercise of interpreting the philosophical text;

- Putting to good use the formative qualities of the dialogue in the direction of opting for open exchange of ideas, responsibility for positions taken, as well as the habit of (re) building on openness the problem-solving practice of the issues;

- Practicing the dialogue in various formulas and combinations, adapted to the specificities of the study of philosophy and keeping the dialogic forms characteristic for the philosophical thinking;

Cultivating habits with ethical dimension that would facilitate the exchange of ideas in dialogic context.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Strengths and Limitations of Dialogic Communication

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Strengths and Limitations of Dialogic Communication.

Intercultural Perspectives in the Norwegian Classroom

Raluca Petruș, Lect., “Babeș-Bolyai” University, Romania

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: dialogic communication; collaboration; mutual understanding; equality;

involvement; intercultural learning environment; meaning.

This article intends to bring into discussion

some arguments for using the dialogue in the

teaching classroom. There are going to be

exemplified the strengths and limitations of

this communication that has its roots in the

Socratic Method. The findings are going to be

analyzed from an intercultural perspective. It

is advisable to do so because the teaching

environment that this article refers to

promotes a dialogic communication that takes

place in a foreign language. There is no doubt

that a person makes use of different dialogue

rules when speaking in his/her mother tongue

and employs other strategies when using a

foreign language. This is a common reaction to

a new language that contains various linguistic

norms that are loaded with cultural aspects

pertaining to that target language.

The target language that is going to be used

as a reference point for providing arguments

and examples for or against the dialogic

communication is the Norwegian language.

This language is taught at the Faculty of

Letters within the Babeș-Bolyai University in

Cluj-Napoca. Norwegian is taught as a foreign

language for students who want to accomplish

their Bachelor’s degree. The literature that

sustains the discussion that follows pertains to

the domain of didactics. The dialogic

communication is going to be dealt with from

the perspective of the teacher who teaches

Norwegian for adults and from the perspective

of the students who learn this language for

academic purposes.

There are many teaching strategies that have

the purpose of empowering learners by giving

them freedom of action as well as freedom of

thought. The dialogic method, i.e. teaching by

using the dialogue as a means of expressing

both opinions and uncertainties, incorporates

This article focuses on identifying some characteristics that a dialogue might have in a

classroom environment in which different cultures come into contact. There are described the

roles of the teacher and of the students in a dialogic communication.


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in this sense these characteristics. The word

dialogue comes from the Greek word dialogos

that consists of ‘dia’ which means through and

‘logos’ that could be translated by word. One

could say then that the dialogue represents a

way of putting across a thought, of

communicating with an ‘other’ in order to gain

a new understanding. The dialogue allows the

exchange of a flow of thoughts between the

interlocutors, thus providing a clarification of

the problem under discussion. The people

taking part in the discussion may be

transgressing some extremes that range from

feeling doubt or bafflement to certainty,

confidence, and satisfaction. This shifting flow

of emotions, with ups and downs, contributes

to the beauty of the dialogue. Still, there have

to be taken into consideration some aspects

such as having a correct interaction space in

which students can express freely without

feeling that they are judged. Moreover,

interlocutors and teachers are not allowed to

impose their personal reasons on someone

else or invade someone’s personal space. In

such situations the dialogue is not developing

in accordance to appropriate guidelines.

First of all let’s see what the characteristics of

a dialogic communication are. There are going

to be stated the purposes for which the

dialogue should be perceived as being a useful

tool in foreign language learning. The dialogic

learning recreates a process of discovery that

is undergone both by the teacher and the

students. It is not a process focused on the

transmission of ready-made items of

information. The information is reshaped step

by step, is questioned, rethought and new

perspectives are assigned until learners reach

the intended outcome. The meaning is co-

constructed and this represents the key

element of the dialogue. It is not the outcome

(namely the answer) that represents the main

focus of the dialogue. Instead, we have the

process of discovering the information and the

intricate intellectual effort that give

consistency and strength to the dialogue.

The word ‘dia’ explained above also has the

meaning of between/across1. In other words

one could define the dialogue as being the

‘word between us’. As long as the word

‘between’ keeps its intended meaning, i.e.

linking or connecting someone or something

then the dialogue represents a collaboration

between the interlocutors. Instead, if it is used

the other meaning (i.e.

in the space separating two points/objects)

then the pattern of interaction is different and

words begin to act as borders separating the

interlocutors.

During a dialogue there are different agents

that take turns in providing new items of

information. In a classroom environment this

exchange of data takes place between the

teacher and the students. Still, there is a

tendency to say that the teacher also becomes

a student, as long as some rules are obeyed.

The dialogue could also be constructed among

students and the teacher may or may not be

the agent who receives the data, analyzes it,

1 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dia


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restructures it and sends it in a different form.

Students can be engaged in an activity that

focuses on dialogue without having the

teacher playing the part of an orchestra

director. He/she might be just a facilitator who

takes charge of elements pertaining to

classroom environment and makes sure that

the learning sequence takes place in an

appropriate manner.

The implementation of a dialogue sequence

could take the following form: the teacher

starts an instance of communication by asking

questions that are related to the intended

outcome. This progressive structure of

thoughts offers the learner the opportunity to

articulate a point of view, to start an

assumption, to verify it through direct

feedback, to state new hypotheses and verify

them. Likewise, we have a circular process in

which a great emphasis is put on developing

autonomy through learning.

It is important that students value questions

and ask questions. This is the first step

towards achieving knowledge. By asking

questions students also test some items of

information but they also grasp the meaning

of what they have learned. Questions are like

keywords in a text, comprising knowledge in a

structured way. They represent a foundation

and provide understanding. Questions could be

regarded as being flexible, evolving towards a

new stage by rethinking and analyzing the

concepts that they depict. In this sense there

could be suggested that a teacher should not

always demand and appreciate answers, which

tend to have a finite form, but also questions.

When we ask questions we develop our critical

thinking and thus learn. Questions also force

us to examine how we are organizing or giving

meaning to information.

There are many elements which enter into

contact during a dialogue. Here are presented

a couple of them: the speakers’ personalities,

their cultural assumptions, their biases or

nonverbal cues. Thus there could be stated

that the dialogue sequence is influenced by

some factors that can either sustain or impede

the act of communication. For this discussion

there are taken into consideration the

following: collaboration, mutual

understanding, equality, and involvement. A

dialogue activity could be perceived as

collaboration between the teacher and the

students. It is a teaching sequence in which

both sides have something to gain. The

dialogic communication provides the teacher

with the possibility to observe the students’

flow of reasoning, to perform a needs analysis

in order to better match the learners’ demands

as regards the intended content. Nevertheless,

he/she can provide input, when this is needed,

in the shape of additional questions. The

assumption that the teacher could also learn

something from the student is not at all far-

fetched. The teaching profession is not

something finite that can be achieved as a

goal in itself. It is a constant struggle to find

new meanings, to learn and to grow. There

are presented to debatable situations: a

teacher who teaches in a multicultural

classroom or a teacher who teaches a foreign


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language that is his/her mother tongue. In

both cases the teacher might be faced with

some difficulties as concerns the stage of

receiving and of sending information due to

the fact that ‘’learning involves more than

cognitive material (ideas and concepts). It

involves feeling something about the concepts

(emotions) and doing something (actions)”.

(Vella 2002, 17-18) The dialogue is thus going

to be socially and culturally rooted. Both the

teacher and the students are going to make

reference to the norms and values belonging

to their mother tongue because this one

carries their identity. Lack of knowledge

regarding the ways in which we can get our

message across in an intercultural

environment could damage the natural flow of

communication.

Furthermore, the dialogue represents a useful

collaboration sequence also for the students.

They are encouraged to share ideas, to make

links with previously acquired knowledge and

to listen to other speakers in order to gain a

better understanding of the matter under

discussion. Students are working towards

grasping new meanings through interaction,

which in its turn provides genuine instances of

using the foreign language. The exchange of

ideas is valuable because mutual interchange

stimulates students to think, to make

connections between various items of

information, to listen and accept others’

opinions and to express their own points of

view. Second language learning should offer

one the possibility to communicate one’s point

of view because this is the intended purpose of

mother tongue. Generally speaking people are

sociable human beings, like to communicate

and express what they feel and think. Taking

into consideration the fact that students are

adult people, then it is obvious that they might

have some life experiences that are worth

sharing. The dialogue could satisfy this

communication need. All in all, collaboration

also represents for the students a means of

reaching another level, of growing together.

Mutual understanding is also highly valued in

dialogic teaching. Both the teacher and the

students have to understand their roles and

respect each other. The teacher has the role to

guide the communicative sequence by being a

facilitator, by asking questions that are in

relation to each other, by providing total or

sequential feedback through building the

students’ confidence. The teacher establishes

for the dialogue some guidelines by creating a

definite framework for investigation. The

students do not always grasp this framework

and follow the path until they reach the

intended answer.

Students become committed to working

together towards discovering new

understandings. They take part voluntarily in

this shared inquiry because they are willing to

test the validity of some hypotheses. The flow

of interaction is intensified and collaboration is

increased by generating a two-ways process of

exchanging information. There is a supportive

classroom environment that is secure and

emphatic towards new perspectives and

assumptions. All hypotheses are welcomed


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into this frame, being questioned upon and in

the end accepted or denied.

The third factor that could consolidate a

dialogue sequence refers to equality,

understood as a means of providing equal

chances to all learners. But equality should not

be a prerequisite only for the students.

Sometimes it is the teacher who makes use of

his/her ‘power’ in order to solve some issues

that might arise in the classroom.

Communication is threatened if the teacher

always makes use of his/her power to control.

There are needed in the classroom sound

relationships “that transcend likes and dislikes

and obvious differences in wealth and power”.

(Vella 2002, 11) Each student has the right to

express an opinion, whether this is correct or

not.

Bernard Spolsky (1998, 23) has defined a

condition that refers to the relevance of the

level of motivation for a student learning a

foreign language. He states that “the more

motivation a learner has, the more time he or

she will spend learning that aspect of a second

language”. Dialogic communication generates

involvement and genuine engagement because

students are allowed to express their views on

different matters and likewise test what they

know or do not know. Self-assessment

represents a useful ability in every learning

situation. If students feel involved in the

teaching sequence then they are motivated to

learn. And motivation leads to a better and

more purposeful language learning.

Finally, the dialogical instance of

communication enables a practical application

of the knowledge acquired in the target

language. The learner becomes proficient in

communicating personal ideas in various

contexts. Sometimes these might not reflect

the academic purposes of learning the target

language. This happens because “people are

naturally excited to learn anything that helps

them understand their own lives.” (Vella 2002,

6) This stage might constitute a good

opportunity for the teacher to understand

better the learners’ needs in order to prepare

activities and topics that help them to grow.

The Dialogue Education approach is a popular

education approach to adult education created

by Jane Vella in the 1980’s. Her approach

suggests that it is more important what the

learner does than what the teacher says. The

learners are active participants in the dialogue

that leads to learning. 2 Jane Vella has fifty

years’ experience as a teacher working with

adults. She has observed that the Dialogue

Education approach has plaid a significant role

in helping students to co-construct knowledge.

Below are presented twelve principles and

practices designed by her. These have the role

to sustain and nurture the dialogue:

• Needs assessment: participation of the

learners in naming what is to be

learned.

• Safety in the environment and the

process: we create the context for

learning. The context can be made safe.

2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_education


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• Sound relationships between teacher

and learner and among learners

• Sequence of content and reinforcement

• Praxis: action with reflection or learning

by doing

• Respect for learners an decision makers

• Ideas, feelings and actions: cognitive,

affective and psychomotor aspects of

learning

• Immediacy of the learning

• Clear roles and role development

• Teamwork and the use of small groups

• Engagement of the learners in what

they are learning

• Accountability: how do they know they

know (Vella 2002, 4)

One could argue that many of these principles

focus on items that are related to the

environment in which the communication

takes place, rather than on the content that is

transmitted. Both teachers and students have

to understand that the dialogue does not

represent a mere communication channel for

sending and receiving information. In this

sense elements of classroom management but

also others related to various interaction

patterns, namely those DO’s and DON’T’s that

characterize speech acts, have to be taken

into consideration when taking part in a

dialogue. Furthermore it is a fact that

interlocutors transmit not just words but also

feelings when speaking.

The dialogic communication emphasizes the

fact that students perform complex thinking

during the stages they have to surmount in

order to reach an answer. There can be

employed closed ended questions that revolve

around what, who, which and open ended

ones that focus more on how and why. The

last ones require the students’ involvement

and collaboration in the discovery effort.

There can be asked questions that generate

engagement in the topic under discussion,

questions that are aimed at brushing up some

content acquired previously, questions that

invite the learners to make comparisons

between different types of information and

finally questions that have the purpose to

evaluate knowledge. (Albulescu 2008, 45)

The intercultural learning environment

The term ’intercultural’ refers to the various

types of interaction taking place within a

culture as well as between cultures, in a given

time and space. It refers both to providing a

better understanding of the culture within the

target language but also of the culture within

the mother tongue. It is called intercultural

because there is an exchange, on various

levels, between the mother tongue and the

target language. Learners become proficient in

understanding that cultural diversity goes

beyond linguistic differences. Linda Harklau

states that “language is inextricably bound up

with culture. Cultural values are both reflected

by and carried through language. It is perhaps

inevitable then, that representation of culture

implicitly and explicitly enters into second

language teaching”. (2006, 109) More and

more teachers acknowledge the fact that

culture is indispensable when it comes to


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teaching a foreign language. Moreover, a

language cannot be taught out of context

because its meaning is altered.

In view of this connection between culture and

language there could be stated that the

dialogic communication also has to take into

consideration the influence of the intercultural

contact. When speaking in one’s mother

tongue one is employing knowledge that may

not be appropriate in a foreign language.

Meaning and nonverbal cues differ across

cultures. There are no native speakers of

Norwegian working within the Department of

Scandinavian languages belonging to the

Faculty of Letters. Still this does not mean that

students are not aware of the norms of

speaking in Norway or of other relevant

cultural aspects. Norwegian is always taught

within a meaningful context that employs both

linguistic knowledge and pragmatic one. There

are many visiting professors from Norway who

come to the Department of Scandinavian

languages. These meetings provide both

theoretical and practical instances of using the

target language. Students get familiarized with

various elements of nonverbal language,

paralanguage and pragmatics.

The intercultural learning could best

understood through Littlewood’s statement

“the actual balance between learning a

language and learning through a language is

infinitely variable” (1995, 46). There can be

perceived a difference in meaning between

learning a language and learning through a

language. The goal of learning a language

might be resumed to being a fluent speaker.

Still the preposition through opens a door

towards a higher level, that of reaching a

deeper understanding by using the target

language as a means to attain that outcome.

We intend to make a connection to the call for

papers announced by this magazine that

sounded like this: Learning to dialogue,

Learning through dialogue. The first situation

implies to make use, in a conscious manner, of

all the rules governing a dialogic

communication and maybe comply with the

twelve principles stated by Vella. The second

type of learning can be associated with that of

a proficient user who already knows the rules

of the dialogue and does not focus any more

on theory or guidelines. Instead he/she uses

the dialogue in an unconscious manner to

achieve higher goals.

Dialogues, like most oral activities, do not

resume communication to a mere exchange of

words. It is no doubt that speaking is

influenced by the interlocutor’s tone of voice,

nonverbal language, reaction, anticipation,

improvisation, physical distance or purpose of

communication. The degree of familiarization

with the culture of the target language is also

reflected in the speaker’s level of confidence.

When speaking a foreign language a speaker

might want to find him/herself on common

grounds with the interlocutor. This confidence

is useful in the long-run in real-life situations

in which learners have to make use of their

communicative abilities.


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Mikhail Bakhtin defines three key components

that form the core of his dialogic theory: 1)

Dialogue, not monologue, is the most natural

form of human speech; 2) Meaning exists as a

collaborative construct between speakers; and

3) The context or social situation determines

meaning. 3 These three components refer to

the form and the content of the dialogue.

People are human beings who like to

communicate and express themselves. There

are rare the occasions when one prefers to

have a monologue instead of having a

dialogue. Even when one does not have the

audience in front of him/her (the example of

an author), some questions still wait for

answers or feedback. The other two

components refer to the meaning of the

utterance, suggesting the fact that meaning is

always co-constructed and that this one is in

close connection to the context in which it

appears. This is why Bakhtin states that “in

point of fact, word is a two-sided act. It is

determined equally by whose word it is and for

whom it is meant. As a word, it is precisely the

product of the reciprocal relationship between

speaker and listener, addresser and

addressee.”4

Strengths and limitations of employing

dialogic communication as a purposeful

means of teaching a foreign language

Having in mind the arguments presented

throughout the article there could be 3 http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/2097/111/1/MelissaBroeckelman2005.pdf, page 6 4 http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/2097/111/1/MelissaBroeckelman2005.pdf, page 8

mentioned the following strengths for making

use of dialogue in the teaching process. If we

take into consideration the fact that the

dialogue represents a part of an unfolding

process of creative participation between

peers, then it could be stated that students

develop both their interpersonal and

intrapersonal abilities. In a dialogic

communication the emphasis is placed

sometimes on the student and not on the

teacher. It is valued the student’s ability to

find connections between different items of

information, to re-evaluate conditions, to be

judicial, to make correct choices, and to detect

improbable situations after conducting a deep

analysis. The dialogue also represents a

means for teaching students to be self-critical

and exhibit an unbiased attitude towards their

peers or other interlocutors. The learning

environment in the classroom is built both on

empathy and creativity. Creativity arises due

to the intensive use of real life situations and

authentic materials. Students can express

their opinions in situations that are not related

to the textbook. It could be stated that this is

a non-artificial process of learning the target

language that is beneficial for the learner. The

students who learn Norwegian are expected to

develop the following abilities in relation to

employing the dialogue as a didactic method:

critical thinking, curiosity, creativity,

collaboration, interpersonal and intrapersonal

intelligence.

The limitations of employing the dialogue refer

to the following situations. First of all there

might appear tensions or misunderstandings


145

generated by the interactions between the

interlocutors. The cause could be a matter of

dominance and display of power from the part

of the teacher or there could appear conflicts

between students. The dialogue brings

together diverse people having different

conceptions and cultural backgrounds.

Likewise, tensions are not so out of the

ordinary. The trick is to know how to handle

them so that the conflict is not amplified. The

dialogue “can take very different verbal (and

nonverbal forms); it can arise in very different

sorts of circumstances; it can be mediated by

very different sorts of textual or

representational practices; it can be directed

toward quite different purposes, and can have

still further effects apart from how it may be

intended; these different forms will have

different degrees of familiarity or utility for

different sorts of people, and different degrees

of suitability for different subject matters.5

The subject matter under discussion and the

teacher’s lack of ability to motivate and

engage students in that activity could

constitute a second limitation. The first step a

teacher should take according to Vella (2002,

4) is to design and apply a needs analysis

within the classroom. This could provide a

better picture of the student’s aims and

abilities. Applying this limitation to our

situation there could be stated that all the

students within the Department for

Scandinavian Language and Literature learn

5 http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/13448/teaching_as_dialogue.pdf?sequence=2

Norwegian for academic purposes. This

represents the main aim. Still, some students

have their own goals and sometimes these

may not be in accordance to what is taught in

the classroom. As a consequence these

students might not want to get involved in all

the activities that are conducted by the

teacher. There might be sometimes difficult for

the teacher to find a common ground for all

the students, having in mind the diversity of

mentalities, abilities and competences that

interact in the classroom.

Thirdly, teachers have to be conscious of the

degree to which the new technologies are

influencing both the teaching sequence and

the interaction patterns among students. Even

if the dialogue represents a reliable teaching

strategy we have to see how it is going to be

tackled and incorporated within the new

information technologies. These increase

mobility, diversity and diversify the interaction

patterns. Thus, dialogues can take place in

virtual spaces incorporated in learning

management systems. Nevertheless, the

relationship between the teacher and the

students within classroom environments as we

know them today is definitely going to

undergo some changes.

Conclusions

This article has emphasized some of the

strengths and limitations of employing the

dialogue as a didactic method within an

intercultural classroom environment. There


146

have been described some of the

characteristics pertaining to the dialogic

communication.

Bibliography:

Albulescu I. The Pragmatics of Teaching. The Teacher’s Work in Terms of Routine and Creativity.

Revised edition. Pitesti: Editura Paralela 45, 2008.

Harklau L. “Representing culture in the ESL writing classroom”. In Culture in Second language

Teaching and Learning, ed. Eli Hinkel, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Littlewood W. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction, UK: Cambridge University Press,

1995.

Spolsky B. Conditions for Second Language Learning. Introduction to a General Theory. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1998.

Vella J. K. Learning to Listen, Listening to Teach. The Power of Dialogue in Educating Adults.

Revised edition. USA: Jossey-Bass, 2002.

http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/2097/111/1/MelissaBroeckelman2005.pdf, page 6, 8.

Master of Arts Thesis, Kansas State Unversity, 2005. Accessed November 27, 2011

http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/13448/teaching_as_dialogue.pdf?sequence=2

Accessed November 21, 2011. Burbules N. C., Bruce B. C. ”Theory and Research on Teaching as

Dialogue”. In Handbook of Research on Teaching, Richardson V. ed., 4th Edition. Washington DC:

American Educational Research Association, 2001.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Uses and Abuses of Dialogue in Education

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On the Uses and Abuses of Dialogue in Education

Adrian Costache

Postdoctoral Fellow with the Romanian Academy in Jassy

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: dialogue; didactic advantages of dialogue; uses of dialogue in education; Derrida, Gadamer.

Today1, the importance of dialogue for the various spheres of social life and the various dimensions of knowledge is once again recognized after more than two millennia during which it was considered a mode of expression of the life of the mind among others and a mere propaedeutic exercise meant to awaken the mind and to prepare it for learning. Now, just like in Plato’s time, dialogue is once again recognized as a core social value and a fundamental means for the construction of society and for assuring the cohesion necessary for social life.

The official discourse of several key institutions and theoretical endeavors for the life of our society testifies for this fully.

Take for example the discourse of the Catholic Church, a prominent social institution in these times marked by a resurgence of 1 This paper was made within The Knowledge Based Society Project supported by the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government under the contract number POSDRU ID 56815.

religiosity and religion. Already in 1964 Pope Paul the 6th proclaimed:

Dialogue is demanded nowadays… is demanded by the dynamic course of action which is changing the face of modern society. It is demanded by the pluralism of society and by the maturity man has reached in this day and age.

(Pope Paul 1965)

In the fields of cultural studies and international relations – the theory and practice of forging bonds between different societies and different social groups – dialogue is praised as one of the prime means for facing and avoiding the perils confronting humanity in this day and age. Anindita N. Balslev’s volume Toward Greater Human Solidarity. Options for a Plural World2, reuniting most of the key figures in the field and covering in a comprehensive manner all theoretical stances put forth in recent years, offers us a strong proof for this. What the contributors to this volume teach us is that the only way to

2 Anindita N. Balslev (ed.), Toward a Greater Human Solidarity. Options for a Plural World (Kolkata: Dasgupta & Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2005)

Taking its cue from Jacques Derrida’s questioning of philosophical hermeneutics’ idea of dialogue and drawing upon the French philosopher’s investigation into the language from his early work the present paper undertakes an inquiry into the legitimacy of the way in which dialogue is used in education in our times.


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researcher is basically this: an openness to carry on a dialogue with one’s peers from other fields, thus striving towards the constitution of a common language. Jacques Derrida himself, one of the most outspoken critiques in and of our time says it explicitly:

… I believe that no research is possible in a community (for example, academic) without the prior search for the minimal consensus and without discussion around this minimal consensus.

(Derrida 1998, 146)

But nowhere is the idea of dialogue more hightly regarded than in the sphere of education. Here dialogue is considered to play a paradigmatic role in at least two senses.

Ever since philosophy, the sciences of life and the social sciences have made us wary of the idea of a human nature given once and for all and of the idea of absolute values, we have learned that education is not the progressive actualization of a given ideal of man. It should not strive strictly toward the inculcation of a given set of values. Education should be seen rather as a dialogue, as a process of negotiation, constantly underway, aimed at satisfying to the highest degree possible both the individual needs of the educated and the general interest of society. In a good education system the ideal of man, one is supposed to strive toward, and the set of values to be assumed are always on the table for discussion.

In another sense though, the dialogue is attributed a paradigmatic role in the process of education as an instrument of teaching. No matter which textbook of didactics one gets his or her hands on, one will see that the section dedicated to the active-participative methods of teaching and learning almost always begins with the dialogic method.2 Of

2 Some examples in this sense are: Constantin Cucoș, Pedagogie [Pedagogy], Second, revised edition (Iași: Polirom, 2006); Miron Ionescu & Ion

course, this is not accidental. If the dialogic method is always treated first this is because it is actually presupposed by all the other active methods. It is easy to see how. As we recall, the fundamental task of the teacher in a sequence of problem-learning is to guide the students – without intervening directly – in the endeavor for resolution. This obviously means asking questions. In case study, to take one more example – the teacher’s task is to lead the students toward understanding that, albeit particular, the example subjected to investigation has actually an exemplary value. Otherwise put, that it allows the logical derivation of laws applicable to the entire class of phenomena to which it belongs. Insomuch as the teacher would not guide the students by questioning and would tell them straightforwardly what to look for in the case studied, the active-participative sequence would not be in fact active and the recourse to the particular case as basis for learning would actually be superfluous.

But, in this methodological sense, the dialogue is attributed a paradigmatic role also for another reason. Namely, because of the didactic advantages brought about by the use of the dialogic method and all the other methods based on it. In our times, most didactics and pedagogy textbooks recommend a priori the use of the modern active–participative methods of teaching and learning for, by comparison with the traditional ones, the outcome of whose application in the classroom is usually solely the acquisition of knowledge, their use cause a much broader spectrum of educational effects.

As Monica Diaconu has shown, the dialogic method is directly responsible for the “cultivation of reflexive thinking, the formation Radu, Didactica modernă [Modern Didactics] (Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 1995); Miron Ionescu, Instrucție și educație [Instruction and Education] (Cluj-Napoca: 2003); Ion Albulescu & Mirela Albulescu, Predarea și învățarea disciplinelor socio-umane [The Teaching and Learning of the Human Sciences] (Iași: Polirom, 2000).


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and development of the critical analytic spirit, an interrogative and self-interrogative spirit – all these understood as long term acquisitions whose instrumental value goes past the school gates.” (Diaconu & Felezeu 2007, 23)

In a study discussing the debate, as a particular form of the dialogic method, Diaconu offers us a detailed explanation of the actual means whereby the students arrive at these acquisitions. As she notes:

- the debate institutes itself as a true

endeavor to edify a path of

knowledge;

- the debate satisfies the need for

contact with the thinking of the

interlocutor;

- the method discussed facilitates the

revision of one’s position and, thus,

the overcoming of one’s narrow or

dogmatic perspective;

- the debate is to be adopted also for

its psychological and spiritual

efficacy, for the possibility of

engaging the partners;

- the debate is regarded as an

endeavor of selection and temporary

unification of certain knowledge

brought into play through the to and

fro of question and answer;

- the debate brings about an

advancement toward a more suitable

thinking, in greater conformity with

the data, the freedoms and

conditionings of the real situation.

(Diaconu 2011, 39)

Given all these virtues for which the dialogue is praised for and all these theoretical and practical spheres in which it is praised for, a critical thinker – and every thorough theorist should assume this posture once in a while – ought to question whether these appraisals are not actually too good to be true. Usually, complex problems do not have simple solutions and, again, usually, one problem’s solution is not the solution for another. That is why, out of sheer speculative duty and for the sake of thoroughness, we ask: Is dialogue real? Has dialogue, understood as it was always understood, as an intellectual exchange of views about a matter at hand (Sache) between an “I and a “Thou,”3 ever existed? Does it have any reality, if not in the strong sense of Realität, at least as Wirklichkeit? Has anyone witnessed its effects? Can anyone testify for its efficacy?

Irrespective of the cultural role it played throughout history, regardless of whether it was taken to be a core social value and a fundamental means of knowledge as in Plato’s

3 In this definition we summarize the general understanding of dialogue in our times, an understanding informed by Hans-Georg Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics and which, in its turn, incorporates the main positions on the matter: Plato’s, Schleiermacher’s, Kierkegaard’s, R. G. Collingwood’s and Buber’s put forth so far. We put I and Thou between scare quotes here because, as Gadamer and Collingwood have showed, also a collective subject or a text, a work of art, a historical event can become partner of dialogue, stating its view through the voice of the other partner. Thus, the Thus with whom one converses is not necessarily an individual or a person. See in this sense R. G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939) and H.-G. Gadamer, Truth and Method, Second, Revised Edition, trans. Joel Weinsheimer & Donald G. Marshall (London & New York: Continuum, 2004).


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and our times or just a mental exercise for training the youth, the idea of dialogue, the possibility of dialogue and its reality have been taken as the most evident things in the world, as self-evident. That is actually the reason why dialogue served over and over again for the definition of the most general field of research and inquiry to the novices and the outsiders. As it is well known, philosophy, it has been said from Plato to Hans-Georg Gadamer, is the soul’s dialogue with itself.

That is also why the “heretical” questions we are asking have been asked just once before and, in the context they have been asked, they were considered a joke by some, while others read into them a strategy meant to make us aware of the power relations involved in any dialogical encounter and thus to raise some ethical concerns regarding it4. And, in fact, why shouldn’t it

4 Whether dialogue is real is the main focus of the “web of questions and remarks” (Derrida 1989, 54) the French philosopher Jacques Derrida addressed to Hans-Georg Gadamer during their first ever encounter in Paris in 1981. The encounter between the two was a carefully planned event being envisaged from the very beginning as the occasion for a head on confrontation between the two central philosophical movements on the Continent at that time: deconstruction, whose father and central figure Derrida was and hermeneutics, whose central figure was Gadamer. In good faith Gadamer took this encounter as seriously as possible. He prepared a talk on the problematic of text and interpretation and therein he marked explicitly several points meant to facilitate the discussion with Derrida. Derrida, on the other hand, did nothing of the sort. He gave a talk on the hermeneutic problems with which we are confronted by Nietzsche’s signature and, when it came to the discussion part, he addressed Gadamer three questions completely unrelated to his speech or the tenets of his philosophy. The first probed into the metaphysical foundations of philosophical hermeneutics’ idea of dialogue; the second questioned the concept of “context of interpretation” orienting, in Gadamer’s view, any hermeneutic endeavor; while the third questioned whether the precondition for understanding an other is not actually the interruption of the rapport with it, rather than the continuity of the rapport of mediation the interpreter might create. Why the interpreters of the affair between Gadamer and

have been considered a joke? For how can one actually disprove the reality of dialogue? How can one show that the signing of a peace treaty is actually not the result of the preceding peace negotiations? How can one show that the development of a reflexive attitude is the result of something else than the dialogues in which the students have been engaged in the classroom?

We believe that we are offered a path towards a possible answer to these questions if we turn to the work of Jacques Derrida, the one who questioned the reality of dialogue, hinting at the idea that it might very well be an “unfindable object of thought” (Derrida 1989, 52). In order to show this we would like to reconstruct (not to rehearse) Derrida’s investigation into the problematic of language undertaken in Of Grammatology and Dissemination. For it is on this terrain of language that the reality or lack of reality of dialogue is actually decided. This will also show us that his questions to Hans-Georg Gadamer are not a joke and must be taken as seriously as possible.

That Derrida’s investigation into the problematic of language could offer us another perspective upon dialogue is manifest from the fact that, in contrast to the great majority of philosophers and theorists who dealt with language from a diachronic point of view and who ended up praising the virtues of dialogue, he approaches it from a synchronic point of view. Hence, insomuch as for the great majority of philosophers, language is a “view

Derrida to see Derrida’s questions as a joke or to read a hidden strategy behind them is obvious now. For example, at first sight, the third question seems to suggest that the best strategy one can adopt in order to understand Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is to close the book and put it down forever. The whole dossier of the encounter plus some critical contributions dealing with the matter appeared in English as Dialogue and Deconstruction. The Gadamer – Derrida Encounter, ed. Diane P. Mitchelfelder & Richard E. Palmer (New York: State University of New York Press, 1989).


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of the world” due to the human experiences it progressively accumulates within itself, for Derrida it is thus as a system of difference subjected to an arbitrary bonding.

As these very terms make it manifest, Derrida’s investigation of language unfolds in the margins of Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic project he wants to deconstruct by debunking its claim to scientific neutrality and bringing to light its metaphysical presuppositions and limitations.

For Saussure – and with this Derrida agrees wholeheartedly – language is no more than a system of sings understood as an arbitrary, unmotivated union between an acoustic image (signifier) and a mental representation or concept (signified) joined together for the simple reason that they differ from all the other acoustic images, respectively, mental representations possible (Saussure 1998, 65-67).

More explicitly, what makes the sign “three” a word of the English language is solely the fact that the sequence of sounds “t-h-r-e-e” is unique among all the other utterable sequences, and that is connected solely with the idea “3” and no other.

As Saussure puts it:

Psychologically our thought – apart from its expression in words – is only a shapeless and indistinct mass. Philosophers and linguists have always agreed in recognizing that without the help of signs we would be unable to make a clear-cut, consistent distinction between two ideas. […] The characteristic role of language with respect to thought is not to create a material phonetic means for expressing ideas but to serve as a link between thought and sound, under conditions that of necessity bring about the reciprocal delimitation of units.

(Saussure 1998, 112-113)

Thus, Saussure shows us, there are two and only two principles governing language: the principle of the arbitrariety of the sign (expressing the unmotivated character of the bond between signifier and signified) and the principle of difference (expressing the fact that a sequence of sounds or an idea becomes a signifier, respectively, a signified of a sign strictly because it is different from all the others).

But Derrida argues, if we understand that in language there are only differences without positive terms, we ought to understand also that every sign carries within itself the trace of all the signs of the language to which it belongs. Insomuch as the signifier “three” sends to the cardinal number “3”, it implicitly sends also to “2” and “4” as those natural numbers which are not “3” but on whose constitution “3” depends and, respectively, whose constitution depends on it. “4” is the smallest natural number after “3” resulting from the addition of a unity to it; whereas “2” is the smallest natural number preceding “3” serving as basis for its constitution through the same process of addition.

By bearing within itself the trace of every other sign of the language to which it belongs though, every sign “is,” in an ontological sense, itself the trace of something that is not present in language, something that is not of the order of language and which is never present as such.

The “unmotivatedness” of the sign requires a synthesis in which the completely other is announced as such – without any simplicity, and identity, any semblance or continuity – within what is not. (italics are mine)

(Derrida 1997, 47)

In truth, the process of differentiation of the signifiers and signifieds constitutive of the sign can unfold to infinity. That is why the


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ultimate term of the series of signifiers and signifieds serving for the differentiation of the antepenultimate (and thus of all the others before it) is itself always already antepenultimate.

This “completely other” that forever announces itself in language but only so as to forever withhold its presence from the present is what Derrida calls “différance”, with an “a” not the usual “e” that is written, read, but never pronounced or heard.5

As soon as it announces itself, différance confronts dialogue with its de facto impossibility. For, this “completely other” inhabiting language and making meaning possible only by ceaselessly deferring its full presence from itself forces the “Thou” that expresses itself in and through language to forever become an other. Différance’s constant deferral of the presence of meaning defers also the presence of the “Thou” for the “I”, no doubt, just as it defers the presence of the “I” for the “Thou.”

In this sense, a dialogue whereby we are trying to understand an other is not actually a dialogue with the other as such but, as soon as the other has expressed his or her position, a dialogue with an other that has been. The possibly other than myself engaged in dialogue, through the fact that he or she expresses him or herself and by my endeavor to understand what he/she says becomes a mere projection of myself, i.e. an other as myself.

All this sounds very complicated but what is referred to represents an experience quite common in everyday life. The best example here is provided by the psychotherapeutic conversation. Whoever witnessed one knows very well that merely expressing what one thinks and feels frees up to a certain point him or her of the emotional 5 See Jacques Derrida, “Différance” in Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982), 1-27.

distress he or she is undergoing and is the first step towards the amelioration of the condition. This is actually a process of becoming another and its possibility is given by the fact that the expressed meaning, in and through the very moment of its expression, drags along other meanings and other possibilities of being that the distressed person could follow.

But this is something that happens quite commonly also in our schools. As most humanities and social sciences teachers know, in matters which require persuasion and about which the students are passionate about, there is no successful endeavor to persuade students that things are otherwise than they think they are. For, in the actual conversations, the teacher’s rebuttals of the students’ arguments in favor of their positions bring about only a replacement of the arguments with others, considered stronger, but never a reformulation of the position as such. In fact, the more work the students put into finding arguments in support for their positions and convictions, the more they will hold onto them despite that even a quick rational examination will show that, most of the time, these positions and convictions are not actually worth defending.

But différance confronts dialogue with its impossibility not only on its “I” – “Thou” axis, but also on that of the matter at hand, the “Sache”, the theme or the topic around which it revolves.

Philosophical hermeneutics, just like all the other philosophies of dialogue, takes the possibility of the Sache as given. As we have seen, dialogue is even defined in terms of the Sache. But in the light of différance this possibility becomes highly problematic.

Bearing in mind what we have said above about différance we understand that its play in language renders language at the same time rich and poor in meaning. Rich because the meaning of every word will comprise along with the concept or the idea signified the trace


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of all the other possible ideas plus the “completely other” of différance; poor because this “completely other” is actually a “lack,” an “absence,” a “blank” that depletes meaning of its fullness, rendering the concept or the idea signified dependent on other concepts and ideas. In this way, différance bestows upon language“certain inexhaustibility” (Derrida 1981, 250) that surpasses the possibilities of intentionality and does not let itself be engulfed within the boundaries of a horizon. Through the play of différance at once enriching and impoverishing meaning one is bound to say more and less than he or she wants to say and what is said does not let itself be caught up in the horizon of what could have been said. The “completely other”, that is not of the order of language but is constitutive of meaning, pierces through the horizon that could form around a meaning and displaces its limits.

In this way différance prevents the theme, the matter at hand from becoming thematic or at hand. Or, which comes to the same thing, it prevents dialogue from gravitating around just one matter at hand. And it doesn’t let it gravitate around two, or fifteen or any determinate number either. It transforms the to and fro movement of question and answer in a flux going in an infinite number of directions at once with an infinite speed.

Now, this is again not just theory, but the theorization of an experience very common in our everyday lives and in the classroom. Not few are the cases when we start talking with someone about one thing, end up talking about something else after having made quite a few digressions, and the only thing we recall afterwards is how our interlocutor pronounces certain words or the way he or she waves his or her hands when he or she talks. Here we find the play of différance with its exceeding of intentionality and the displacement of the horizon of meaning at its finest.

In light of all these, the reality of dialogue in the sense of Realität is out of the question. We sum up what we have said: There is no exchange between an “I” and a “Thou” for, in the process each is forever becoming an other. And this simulacrum of an exchange is certainly not taking place around a “matter at hand” for the flow of uttered words prevents the formation of something like a central, dominant meaning in what is said.

In its turn, the reality of dialogue in the sense of Wirklichkeit is quite dim. Insomuch as our dialogues are actually simulacra of exchanges of views and ideas they just cannot have some of the effects attributed to them or, which amounts to the same thing, our dialogues can have them only by accident.

All these show us that what we considered to be the uses of dialogue in education are actually, in a sense, forms of abuse.

First off, it ought to be obvious that dialogue should not be attributed a central role in shaping our understanding of education, on its ideals, its goals and tasks. In fact, dialogue should not be attributed any role whatsoever in this. The ceaseless becoming other to which the partners of dialogue are subjected forces them to drift away from each other and to act as if they were not striving towards the realization of a common goal. The ceaseless becoming other of the partners of dialogue brings about a continuous changing of their interests.

This is an experience very familiar to us here in Europe and especially in Romania. As soon as our systems of education were subjected to reform and as soon as different aspects of the educational practice have been put on the table for discussion both the educator and the educated, as parts in the discussion, seem to have lost sight of their cause as well as of the sense of the process of education, its teleology.


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Secondly, dialogue should not be attributed a paradigmatic position among the instruments of teaching and learning. Certainly not for the didactic advantages it is supposed to have.

The play of différance within language prohibiting dialogue to unfold around just one matter at hand also short-circuits its possibility to achieve “advancement toward a more suitable thinking, in greater conformity with the data, the freedoms and conditionings of the real situation.” Just as it obstructs the “endeavor of selection and temporary unification of certain knowledge brought into play through the to and fro of question and answer,” thus “edifying a path of knowledge.” And it does not really “facilitate the revision of one’s position and, thus, the overcoming of one’s narrow or dogmatic perspective.”

On the contrary, by bringing about an excess and, at the same time, a lack of meaning, différance makes room for the appearance of other meanings in the exchange between the “I” and the “Thou” (not intended, not meant by any of them) and for something other than meaning. Because we are never caught up completely by what is said, during our conversations, we always listen also to the affective overtones of the words, to what Saussure called the “value”6 of the linguistic sign, and to how these words are pronounced. But affectivity is, of course, the royal path toward dogmatism. When one’s beliefs take precedence over his or her judgment, if one refrains from examining the justification of his or her position this is most of the time because the belief in that position offers one emotional comfort.

Obviously, dialogue is still to be praised for its “psychological or spiritual efficacy,” for the “possibility of engaging the other” it offers. It is still to be praised for the “cultivation of reflexive thinking, the formation and

6 See in this sense Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, 111-122.

development of the critical analytic spirit” taken as long-term acquisitions. That is to say, as a teaching instrument, dialogue is still to be praised for its force to stir and provoke the other the student to think. But it should be praised for all these no more, no less than for any other form of exchange or, more generally, of encounter between an “I” and a “Thou.” For any encounter with an other, the mere recognition of the fact that it is different than me, that it thinks, believes, loves different things than me is enough to make me think about who I am, why I take one thing or another to be as I think they are, why I believe what I believe and love what I love. The very fact that it is different gives the other the “possibility of engaging the other” that I am.

In this sense, and this is the third point we have to make based on what we have seen above, dialogue does not play a paradigmatic role for all the others active-participative instruments of teaching, but just a logical precedence over them. Insomuch as dialogue’s main use is to provoke the educated to think and insomuch as this effect is shared with all the other active instruments of teaching (one might even say with all the other instruments of teaching as such) then dialogue’s upper hand over all the other methods resides in the fact that it provokes in the more immediate, direct manner. In a dialogical sequence of teaching the student can be determined to think as soon as he or she would prepare himself/herself not to think; in such a sequence the teacher can intervene on the spot and can prevent the students from uttering a prefabricated answer or a platitude, as it is usually the case.7

The points made here against the idea of dialogue and on the role of dialogue in education are not meant to dissuade the teachers from using it. In fact, they are

7 For this see Gilles Deleuze’s convincing discussion from Difference and Repetition, trans. Paul Patton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).


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addressed rather to the theorists in the sciences of education and the trainers of

teachers. And they are meant to warn them about the abuses of dialogue in education.

Bibliography:

Albulescu, Ion & Albulescu, Mirela. Predarea și învățarea disciplinelor socio-umane [Teaching and Learning the Human Sciences]. Iași: Polirom, 2000.

Albulescu, Mirela & Diaconu, Monica, ed. Repere actuale în didactica disciplinelor socio-umane. Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 2007.

Balslev, Anindita N., ed. Toward Greater Human Solidarity. Options for a Plural World. Dasgupta & Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2005.

Collingwood, R. G. An Autobiography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939.

Cucoș, Constantin. Pedagogie [Pedagogy]. Iași: Polirom, 2006.

de Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Perry & Saussy, Haun Meisel. Translated by Wade Baskin. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.

Deleuze, Gilles. Difference and Repetition. Translated by Paul Patton. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Derrida, Jacques. Dissemination. Translated by Barbara Johnson. London: Continuum, 1993.

—. Limited Inc. Edited by Gerald Graff. Translated by Alan Bass and Samuel Weber. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1988.

—. Margins of Philosophy. Translated by Alan Bass. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982.

—. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore & London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.

Diaconu, Monica & Costache, Adrian, ed. Dialog și dezbatere în didactica socio-umanelor. Cluj-Napoca: Eikon, 2010.

Diaconu, Monica & Felezeu, Călin. "Metoda dialogului în studiul istoriei și filosofiei." In Repere actuale în didactica disciplinelor socio-umane [Current Standpoints in the Didactics of the Human Sciences], edited by Mirela & Diaconu, Monica Albulescu. Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 2007.

Diaconu, Monica. "Dialog și dezbatere." In Dialog și dezbatere în didactica socio-umanelor [Dialog and Debating in the Didactics of the Human Sciences], edited by Monica & Costache, Adrian Diaconu. Cluj-Napoca: Eikon, 2010.

Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Second, Revised Edition. Edited by Joel Weinsheimer & Donald G. Marshall. Translated by Joel Weinsheimer & Donald G. Marshall. London & New York: Continuum, 2004.


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Ionescu, Miron & Radu, Ion. Didactica modernă [Modern Didactics]. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 1995.

Ionescu, Miron. Instrucție și educație [Instruction and Education]. Cluj-Napoca: ---, 2003.

Mitchelfelder, Diane, and Richard E. Palmer, . Dialogue and Deconstruction. The Gadamer-Derrida Encounter. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1989.

Pope Paul, the 6th. "Documents/Encyclicals." The Official Site Site of Vatican. 1965. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_06081964_ecclesiam_en.html (accessed December 24, 2011).

!!!!!!!!Miscellanea!

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS L’écrit à l’enseignement de la physique

157

L’écrit et l’activité notationnelle à l’enseignement de la physique: questions actuelles

pour la recherche et les pratiques des enseignants

Konstantinos Ravanis, Prof., University of Patras, Greece

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: teachers’ education, preschool education, primary education.

Introduction

Dans le cadre de la didactique des sciences

physiques et expérimentales, nous avons pu

constater les trois dernières décennies un

développement, autant sur le plan qualitatif

que quantitatif, des divers champs de la

recherche. Il en va ainsi de l’étude des

représentations, de la construction des

connaissances, des modèles et des concepts,

de la résolution des problèmes, de l’analyse

des interactions entre élèves et enseignants

(Ravanis, 2010). Il convient, d’ailleurs, de

souligner l’influence des résultats de la

recherche en didactique et de la théorisation

de l’éducation scientifique dans la production

des livres scolaires, des curricula, du matériel

pédagogique et la formation des enseignants.

Cependant, bien que l’importance de

l’exploitation des divers types de la production

écrite à différents niveaux (textes,

représentations graphiques, diagrammes,

écrits des élèves et des enseignants) soit

généralement admise et reconnue, les liens

entre la recherche et les pratiques

Over the past three decades, it was found that, on the one hand, research in physics education

is developing in several directions, including the study of the representations of the students,

the construction of knowledge, the problem solving and, on the other hand, how the research

results and the theories affect the teaching of physics and the teacher training. In this

framework, the production of different manuscripts, which always support the teaching,

sometimes becomes object of research. The project that is presented here refers to some

aspects of the approaches of these manuscripts and examines in particular the problem of the

relationship between the results of the research and the teaching practices. It is also

commented the need for orientation of the analysis of the activity of writing in the teaching of

physics. The focus of the paper is based on three points: 1) the processing of texts, graphs,

charts etc, 2) the question of the approach of the writings of the teachers of physics, 3) the

analysis of the writing activity of students.


158

pédagogiques dans l’enseignement de la

physique demeurent ténus et les apports de la

première parfois même sous évalués.

Nous nous efforçons ici de poser et de

discuter quelques questions concernant la

communication et l’interaction entre ces deux

cadres de référence, recherche et pratiques

pédagogiques par rapport aux rôles et aux

fonctions de l’écrit et de l’activité

notationnelle.

Les systèmes symboliques écrits dans

l’enseignement et la didactique de la

physique

Les travaux visant à étudier la production des

écrits et l’activité notationnelle n’occupent pas

une place importante dans les préoccupations

des didacticiens et/ou des enseignants de

sciences expérimentales. Même si on a pu

noter des efforts dans ce sens ces dernières

années, il faut préciser que, d’une part, ces

travaux ne tiennent pas une priorité dans les

courants dominants de la recherche en

didactique des sciences physiques et que,

d’autre part, ils n’entretiennent pas de

relations très étroites avec l’enseignement.

Cependant, « le travail d’écriture ne

correspond jamais à une simple transcription

de ce qui a été pensé ou oralisé. Ce n'est pas

non plus un simple travail de la langue et de

mise en forme linguistique. C’est un

instrument irremplaçable de l’élaboration d’un

concept » (Fillon, 2001).

Ainsi, les systèmes symboliques écrits dans

l’enseignement de la physique constituent-ils

un important objet de travail dans le cadre des

pratiques scolaires quotidiennes, et cela à tous

les niveaux de la scolarité. En effet, aussi bien

durant les phases de préparation que celles du

travail en classe, trois types d’écrits sont sans

cesse produits :

a) les textes, représentations graphiques,

diagrammes, illustrations dans les manuels

scolaires, curriculums, instructions officielles,

etc.,

b) la production écrite des enseignants de

physique,

c) les résultats de l’activité notationnelle

des élèves.

Dans l’approche de ces différentes formes

de production écrite, divers cadres théoriques

sont utilisés et divers points de vue sont

choisis. Dans tous les cas, les résultats des

différentes approches sont à même d’éclairer

et d’influencer d’autres aspects des processus

éducatifs. On peut distinguer dans ce champ

quatre orientations de recherche et d’analyse

des produits et du travail scolaire : l’écriture

comme

1) support de l’enseignement,

2) présentation des connaissances à l’école

et/ou à la recherche,

3) mode d’expression et d’investigation

(Catel, 2001),

4) pratique sociale.

Parmi ces quatre perspectives de la

recherche en didactique ou de l’enseignement

de la physique, émergent des objets d’étude

extrêmement complexes dont l’investigation

exige qu’on fasse appel à des théories et des


159

résultats de recherche d’autres disciplines

scientifiques, comme la linguistique, la

psychologie ou la sociologie par exemple.

Nous allons donc essayer d’examiner les

caractéristiques de base de ces approches en

donnant des exemples et en commentant

certaines questions concernant les relations

entre recherche et applications dans

l’enseignement. Cette approche construit un

cadre de référence qui peut permettre aux

enseignants d’identifier et de discuter les

différents enjeux et problèmes posés par

l’utilisation des écrits dans l’enseignement de

la physique.

1) L’écrit comme support de l’enseignement

Il s’agit ici de l’approche la plus ancienne dans

l’étude des supports écrits dans

l’enseignement de la physique et d’une

certaine orientation de la recherche

correspondante. Nous pouvons remarquer ici

le caractère totalement empirique d’une

approche qui se pose des questions telles que

: « Quand utilise-t-on l’écrit dans

l’enseignement ? », « Comment l’écrit

complète-t-il les autres activités didactiques ?

», « Comment réconcilier fonctionnalité et

qualité des textes? ». Le plus souvent, dans la

production du matériel d’enseignement, ces

questions revêtent la forme d’un souci indéfini

et les réponses qui leur sont apportées usent

de stéréotypes comme l’absolue conformité

aux textes scientifiques ou l’expérience des

auteurs. Il est évident que le flou

épistémologique de tels arguments empêche

qu’on les étudie de façon systématique.

Pourtant, plusieurs travaux de recherche

essaient d’analyser ce matériel, en particulier

dans les manuels scolaires. Dans une tentative

de recensement et d’analyse des résultats de

telles recherches (Sklaveniti, 2003), on a pu

constater dans la bibliographie internationale

des quinze dernières années, que la majeure

partie d’entre elles se concentre sur le contenu

des livres scolaires (table des matières,

structure des chapitres, techniques de

rédaction, méthodes d’enseignement

proposées…). Un plus petit nombre de

recherches examine des questions d’analyse

langagière, d’évaluation et de compréhension

des textes par les élèves et les enseignants,

de relations entre le contenu des manuels et

des questions sociales ou historiques.

Cependant, compte tenu du fait que

l’orientation générale de l’élaboration du

matériel scolaire par des techniques

empiriques est aujourd’hui incompatible aussi

bien avec la recherche en didactique de la

physique qu’avec les courants théoriques

contemporains concernant l’enseignement et

l’apprentissage de la physique, les discussions

relatives à cette direction de recherches sont

désormais marginales.

2) La présentation des connaissances à l’école

et/ou à la recherche

Ce type d’activité écrite se rencontre aussi

bien en classe de physique que dans certaines

recherches.

a) Dans les cours de physique, elle est

principalement en rapport avec le contrôle des

connaissances et l’évaluation des élèves. Les


160

élèves sont ici invités à réaliser des travaux

écrits obéissant à des critères précis : compte-

rendu d’expériences, exercices, résumés,

réponses à des questions, etc.

b) Dans la recherche en didactique de la

physique, elle est liée à l’étude des

connaissances et des représentations des

élèves et des enseignants. D’ordinaire, du fait

de la nature des pratiques pédagogiques

auxquelles correspond cette activité

notationnelle, ce qu’on recherche surtout dans

les écrits des élèves ou des enseignants, est

de savoir dans quelle mesure ils s’éloignent

des connaissances scientifiques, leur degré de

précision, l’usage qui y est fait des symboles

et du formalisme et, parfois, leur capacité de

communication.

Dans certains cas, l’importance particulière

donnée à la production écrite est évidente

puisqu’on requiert systématiquement plus d’un

type d’écrit. Par exemple, dans une recherche

visant à explorer les représentations de la

notion de champ magnétique que se font de

futurs instituteurs du primaire on leur propose,

entre autres tâches, la situation suivante

(Papamichael & Ravanis, 1993) : « Sur deux

wagons A et B (figure 1), on place une plaque

métallique F et un aimant A. Leur mouvement

est empêché par un bâton P qui relie de façon

stable les deux wagons. Si on enlève le bâton

P, pouvez-vous prédire et dessiner, dans le

cadre situé sous le schéma, la place exacte où

les wagons vont se trouver ? Expliquez votre

raisonnement avec le plus de détails

possibles».

Figure 1. L’exposition écrite des connaissances : le dispositif

Les réponses caractéristiques nous

montrent qu’au cours du processus de

résolution du problème, les sujets utilisent

d’ordinaire deux systèmes symboliques : le

texte et le dessin (figure 2). La façon dont se

combinent ces deux systèmes nous permet de

mieux cerner les représentations dont ils font

l’objet.

Cependant, dans cette direction de travail,

les orientations de l’enseignement et celles de

la recherche diffèrent. Si on essaie de

schématiser le fonctionnement des écrits

expositifs dans l’enseignement de la physique,

on peut dire qu’ils relèvent à la fois « du vrai

et du faux » (Orange, Fourneau et Bourbigot,

2001) sur le plan épistémologique, ce qui fait

qu’ils présentent un faible intérêt sur le plan

éducatif. Au contraire, dans la recherche en

didactique de la physique, les résultats

permettent de cerner les difficultés et les

obstacles à la pensée, ce qui conduit à

améliorer les pratiques pédagogiques.


161

Figure 2. L’exposition écrite des connaissances : une réponse écrite

3) Les écrits d’expression et/ou d’investigation

et la construction des connaissances

L’écriture d’expression est une pratique

d’investigation qui permet à l’élève de se

référer aux notions et aux phénomènes ainsi

qu’à leurs relations. Elle lui permet d’exprimer

sa pensée, processus qui contribue à la

construction d’un savoir et à l’échange

d’opinions dans le cadre des interactions

sociales. Cependant, la multiplicité des points

théoriques à partir desquels se situent les

chercheurs, ainsi que les différents cadres

dans lesquels l’activité notationnelle des

élèves est dépistée, ne permettent pas de

définir avec précision l’écriture d’expression.

C’est ainsi que tout type de production écrite

créative des élèves peut être intégrée à cette

catégorie. De ce fait, nous pouvons trouver

des données dans des recherches ayant des

visées différentes. Partout est examiné le rôle

de l’activité notationnelle, que ce soit dans le

cadre de recherches ou d’enseignements dans

lesquels se développent des pratiques

d’apprentissage des sciences physiques.

À titre d’exemple, concernant la résolution

de problèmes, le traitement écrit des données

facilite la compréhension dans la mesure où il

permet l’évaluation des connaissances et des

informations, des inter-relations entre ces

dernières, le développement de stratégies,

bref la réalisation complète de parcours

mentaux (Gaskins & Guthrie, 1994 ; Vérin,

1995 ; Keys, 1999). Dans le cadre de la

résolution des problèmes toujours, essayant

d’amener les élèves à s’approprier les

interactions entre les objets, Dumas Carré et

Goffard (1997) proposent d’utiliser un

diagramme « objets-interactions » qui «

…permet d’apprendre la notion d’interaction

et, au-delà, de construire une représentation

du dispositif décrit dans l’énoncé d’un

problème, qui facilitera le choix d’un système

et l’analyse des forces tant intérieures

qu’extérieures au système » (op. cit. p. 23).


162

Considérons le dispositif où un bloc est

accroché à une potence par un fil et repose

(figure 3). L’utilisation du diagramme « objets-

interactions » nécessite qu’on fasse figurer les

objets explicites du dispositif mais aussi les

objets implicites, comme la Terre, qui jouent

souvent un rôle très important en mécanique.

Les objets indéformables (plafond, Terre, bloc)

sont représentés par des rectangles, les objets

déformables par des nuages et les interactions

par des flèches spécialement codifiées (figure

4).

Figure 3. L’écrit d’expression et/ou d’investigation : le dispositif

Figure 4. L’écrit d’expression et/ou d’investigation : diagramme « objets-interactions»

Concernant l’étude du travail des élèves,

cette recherche montre que la réalisation d’un

diagramme « objets-interactions » est

efficace. Plus précisément, elle facilite leur

réflexion à trois niveaux :

a) À partir d’une première représentation du

dispositif énoncé dans le problème, le

diagramme permet aux élèves de prendre en

compte l’ensemble des données en jeu.

b) L’élève peut s’interroger sur le

fonctionnement du dispositif en posant des

questions du type : « Qui fait quoi ? », « Qui

est en interaction avec quoi ? ».

c) Le diagramme facilite le choix du

système et l’analyse des forces extérieures de

ce système.

Un autre courant de recherche accorde une

importance particulière à la production écrite

et au traitement des représentations

symboliques, est celui de l’étude des pratiques

de modélisation car le passage d’un type de

représentation à un autre est considéré

comme une condition nécessaire à la

construction des modèles. Ainsi, dans le but de

conduire la pensée des enfants à la

construction de notions dans le domaine de la

mécanique, Lemeignan et Weil-Barais (1993)


163

consacrent une grande partie du processus

didactique à l’accès à des symbolismes

graphiques tels que diagrammes,

représentations schématiques des objets par

quelques courbes fermées, flèches, etc., et

cela après s’être mis d’accord avec les élèves

sur la signification de ces symboles. Comme

l’observent Jimenez-Valladares et Perales-

Palacios (2002), « ces représentations forment

un espace symbolique autonome, où les signes

et leurs relations doivent représenter un

système notationnel ». Durant toute la durée

des activités, les élèves sont invités à

présenter graphiquement les situations qu’ils

ont auparavant traitées avec des objets réels,

ce qui les amène à articuler efficacement des

systèmes symboliques à la fois linguistiques,

graphiques et mathématiques.

Dans d’autres cas on entreprend d’établir

des circonstances d’apprentissage où les

élèves prennent des initiatives, sont invités à

participer aux explorations et à confronter des

arguments. Le noyau des pratiques

d’apprentissage est donc ici la construction des

connaissances et le rôle de la production écrite

des enfants peut alors constituer la base sur

laquelle s’appuie leur activité mentale.

Cependant, alors que dans la recherche ces

orientations dominent le plus souvent, des

initiatives analogues dans l’enseignement sont

peu nombreuses, ce qui fait que l’évaluation

des écrits et de l’activité notationnelle des

élèves en classe de physique est extrêmement

limitée.

4) L’écriture et l’activité notationnelle comme

pratiques sociales

Nous pouvons trouver une large palette

d’approches théoriques et méthodologiques

relevant de cette orientation. Au cœur de leurs

préoccupations se trouve l’idée d’une

spécificité de la recherche et de la

connaissance scientifique par rapport à

d’autres activités humaines, l’accent étant mis

sur la production écrite qui lui correspond.

Comme le souligne Vygotsky (1962) et Goody

(1986; 1987) l’écrit n’est pas simplement un

instrument qui permette une expression de la

pensée mais un outil primordial d’élaboration

et de construction des savoirs. Les

caractéristiques des écrits scientifiques,

comme par exemple l’argumentation ou

l’emploi des métaphores, peuvent justifier des

orientations diverses de la recherche sur la

production écrite dans l’enseignement de la

physique.

Dans une première direction d’analyse, le

travail scientifique est considéré comme la

pratique sociale de référence dans la

production notationnelle des élèves en classe

de physique (Martinand, 1986). Nous nous

référons ici « …à une pratique concernant

l’ensemble d’un secteur social (celui de la

production d’écrits par les chercheurs en

sciences expérimentales) pour des activités

didactiques n’impliquant pas l’identité mais la

comparaison sur les points suivants : le

fonctionnement de la communauté

(laboratoire/cours de sciences

expérimentales), les interactions sociales

(décision du protocole expérimental et

interprétation des inscriptions), les pratiques

culturelles (présentations des résultats


164

expérimentaux, écriture dans les normes,

applications)… » (Catel, 2001, p. 30).

C’est ainsi que Kelly et Chen (1999) ont

essayé de travailler avec des élèves en petits

groupes de manière à traiter avec eux l’idée

que la science ne constitue pas un produit

défini mais se crée au cours des processus

dynamiques dans certaines conditions

épistémologiques, sociologiques et

expérimentales. Ils entreprirent donc de

conduire les élèves dans une véritable

recherche scientifique dans le cadre de

laquelle ceux-ci développeraient leurs propres

méthodes expérimentales, échangeraient des

arguments, prendraient des notes,

recueilleraient et enregistreraient des

données. Les écrits produits par les élèves au

cours du processus expérimental se distribuent

sur quatre catégories :

a) écrits relatifs aux activités réalisées en

classe (carnets de laboratoire, notes, dossier),

b) écriture créative (récit de science fiction),

c) dessins thématiques réalisés en classe

(poster, fiche technique),

d) écrits relatifs aux leçons de physique.

L’analyse de ce matériau écrit, au niveau

des constats et des justifications qu’ils

donnent, amène à conclure qu’il existe un

progrès, allant d’observations à faible contenu

déductif à des raisonnements, ces derniers

étant produits à partir de corrélations entre les

paramètres des notions en question.

Ces circonstances d’apprentissage

présentent un grand intérêt dans la mesure où

elles permettent d’enregistrer l’influence que

peut exercer sur la réflexion des élèves le fait

qu’ils soient impliqués dans des processus

imitant ou simulant ceux des sciences. Bien

que très éloignés des possibilités et des

habitudes des pratiques scolaires en classe de

physique, de tels efforts offrent des

propositions alternatives efficaces permettant

de renouveler nos pratiques pédagogiques et

didactiques.

Un autre axe de recherche s’organise autour

de l’analyse des manuels scolaires et du

matériel pédagogique écrit. Dans cette

approche, le contenu des textes est abordé

comme le résultat d’une recontextualisation

(Sklaveniti, 2003, pp. 43-74), soit par le biais

d’une transposition didactique comme c’est le

cas dans la bibliographie francophone, soit par

le biais du processus de construction de la

connaissance scolaire comme l’envisage la

tradition anglo-saxonne. On adopte ici

l’hypothèse que les sciences expérimentales et

leur image recontextualisée dans les textes

scolaires relèvent de deux constructions

sociales différentes et que les manuels, en

tant que textes pédagogiques, déterminent

pour une grande part les relations entre élèves

et professeurs (Dowling, 1998). À partir de

l’analyse d’un grand nombre de travaux

s’intéressant aux textes, on peut classer les

recherches en quatre catégories qui font

qu’elles se focalisent sur :

a) la relation entre le contenu du savoir

scolaire et celui du savoir scientifique,


165

b) le traitement du code langagier et le rôle

de la médiation du langage dans la production

de sens,

c) les relations pédagogiques que les textes

favorisent ou induisent,

d) le rôle de la médiation du langage dans

la constitution des textes pédagogiques et du

cadre social de production du contenu.

Par ailleurs, on a pu repérer deux types de

recherches relatives à l’analyse des images. La

première catégorie rassemble les analyses

concernant les images dans l’histoire de l’art

et/ou la psychologie de la perception. Dans la

deuxième catégorie, les images sont

envisagées sous l’angle de la sociologie de la

connaissance scientifique, sur la base de

laquelle le matériel iconographique fonctionne

et est interprété au travers de contrats et

d’accords qui ont cours dans le cadre social

défini et spécialisé des pratiques scientifiques.

Voici un exemple pris dans un courant de

recherche qui analyse aussi bien la langue des

textes que les images sur la base du cadre

social de leur production et de leur référence.

Pour pouvoir concevoir les différences entre

les contenus scolaires et la connaissance

scientifique sur le plan de la représentation de

la science, les chercheurs ont construit un outil

d’analyse des textes et des images des

manuels scolaires (Koulaidis et Tsatsaroni,

1996; Hatzinikita, Koulaidis, Sklaveniti &

Tsatsaroni, 1996; Sklaveniti, 2003).

À partir de la théorie du « discours

pédagogique » du sociologue B. Bernstein

(1990), ils ont défini la science scolaire en

utilisant les concepts de « classification » et de

« codification ». La classification caractérise

les textes et les images par rapport aux autres

pratiques scolaires ou activités quotidiennes.

C’est-à-dire que si la classification est « forte

», la science scolaire dispose de frontières bien

définies et n’appartient qu’aux sciences

physiques. En revanche, si la classification est

« faible », la science scolaire communique

avec d’autres activités scolaires et/ou des

activités quotidiennes. La codification se réfère

au degré d’organisation du discours ou de

l’image, dont dépend la production d’énoncés

différents. En d’autres termes, une codification

« forte » signifie l’usage de formes

d’expression spécialisées et de représentations

graphiques incluant des règles formalisées

comme tableaux, courbes etc… Au contraire,

une codification « faible » dénote l’usage de

formes d’expression accessibles au public non

spécialisé et d’illustrations proches de la vie

quotidienne comme les photographies ou les

dessins.

Le croisement des axes des valeurs de

codification et de classification forme quatre

champs distincts de référence qui nous

permettent d’approcher les cadres que

génèrent les textes de la science scolaire pour

le développement des pratiques pédagogiques.

Il s’agit des domaines suivants : intérieur,

métaphorique, mythique et public (figure 5).

C’est ainsi par exemple que lorsque la

physique de l’école se base sur des textes

relevant du domaine intérieur, le contenu et

les modes d’expression des pratiques


166

pédagogiques conservent de forts liens avec la physique en tant que science.

Figure 5. La science scolaire et les domaines des pratiques

De tels types d’approches présentent un

intérêt particulier sur le plan de la recherche

dans la mesure où, d’une part, elles nous

fournissent un schéma d’analyse des textes de

tous ordres contenus dans les livres scolaires

et où, d’autre part, elles nous permettent de

déterminer par avance les axes généraux de la

rédaction d’un manuel pouvant tendre à la

réalisation d’objectifs éducatifs définis.

Discussion

Au terme de ce compte-rendu des divers

angles d’approche de la production écrite dans

la recherche en didactique de la physique et

dans l’enseignement de la physique, il apparaît

que cette question est un objet d’étude au sein

d’un plus large éventail de cadres théoriques

et méthodologiques. Cela génère

inévitablement une complexité qui, certes,

empêche un classement harmonieux et,

pourtant, efficace des efforts entrepris dans ce

sens, mais elle permet aussi d’en éclairer la

thématique tant par différentes approches

méthodologiques que par d’autres disciplines.

Si nous faisons l’hypothèse que le classement

que nous avons adopté ici nous autorise une

lecture systématique du matériel concernant

cette question, il vaut la peine de nous arrêter

sur certains points.

Tout d’abord, un problème important qui

apparaît pour l’enseignant est celui de la

distinction entre les simples approches

empiriques de la question de l’évaluation de

l’activité notationnelle et des approches qui se

développent sur la base de la recherche. Le

problème de l’approche empirique de certains

paramètres des pratiques d’enseignement, ce

qui bien sûr n’est ni nouveau ni inconnu en

didactique, apparaît dans le cadre de

l’enseignement de la physique dans les cas où

l’écrit est utilisé comme aide didactique ou

comme mode d’exposition des connaissances,

principalement avec les textes des livres et les

écrits des élèves correspondants. Cette

approche est incorrecte sur le plan

épistémologique et ne se prête à aucune

possibilité nouvelle d’amélioration

systématique des pratiques pédagogiques. Au

contraire, l’analyse des textes d’exposition des


167

connaissances en recherche en didactique de

la physique apporte depuis plusieurs années

des résultats tout à fait intéressants. D’un

point de vue épistémologique, il s’agit d’un

type complètement différent de production

écrite auquel on doit, dans une large mesure,

un renouvellement radical des problématiques

dans l’enseignement de la physique.

Les écrits des enfants produits dans le cadre

des situations didactiques axées sur la

construction des connaissances présentent un

intérêt particulier. Cependant, dans ces

situations non plus, l’exploitation de la

production écrite n’est pas toujours

satisfaisante, car souvent l’usage de l’écrit ne

fait que sous-tendre les autres activités. Les

écrits ne sont alors pas suffisamment analysés

puisqu’ils ne sont pas considérés comme des

objets de recherche autonomes ou comme des

objets d’étude pour les enseignants mais

plutôt comme simples instruments du travail.

Alors, on pourrait constater ici que l’absence

de formation des enseignants qui abordent des

écrits et des activités notationnelles à l’école

se trouve aujourd’hui en contradiction avec le

développement des études entreprises sur les

conceptions des élèves et leurs mécanismes

d’appropriation du savoir. Il serait peut-être

intéressant de concentrer nos efforts de

recherche et de formation dans cette direction.

Dans les cas où l’activité notationnelle est

envisagée comme une pratique sociale, la

recherche se développe dans deux directions.

Dans la première, les écrits sont exploités pour

élargir les cadres de référence des enfants et

pour faciliter la communication dans des

circonstances d’interactions sociales et

didactiques. Dans la seconde, les textes et les

images des manuels scolaires font l’objet de

l’analyse, à la fois comme un matériau

recontextualisé dans des cadres sociaux

précis, et en ce qu’il influence de façon

décisive les pratiques pédagogiques. Malgré

leur indiscutable importance, ces deux

courants se trouvent aujourd’hui assez loin

des pratiques quotidiennes de l’enseignement.

Enfin, nous devons attirer l’attention sur le

fait que la production écrite des enseignants

est extrêmement peu étudiée alors qu’ils

manipulent différents systèmes symboliques

écrits au cours de l’enseignement. Cette

question est particulièrement importante

puisque les enseignants exercent à l’évidence

une grande influence sur la formation des

pratiques des élèves. Aussi tous les usages du

discours écrit par les enseignants doivent-ils

être étudiés tant comme production autonome

que comme mode de développement des

pratiques didactiques.

Le champ d’étude des différentes formes de

l’activité notationnelle présente de

nombreuses dimensions et la recherche la

concernant n’a pas encore trouvé une place

importante dans le cadre de la didactique de la

physique et plus généralement dans la

didactique des sciences expérimentales.

Cependant, ces dernières années, grâce à la

puissante influence d’autres sciences, l’horizon

s’est ouvert et les perspectives, tant de la

recherche que des applications en classe,

semblent vigoureuses.


168

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THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS New Perspectives in Dance Teaching

170

New Perspectives in Dance Teaching and Technique: Jean Georges Noverre

Carmen Palumbo, University of Salerno, Italy

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: dance, dance teaching, ballet mécanique, ballet d'action.

1. Introduction

As "art of the body in movement” and means

of communication and meeting with each

other, dance has matched the main stages of

human life; it has promoted, through different

expressive forms, the habits, the uses, the

traditions, passions and desires of the ancient

and modern civilizations.

"It has expressed itself, in the life of primitive

societies, as collective participation into group

events, celebrating itself in the facts of life, in

seasonal cycles, in the joys and sorrows. ...

The simple initial rules aimed to represent the

increasingly growing feeling of the community.

Anyway, the variations of the most talented

dancers, of those who jumped better and who

were faster came out from the basis so that an

almost professional figure emerged from the

spirit of emulation of the time" (Parisi and

Rigatti 1998, 15). Dancers trained on the

religious rhythms before and then artists

destined to delight the nobles in their courts

are the result of a gradual transformation of

the dance that meets the demands of a social

class increasingly interested in getting the best

from art.

The objective of this research was to identify new prospective in the teaching of the dance

starting from the contribution of the reforming work by Jean-Georges Noverre (1727-1810)

who, with the Lettres sur la dance et sur les ballets (I ed. Paris, 1760), dividing between

"ballet mécanique" and "ballet d'action", postulated the transition from a concept of dance

aimed at the technicality to a concept of the dance aimed to the full and complete freedom of

expression throughout the body.

The research method used was a historical-critical method based on the historical

reconstruction related to the theoretical literature on the main topic, adopting and interpreting

critically texts to understand their meaning.

The results of the study highlight how crucial was the reform of Noverre, who with his dance

revolution, ratified the transition from the pure technicality to the dance as art, that is,

complete fusion of dance, theatre, poetry and painting. As a consequence, the technique of

dance changed influencing the teaching of dance as well.


171

The eighteenth century was the heir of ancient

traditions which were deeply rooted in

spectacular scenery, extreme technique and

virtuosity of the dancers. It celebrates the new

figure of the man-artist with the pervasive

strength of its innovative ideology, bringing

out differences between the classic dance and

the modern one and, so opposing the rigidity

of the former to the freedom of expression of

the latter. “The ballet, mostly based on the

themes of mythology, soon becomes a

successful genre, often linked to the drama

and the opera and always guaranteed by the

imagination and by the amazing skills of the

performers"1.

Classical dance has a "unique code", made of

gestures and movements which are defined

and organized according to an imaginary

model of stylistic perfection that is made of

steps, figures and positions. This model, with

its vocabulary of fixed patterns of movement,

beforehand structured according to solely

aesthetic canons that existed before the

dancer, surrenders to the multiplicity and

diversity of the languages of modern dance,

which naturally tend to give back to the body

its real dimension of free creativity. A new

kind of movement was born along with the

modern dance, which tries to cancel every

artificial division between inward status and

outward manifestation, between form and

content, emotion and action, reason and

feeling2.

1 Ivi., p. 16. 2 Delsarte, F. (1994). Le leggi del teatro. Roma: Bulzoni.

2. A reformatory work by Jean-Georges

Noverre

The year 1760 sees the publication of the

Treaty "Lettres sur la danse et sur le Ballet" (I

ed. Paris, 1760), in Lyon and Stuttgart,

considered the most significant classic in the

dance and theater literature, as well as the

publication of the Manifesto of the new ballet

d’action. It was drawn up by the great

reformist theorist and renewed choreographer

Jean-Georges Noverre (1727-1810). He was

the first one who marked the first and the

sharpest division between the "ballet

mécanique" and "ballet d'action", postulating

the transition from a conception of dance

based on the extreme technique, to a form of

art oriented to the full and complete freedom

of expression of the whole body.

Nature, soul, character, truth and passion are,

in fact, the key terms of the Lettres. These

terms express the main essence and the

supreme intent that Noverre wanted: "Nature!

Nature! And our compositions will be beautiful

... A beautiful picture is not that a copy of the

nature, a beautiful ballet is the nature itself

made beautiful by all the charms of the art.

So, do not just work on steps, let’s study the

passions”.

The contempt for dance's sake induces the

revolutionary Noverre to prefer a dance that

speaks to the soul, where all that is

preordained movement is replaced by a

spontaneous and natural movement, led by

the impulse of the soul. Concerning this, it is


172

written in the Letters XII: "... A ballet is like a

painting, the scene is the canvas, the

mechanical movements of the dancers are the

colors, and their expression is the brush; the

totality and the liveliness of the scenes, the

choice of music, the staging and costumes

make the character, then the composer is the

painter. If nature gave him the fire and

enthusiasm, that are the soul of painting and

poetry, the immortality is guaranteed".

An essential condition to make ballet d'action

as it was, was that the development of

pantomime would express the content in an

intelligible way arousing emotions in the

audience, to give the ballet the same

importance as to a poem. Hence, the point of

strength and revolt of the ballet d'action, is

the heat of the interpretation. Regarding this

point, it appears meaningful the distinction

among the various theatrical functions of

dance and pantomime by Diderot's: "The

dance is at the pantomime like poetry to

prose, or rather as the natural declamation to

singing. It is a measured pantomime”. This

distinction contains the essence of the danced-

drama, which was different from any other

imitative art, and which should appear as a

living painting of passions and human feelings.

Indeed, in the Lettre XV, Noverre shows his

clear appreciation of Diderot's3 theater theory,

sharing his intent to make the choreography

and the dramatic action integral and necessary

part of the play. The idea of the indissolubility

of the body from real human experience and 3 Diderot, D. (1951). Oeuvres. De Tempel: Bruges, pp 1264-65 in: Basso, A. (2005). L’arte della danza e del balletto. Torino:Utet, Vol. 5, p. 73.

the complete fusion of dance, theater, poetry

and painting, beyond the patterns imposed by

the tradition of the classical ballet, can be

seen as an explicit call for the abolition of the

masks on the scene which were considered a

"foolish custom" and which were used, in the

time of Dupre, to concentrate the attention of

the audience on the movements of the body:

"Let’s destroy the masks ... let’s buy a soul

and we will be the first dancers in the

universe". For the same purpose, Noverre

fought for changing the stage costumes, which

should have uncovered the body in a more

appropriate way to facilitate freer movement.

The Lettres, in fact, on a choreographic level,

synthesize the ideas of the encyclopaedists

about the dignity of every human language,

which decreed the expressive potential of the

ballet and its music and propose the reform of

the costume of the dancer with the abolition of

paniers and tonnelets.

The "ballet d'action", with these

characteristics, denies the pure technicality,

since the dance embodies a tension and a

vitality which inevitably affects the other as it

emerges in the last part of the XIII Lettre sur

la danse about the rules to follow in the

composition of ballets).

3. The European spreading of the "ballet

d'action"

The earliest experiments of the ballet d'action

took place outside the French territory. In the

revolutionary England, in 1734, Marie Sallé, in


173

the first night of Pygmalion at Covent Garden

in London, which covered the role of Galatea,

danced with her hair loose, with no heel shoes

and a light tunic of white muslin. The event, a

real anticipation of the ballet d'action, caused

the sensation of Paris people, particularly rigid

in terms of costumes but not only this.

In the same cultural framework, there was the

acclamation of "la Barbarina" (Barbara

Campanini, 1721-1799), about whom it was

said, "she combines the Italian virtuosity with

the French grace and the English dramatic

power"4. She was admired by Garrick, who

spoke about her to his friend Noverre. The

English short working period of Noverre, which

was interrupted by the reminder of his beloved

Paris, was, in fact, the result of the

correspondence of intent between Noverre and

Garrick. Their mutual artistic admiration

generated the name of "Shakespeare of the

dance" for one and "English Roscius" for the

other. The reason that induced Noverre to

take Garrick as artistic model was his

naturalness in acting, which made the action

clear even to those who did not understand his

language. Vienna also contributed decisively to

the spread of the ballet d'action, thanks to

Angiolini’s work, with the production of the

famous reformatory ballet Don Juan and to the

work by Noverre , who made his debut in

Vienna with L’apotheose d’Hercule the in 1767.

4 Basso, A. (2005). L’arte della danza e del balletto. Torino:Utet, Vol. 5, p. 395.

When he was in Vienna, Noverre made

concrete and strengthened the reform of the

ballet decreeing the success of the ballet

d'action, which had no rule or baroque

constraints and represented by the whole body

in all its expressions that are: movement,

posture, gestures, signs and feelings.

Despite Noverre had not visited the land of the

tsars, even Petersburg welcomed the reform

with enthusiasm, so that the Lettres sur la

dance et sur les ballets were published in

Russian language in a four volumes edition

(1803-04), titled Lettres sur The Dance, sur

les Ballets et sur le Arts. Indeed, the popular

origin of the Russian dancers allowed them to

reach the truth in art and to achieve the

implementation of the gesture with a

naturalness that allowed the imitation of

nature.

4. Conclusions

In "Lettres sur la danse et sur le Ballet",

Noverre foresees the revolution that will

change the value of artistic languages laying

the basis for the rebirth of a new dance,

foundation of modern ballet. This confidence in

the improvement of the ballet d'action, which

emerges in the Lettre XII, is accompanied, at

the end of the Lettre XIII, by the complete

affirmation of dance as an art, "I will agree

that the mechanic execution of this art is

brought to a level of perfection which leaves

nothing to be desired ... The steps, the

easiness and the brilliance of their

coordination, the balance, the stability, the


174

speed and the accuracy are what I call the

mechanism of dance. When the lightness, the

oppositions of the arms with the legs, all these

elements have no spiritual justification, when

the genius does not guide those movements

and the feeling and expression do not pay

their energy able to move and interest me,

then I applaud the skills, I admire the man

machine and do justice to its strength and

agility, but in no way he affects me and make

me tender".

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Basso, A. 2005. L’arte della danza e del balletto. Torino: Utet.

Delsarte, F. 1994. Le leggi del teatro. Roma: Bulzoni.

Diderot, D. 1951. Oeuvres. De Tempel: Bruges.

Noverre, J. G. 1980. Letters on Dancing and Balletts. Roma: Di Giacomo.

Parisi, M. and Rigatti, D. 1998. Danza e balletto. Milano: Jaca Editore.

Sachs, K. 2006. Storia della danza. Milano: Il Saggiatore.

Testa, A. 2005. Storia della danza e del balletto. Roma: Gremese Editore.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Educaţia fizică în didactica activităţilor din preuniversitar

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Momentul de educaţie fizică în didactica activităţilor

de învăţământ preuniversitar

Cosmin Prodea, Assist. Prof., PhD, Babeş-Bolyai University

[email protected]

Remus Cristian Văidăhăzan, Lect., Babeş-Bolyai University

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: moment, physical education, teaching, physical activity, education.

Cunoaştem faptul că mişcarea este deosebit de importantă pentru toate organismele vii. Această axiomă se aplică, normal, şi oamenilor, deşi nu toţi sunt conştienţi de acest lucru. Nu toţi oamenii acceptă această necesitate, unii din necunoştinţă cu privire la principiile fiziologice, alţii, poate din dorinţa de a promova un anumit stil de viaţă (calculator, televizor, etc.) care exclude automat unele activităţi.

În anumite momente din programul zilnic, unii văd avantajos să-i poţi ocupa timpul copilului tău punându-l în faţa televizorului sau în faţa calculatorului, astfel părinţii reuşind să realizeze

nestingheriţi sarcinile propuse. Alţii consideră dezavantajoasă această alegere şi consideră că, cu un consum rezonabil de energie se poate contracara această situaţie. Suntem, şi noi, de acord cu ultima variantă prezentată aici şi tragem un semnal de alarmă cu privire la interpretarea ‘avantajelor’ lumii moderne deoarece „obiceiurile ne prezic viitorul”, parafrazându-l pe William Arthur Ward, citat de Zig Ziglar: „Cuvintele ne dezvăluie gândurile, iar manierele ne oglindesc stima de sine. Acţiunile noastre ne reflectă caracterul, iar obiceiurile ne prezic viitorul” (Zig, 2002, p. 83).

The easiest way to give children the needed opportunity for physical activity is physical education in compulsory education. Physical education, in addition to physiological benefits that brings to the human body, will help increase work capacity of children to other disciplines. To address this idea further, we want to bring into focus an extracurricular form of physical activity. This form of physical activity was introduced long ago in the school program of children but, it seems, with the modernization of education has been forgotten by most. It presents important advantages, contributing to education for physical activity and solving problems regarding intellectual fatigue of children during other disciplines than physical education. The physical education moment may be included in the school program of children but it is not mandatory. It depends, therefore, by the teacher of that discipline if will insert or not the physical education moment at his class. Due to lack of obligation for the use of physical education moment, lack of minimum knowledge of physiology and probably too many requests for each discipline, teachers have now forgotten the physical education moment and the benefits that it brings. We, however, have positive signs in terms of trials that are taking place in some schools to restore physical education to its rightful place in the didactic of school education activities.


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Vedem tot mai mulţi copii care renunţă la jocurile din faţa blocului şi la activitatea fizică din aer liber pentru a ‘socializa’ în faţa calculatorului. Este, pentru noi, autorii acestui articol, ‘un tablou trist’ şi considerăm că ar trebui să luăm atitudine în această privinţă. Noi (părinţii, educatorii, mentorii) suntem cei care ar trebui să ne preocupăm de variantele de mişcare atât de necesare copiilor noştri şi în loc să ne bucurăm de ‘avantajele’ lumii modern ar trebui să planificăm mai responsabil timpul şi activităţile copiilor noştri.

Activitatea fizică practicată regulat favorizează dezvoltarea armonioasă a copiilor şi nu numai. Orice persoană are de câştigat de pe urma unei vieţi active. O demonstrează orice studiu care a apărut sau apare în domeniu şi o susţin toate organizaţiile mondiale care studiază această problemă. Părinţii şi persoanele responsabile care vin în contact cu copiii trebuie să conştientizeze faptul că inactivitatea fizică împiedică creşterea armonioasă a copiilor, favorizând apariţia unor afecţiuni grave.

Cea mai simplă modalitate de a oferi copiilor activitatea fizică de care au nevoie este educaţia fizică din sistemul de învăţământ obligatoriu. Educaţia fizică este considerată o activitate foarte importantă, reuşind să stimuleze pozitiv dezvoltarea copiilor, atât din punct de vedere fizic cât şi intelectual (Uţiu, 1997). Activitatea instructiv-

educativă desfăşurată la educaţie fizică, pe lângă beneficiile fiziologice pe care le aduce asupra organismului, va contribui la creşterea capacităţii de lucru a elevilor la alte discipline.

Pentru a trata mai departe această idee, dorim să aducem în atenţie o formă de activitate fizică cu caracter extracurricular. Această formă de practicare a activităţii fizice a fost introdusă cu mult timp în urmă în programul de şcoală al elevilor dar, se pare, odată cu modernizarea mijloacelor de învăţământ a fost dată uitării de către majoritatea practicienilor din şcoli. Ea prezintă avantaje importante, contribuind, în afară de educarea pentru mişcare, la rezolvarea unor probleme în ceea ce priveşte oboseala intelectuală a copiilor la alte discipline decât ora de educaţie fizică.

Această formă de practicare a activităţii fizice a cunoscut pe parcursul timpului mai multe denumiri: minutul de gimnastică, momentul de gimnastică, minutul de educaţie fizică, minutul de înviorare, etc.

Pentru a puncta mai bine locul momentului de educaţie fizică în cadrul sistemului formelor de organizare a practicării exerciţiilor fizice vă prezentăm schema următoare (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Forme de organizare a practicării exerciţiilor fizice

Form

e de

org

aniz

are

în ti

mpu

l pro

gram

ului

şc

olar

Lecţia de educaţie fizică

Cercul sportiv

Activitatea de performanţă din clasele şi şcolile cu program de educaţie fizică

Forme de organizare curriculare

Forme de organizare extracurriculare

Gimnastica de înviorare

Gimnastica compensatorie în atelierele şcolare

Gimnastica în regimul zilei de şcoală

Momentul de educaţie fizică


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După cum se poate observa, momentul de educaţie fizică reprezintă una dintre formele de organizare a practicării exerciţiilor fizice de către de elevi. Este inclusă în regimul zilei de şcoală dar nu este obligatorie. Depinde, deci, de conducătorul activităţii didactice dacă va introduce sau nu momentul de educaţie fizică în cadrul activităţii sale. Pentru a putea face acest lucru este necesar ca persoana care conduce activitatea didactică să aibă minime cunoştinţe fiziologice cu privire la efortul fizic, iar în momentul în care sesizează semne de oboseală sau de scădere a interesului la elevi, pentru tema predată, să introducă un moment de educaţie fizică.

Datorită lipsei obligativităţii folosirii momentului de educaţie fizică, a lipsei de cunoştinţe minime de fiziologie şi, probabil, a materiei foarte încărcate la fiecare disciplină, cadrele didactice au uitat de momentul de educaţie fizică şi de beneficiile pe care acesta le aduce. Avem, totuşi, semnale pozitive în ceea ce priveşte încercările care au loc în unele şcoli pentru a readuce momentul de educaţie fizică la locul cuvenit în didactica activităţilor din învăţământul preuniversitar.

Pentru a putea înţelege pe deplin efectele benefice ale momentului de educaţie fizică vom continua cu o prezentare detaliată a acestuia.

Momentul de educaţie fizică se referă la o perioadă scurtă de timp în care se petrece ceva, plecând de la definiţia dată de dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române. El se desfăşoară la alte discipline decât educaţia fizică, fiind condus de către cadrul didactic care predă disciplina respectivă. El poate fi asistat de cadrul didactic de educaţie fizică, dar nu este obligatoriu acest lucru.

Acest moment este introdus în activitatea didactică atunci când elevii dau semne de oboseală, când profesorul sesizează o pierde

importantă a concentrării pe subiectul discutat sau o stare de agitaţie nemotivată. Cadrul didactic va întrerupe activitatea specifică şi va da curs unui moment de educaţie fizică care se recomandă a avea o durată de minim un minut şi nu mai mult de trei minute (Firea, 1984; Uţiu, 1997; Scarlat şi Scarlat, 2002; Toma, Claudiu, şi al., 2003; Raţă, 2008).

Momentul de educaţie fizică poate cuprinde mişcări analitice cu direcţie fiziologică pe anumite segmente ale corpului (sunt folosite cu succes exerciţiile de influenţare selectivă a aparatului locomotor), mişcări ample direcţionate pe părţi mai mari ale corpului sau chiar mişcări care solicită întreg organismul. Recomandarea noastră este să se introducă cel puţin un exerciţiu cu adresă directă asupra marilor grupe musculare ale organismului. Toate exerciţiile trebuie executate în ritm vioi.

O modalitatea foarte motivantă de realizare a momentului de educaţie fizică este includerea exerciţiilor fizice într-o structură de joc. Este foarte importantă adaptarea exerciţiilor şi a jocurilor la caracteristicile spaţiului avut la dispoziţie. Dat fiind că această activitate se desfăşoară în sala de clasă cu bănci, într-un timp scurt care nu permite degajarea spaţiului de lucru, se recomandă construirea din timp a momentului de educaţie fizică.

Nu este nevoie de echipament special pentru elevi, momentul de educaţie fizică fiind accesibil tuturor elevilor, dar pregătirea lui necesită activitatea de proiectare din partea cadrului didactic. Specificului acestui tip de activitate cere prezenţa cadrului didactic de educaţie fizică alături de cadrele didactice de la celelalte discipline atunci când se planifică momentul de educaţie fizică.

În plus, pentru ca această activitate să se poată realiza cu succes, se recomandă


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cunoaşterea beneficiilor acestui tip de activitate. Este necesar ca directorul unităţii de învăţământ, împreună cu profesorul de educaţie fizică, să prezinte beneficiile acestei activităţi, atât în rândul cadrelor didactice cât şi a elevilor (Scarlat & Scarlat, 2002).

Momentul de educaţie fizică, chiar dacă a fost construit specific pentru activitatea şcolară el poate fi întâlnit şi la activităţi extraşcolare, de tip cultural-artistic, după cum mărturiseşte dl. Gheorghe Cârstea: ,,Am asistat , spuneam studenţilor, la o realizare a acestui moment de educaţie fizică, de către un profesor canadian care ţinea la Sala Palatului nişte lecţii de ,,religie şi antitotalitarism”. Ce formidabilă părere pozitivă au avut participanţii despre acele momente de educaţie fizică, efectuate pe fond muzical, crezându-l ,,inventatorul problemei”, din cauză că la noi în ţară, există, în majoritatea cazurilor, doar pe hârtie!” (Cârstea, 2000, p. 128).

Momentul de educaţie fizică trebuie să însemne un moment de relaxare, înviorare, un ‘moment’ după care concentrarea copiilor să crească. Mediul de învăţare trebuie să fie vesel, confortabil, atractiv şi îmbietor. Cerinţe care sunt la fel de importante precum asigurarea unui mediu sigur şi sănătos, după cum ne spune Maria Montessori încă din 1962 (Montessori, 1962).

Dacă este construit corespunzător, momentul de educaţie fizică va favoriza revitalizarea organismului şi înlăturarea oboselii prin stimularea aparatului cardiovascular şi respirator dar va preveni şi formarea unor deficienţe posturale datorită poziţiilor incorecte adoptate de către elevi în bancă.

Pe lângă aceste avantaje, prin intermediul momentului de educaţie fizică se educă şi atenţia. Toate aceste obiective se ating foarte uşor datorită celor două funcţii

esenţiale ale momentului de educaţie fizică: „ludică şi recreativă” (Dragnea, 2000, p. 121).

Introducerea momentului de educaţie fizică în timpul activităţilor didactice care solicită mental copiii, la care se adaugă şi statul prelung pe scaun, solicită premisa pentru o reechilibrare generală a organismului. Această reechilibrare, care constituie un răgaz de practicare a activităţii fizice, antrenează atât corpul cât şi mintea. Prin exerciţii fizice se dezvoltă voinţa, se creează bună dispoziţie, se relaxează sistemul nervos, eliminându-se stresul (www.educatiecopii.ro, 2011).

Alte avantaje ale momentului de educaţie fizică, pe scurt:

- desfăşurarea acestui moment este posibilă cu dotare materială minimă;

- formarea obişnuinţei de includere a exerciţiului fizic în activitatea curentă;

- crearea bunei dispoziţii;

- formarea deprinderii de a acţiona disciplinat în colectiv.

Obişnuind elevii cu acest tip de activitate, vom combate mai uşor atitudinile deficitare cauzate de poziţia statică adoptată de elevi la lecţii.

Pentru reuşita deplină a momentului de educaţie fizică este necesar ca momentul de educaţie fizică să fie proiectat (planificat) corespunzător. Este nevoie să se stabilească obiectivele concrete care justifică includerea lui în timpul activităţii didactice desfăşurată la alte discipline.

Conceperea exerciţiilor fizice se va face împreună cu cadrul didactic de educaţie fizică şi se vor respecta cerinţele privind curba efortului în timpul activităţilor fizice. În planificarea gradului de dificultate a exerciţiilor se va ţine cont de faptul că elevii participă la activitatea fizică cu îmbrăcămintea cu care au


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venit de acasă, iar aceasta poate să restricţioneze anumite mişcări ale corpului.

Este recomandat să se cunoască, în faza de proiectare, numărul de copii din clasă, vârsta copiilor, precum şi dimensiunile spaţiului (a sălii de clasă).

Mediul în care se desfăşoară activitatea practică să îndeplinească o serie de cerinţe igienice cu influenţă favorabilă asupra organismului. Se recomandă aerisirea clasei pe parcursul realizării momentului de educaţie fizică. Trebuie avute în vedere condiţiile meteorologice şi protejarea copiilor astfel încât să nu fie expuşi curenţilor de aer prea rece.

Atunci când se planifică formaţiile de lucru trebuie ţinut cont că băncile nu vor fi mutate de la locul lor (nu este timp pentru aşa ceva). Echipele de lucru formate trebuie să poată fi modificate uşor. De la începutul activităţii fizice este necesar să se folosească sisteme de acţionare care permit utilizarea cu eficienţă a timpului alocat lecţiei.

Pentru aplicarea optimă a momentului de educaţie fizică trebuie luată în considerare şi capacitatea de muncă intelectuală care variază pe parcursul zilei. Cea mai bună capacitate de muncă se înregistrează între orele 9-12. Între orele 7-9 şi 13-15 este scăzută, urmând să crească între orele 16-18 (www.educatiecopii.ro, 2011). În concluzie, momentul de educaţie fizică poate fi folosit (este recomandat a fi folosit) cu succes între orele 7-9 şi 13-15.

Gama mijloacelor de acţionare care se pot folosi pentru realizarea momentului de educaţie fizică este variată, de la simplele deplasări de segmente până la jocuri dinamice mai complexe. Noi recomandăm folosirea jocurilor care trebuie proiectate corespunzător specificului activităţii. La clasele primare jocuri trebuie să fie puternic intuitive, iar mişcările să fie asociate cu noţiuni din joc (de ex. „ridicări pe vârfuri”-„ne înălţăm precum copacii”).

Încheiem prezentarea noastră cu propunerea unor jocuri interesante care pot fi folosite cu succes în structura momentului de educaţie fizică.

Mâini ritmate (adaptare după www.freenet-homepage.de 2008)

Participanţii sunt împărţiţi pe echipe de 4-5 jucători poziţionaţi în jurul unei bănci. Fiecare aşează mâinile pe bancă astfel ca poziţia mâinilor lor să se întretaie. Conducătorul de joc începe să bată cu mâna sa pe bancă şi cu impulsul acesta impune o direcţie de mers. Ca probă se merge în această direcţie o rundă întreagă. Dacă cineva bate de două ori la rând, dublu, atunci direcţia de mers se schimbă. Cine greşeşte, iasă din joc cu mâna respectivă.

Om la om (www.freenet-homepage.de 2008)

Se formează perechi. Un jucător rămâne singur, de obicei conducătorul de joc. Acesta strigă: „Umăr la umăr”, „Braţ la braţ”, „Cap la genunchi”, „Nas la nas” etc. Jucătorii respectă indicaţiile. După câteva ture, animatorul strigă „Om la om”. Atunci fiecare jucător îşi caută repede alt partener. Cine rămâne fără partener, coordonează jocul.

Statistică (adaptare după www.freenet-homepage.de 2008)

Participanţii au de îndeplinit următoarea sarcină: să se aşeze în linie pe un rând, crescător sau descrescător după înălţime, după mărimea numărului de la pantofi, după numărul de locuitori ai localităţii natale, în ordine alfabetică după numele propriu, după numele de familie etc. Jucătorii nu au voie să vorbească între ei.


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Mâini strânse (adaptare după www.freenet-homepage.de 2008)

Fiecare jucător se gândeşte la un număr de la 1 la 5, mai mic sau mai mare, depinde de numărul jucătorilor. Prin strângerea

mâinilor, jucătorii cu acelaşi număr se găsesc şi se grupează. Fiecare participant strânge de atâtea ori mâna celuilalt, după numărul ales. Întâlneşte el un jucător, care îi strânge tot de atâtea ori mâna, cei doi rămân împreună şi caută mai departe. Jocul se termină când s-au format grupele. Nu se vorbeşte în timpul jocului.

Bibliography:

Cârstea, Gheorghe. Teoria şi metodica educaţiei fizice şi a sportului. Bucureşti: AN-DA, 2000.

Dragnea, A. Teoria educaţiei fizice şi sportului. Bucureşti: Cartea Şcolii, 2000.

Firea, Elena. Metodica educaţiei fizice şcolare. Bucureşti: I.E.F.S., 1984.

Marinescu, I. Metodica predării educaţiei fizice în grădiniţă şi la clasele I-IV. Iaşi: AS'S, 2000.

Montessori, Maria. Education and Modern Psychology (Educaţia montessoriană şi psihologia modernă). Amsterdam: A.M.I., 1962.

Paşcan, Ioan, Ancuţa Nuţ, şi Ioan Negru. Metodica predării gimnasticii în şcoală. Cluj-Napoca: Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, 2008.

Raţă, Gloria. Didactica educaţiei fizice şi sportului (ed. a II-a). Iaşi: PIM, 2008.

Scarlat, E., şi Scarlat, M.B. Educaţie fizică şi sport. Bucureşti: Didactică şi Pedagogică, 2002.

Toma, Badiu, Mereuţă Claudiu, şi al. Strategii didactice de tip algoritmic şi euristic folosite în educaţia fizică şcolară. Galaţi: Editura Fundaţiei Universitare „Dunărea de Jos”, 2003.

Uţiu, Ioan. Metodica educaţiei fizice şcolare. Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 1997.

Zig, Ziglar. Motive pentru a zâmbi. Bucureşti: Curtea Veche, 2002.

Web resources:

www.educatiecopii.ro. 2011.

www.freenet-homepage.de. 2008. http://freenet-homepage.de/cersenin/html/jocuri_de_incredere.html.

www.freenet-homepage.de. 2008. http://freenet-homepage.de/cersenin/html/jocuri_de_contact.html.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Personalitatea – factor de influenţă a performanţei sportive

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Personalitatea – factor de influenţă a performanţei sportive

Cosmin Prodea, Assist. Prof., PhD, Babeş-Bolyai University

[email protected]

Florina Maria Avram, Professor

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: personality, emotion, sports, performance, character

Conceptul de personalitate

Concept fundamental al psihologiei, personalitatea defineşte ansamblul sistemic şi deosebit de complex al trăsăturilor caracteristice ale omului în ceea ce are el original, individual, relativ stabil şi îl deosebeşte de alţi oameni.

Concluziile cercetărilor având ca temă personalitatea relevă că structura sa este complexă şi variată, în componenţa sa intrând elemente fundamentale de ordin biologic, procese neurologice, biochimice, fiziologice, la care se adaugă cele de evoluţie, memorie, învăţare, dezvoltare, emoţii, motivaţii, etc.

Pentru G.W. Allport (1990), personalitatea este organizarea dinamică în cadrul individului a acelor sisteme psihofizice care determină gândirea şi comportamentul său caracteristic. Cattel o defineşte ca un sistem al deprinderilor specifice subiectului care permit previziunea comportamentelor sale, iar Pieron ca unitatea integrativă a unui om, ca totalitatea caracteristicilor sale diferenţiate, permanente (inteligenţă, caracter, temperament, constituţie) .

Studiul personalităţii sportivilor cuprinde mai multe categorii de probleme: pe de o parte, identificarea unor componente, trăsături, însuşiri psihice sau constante comportamentale de natură să realizeze un profil distinct al sportivului comparativ cu

Human personality consists of the dynamics of those psycho-physical systems which

determine human thought and behavior. Professional sports people are endowed with certain

personality features that distinguish them from others. Human emotional system consists of

emotions, affections, moods, feelings, passions and fears. Human feelings can influence one's

psychological mood in both a positive and a negative way. In measuring psychological

reactions McNair, Lorr & Droppleman used a questionnaire called Profile of Mood States

−P.O.M.S. − which assesses six emotional states: tension, depression, dissatisfaction, force,

fatigue and confusion. The psychological profile of successful sports people is different from

that of weaker sportsmen in that the resulting graphic of the six emotional states can

be compared to an iceberg. A good sportsman needs to have a strong character in order to

cope well with the challenges of the game and every day situations.


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profilul subiecţilor neangajaţi în asemenea activităţi, iar pe de alta, realizarea unor modele sau configuraţii de profiluri relativ distincte pe ramuri de sport. În acest caz s-ar putea vorbi despre realizarea unor ghiduri practice de orientare pentru activitatea de selecţie şi de instruire a antrenorilor.

Preocupările pentru descifrarea legăturilor dintre personalitatea sportivilor şi performanţa sportivă datează de mai multă vreme. Încă din anul 1957, O. Neuman în cartea sa „Sport und Personalichheit � apreciază contribuţia activităţii sportive la formarea personalităţii. Comparând un grup de sportivi cu unul de nesportivi cu ajutorul testelor Roschach şi Pauli autorul conchide: „Sportivul se deosebeşte de nesportiv nu numai în ceea ce priveşte una sau alta dintre calităţi, ci prin structura sa de bază, având ca punct focal o mare vitalitate, sănătate fizică, capacitatea funcţională, spiritul de iniţiativă, stăruinţa, plăcerea în efort, îndemânarea practică, voinţa, hotărârea, combativitatea, aspiraţia la performanţă.�(O. Neuman, 1957).

În 1982, H.J. Eysenck şi colaboratorii săi (1982) susţin că „între personalitate pe de o parte şi activitatea sportivă pe de altă parte există neîndoielnic legături destul de apropiate� (H.J. Eysenck şi colaboratorii,1982). Ei sesizează, de asemenea, legături între trăsăturile de personalitate şi nivelul de performanţă, precum şi de tipul de disciplină sportivă practicată: sporturi individuale sau jocuri sportive. Cele 20 de concluzii despre personalitatea sportivilor subliniază că aceştia se caracterizează prin extraversiune, un nivel redus al neoroticismului şi un grad mai scăzut de anxietate decât populaţia care nu practică sportul.

După părerea a numeroşi autori, pentru realizarea unor performanţe sportive sunt necesare anumite trăsături de personalitate care îi deosebesc pe performeri de oamenii obişnuiţi. Printre particularităţi se pot enumera: dominanţa, agresivitatea,

sociabilitatea, extroversiunea, motivaţia specifică, încrederea în sine, lipsa anxietăţii, stabilitatea emoţională. Anumite trăsături de personalitate pot juca un rol important în motivarea alegerii unei ramuri de sport, în continuarea sau abandonarea ei, în obţinerea unor rezultate deosebite.

Rezultatele unui studiu realizat de E. Thill, R. Thomas şi J. Caja (1980) prin aplicarea chestionarului Guilford-Zimerman la un grup reprezentativ de jucători de volei şi alergători de semifond şi fond au evidenţiat câteva diferenţe semnificative între profilul voleibaliştilor şi subiecţii reprezentativi ai populaţiei (E. Thill, R. Thomas şi J. Caja 1980). Profilul obţinut a pus în evidenţă îndeosebi puternica impulsivitate a jucătorilor, o conduită intuitivă rapidă, dar şi o eroare de previziune. Comparativ cu voleibaliştii, alergătorii de semifond şi fond s-au arătat mai dezinvolţi în conduită, mai toleranţi la agresiuni şi frustrări, mai supuşi şi dispuşi să-i urmeze pe ceilalţi.

Pentru H.J Eysenck (1990), personalitatea apare ca „suma totală a modelelor comportamentale prezentate sau potenţiale ale organismului, aşa cum sunt ele determinate de ereditate şi mediu; ea are originea şi se dezvoltă prin interacţiunea funcţională a patru sectoare principale în care sunt organizate aceste patru mari modele comportamentale: sectorul cognitiv (inteligenţa), sectorul conativ (caracterul), sectorul afectiv (temperamentul), sectorul somatic (constituţia). Personalitatea este structurată pe patru nivele interrelaţionale: la nivel bazal sunt comportamentele sau actele mentale care apar singular; urmează în ierarhie deprinderile sau actele mentale habituale; nivelul al treilea îl reprezintă trăsăturile definite ca şi corelaţii între comportamente habituale; nivelul ultim, cel mai înalt grad de generalizare îl reprezintă tipul personalităţii, definit ca şi corelaţie a trăsăturilor sau „constelaţii observabile sau sindroame de trăsături� (H.J Eysenck, 1990).


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Cele patru nivele descriptive corespund celor patru tipuri de factori derivaţi prin analiza factorială, care pentru Eysenck este metoda fundamentală prin care poate fi studiată structura personalităţii.

Eysenck subliniază baza ereditară substanţială a personalităţii, afirmând: „personalitatea este determinată în mare măsură de genele persoanei; aceasta este ceea ce a produs aranjamentul accidental al genelor parentale şi, deşi mediul poate face ceva pentru a redresa echilibrul, influenţa sa este sever limitată. Personalitatea este în aceeaşi «barcă» cu inteligenţa; pentru ambele influenţele genetice sunt deosebit de puternice şi rolul mediului în majoritatea cazurilor este redus la a efectua uşoare schimbări.� (H.J Eysenck, 1990).

Modelul personalităţii, în concepţia lui, este unul tridimensional care cuprinde: extraversia, nevrotismul şi psihotismul.

Extraversia se defineşte, în principal, prin intercorelaţiile dintre trăsăturile de afirmare, sociabilitate, energie de viaţă şi dominanţă. Extravertitul tipic este, după Eysenck, o persoană cu mulţi prieteni care caută senzaţii tari, acţionează sub impulsul momentului, prezintă o notă de agresivitate în comportament, îi lipseşte controlul sentimentelor, îi plac jocul, activităţile practice, sportul. Introvertitul tipic este retras, liniştit, introspectiv, îi plac mai mult cărţile decât oamenii, este distant şi rezervat

cu excepţia prietenilor intimi, acordă o mare valoare normelor etice, este stăpân pe sine, dă dovadă de control afectiv, acţionează planificat şi ordonat. Ambivertitul ar fi varianta intermediară, care combină trăsăturile celor două personalităţi tipice.

Nevrotismul sau neuroticismul, denumit şi instabilitate emoţională este definit de interrelaţia dintre trăsăturile de anxietate, depresie, autoapreciere scăzută, timiditate. Reacţiile emoţionale puternice ale instabilului se interferează cu adaptarea sa slabă, conducându-l spre reacţii iraţionale, uneori rigide. Dacă este vorba despre un instabil extravert, neliniştea şi sensibilitatea sunt pe primul plan/în prim-plan, el poate deveni uneori chiar agresiv. La cealaltă extremă, reacţiile emoţionale ale introvertitului sunt lente şi slabe, tendinţa fiind de a-şi relua starea iniţială foarte repede după activarea emoţională.

Psihotismul sau psihoticismul este cea mai complexă dimensiune, definită prin interrelaţiile dintre trăsăturile de agresivitate, egocentrism, comportament antisocial şi lipsa de empatie. Se caracterizează prin tendinţa de a produce tulburări, a fi ostil altora. La un pol apar persoanele care nu au nicio consideraţie faţă de regulile sociale, la celălalt, cei înalt socializaţi.

Tabelul următor prezintă factorii principali ai personalităţii în tipologia lui Eysenck:

EXTRAVERSIUNE NEUROTICISMUL PSIHOTICISMUL

Activ Anxios Agresiv

Insistent Deprimat Antisocial

Independent Emotiv Rece

Dominant Sentimente de culpabilitate Egocentric

Vioi Iraţional Insensibil

Caută senzaţii tari Stima de sine scăzută Încăpăţânat

Sociabil Posac Lipsit de empatie

Agreabil Timid Creativ

Îndăzneţ Încordat Impulsiv


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Tabel nr. 1 – Factorii principali ai personalităţi

Factorii emoţionali şi rolul lor în activitatea sportivă

Sistemul stărilor afective cuprinde emoţiile, afectele, dispoziţiile, sentimentele, pasiunile şi fobiile. Acestea sunt trăiri subiective ale unui raport specific între individ şi ambianţă, sub forma satisfacţiei sau insatisfacţiei, încordării/relaxării, plăcerii/neplăcerii. Aceste stări polare şi cu caracter evaluativ-personal au rol adaptativ, reglator, fie stimulând, fie inhibând activitatea individului.

În domeniul emoţiilor se manifestă şi astăzi o anumită neputinţă în dirijarea lor şi înlăturarea efectelor negative.

Emoţiile sunt cauzate de (către) evenimente externe, iar reacţiile emoţionale sunt direct legate de acestea. O emoţie cuprinde mai multe componente generale. Una dintre ele este reacţia organismului. O altă componentă este reprezentată de setul de gânduri şi păreri pe care le aduce în minte o situaţie pozitivă sau negativă. O a treia componentă este expresia facială, iar ultima componentă se referă la reacţiile legate de exprimarea unei emoţii.

Atunci când trăieşte o emoţie intensă, un sportiv poate fi conştient de modificări ale organismului său, cum ar fi: bătăile inimii, pulsul accelerat şi accelerarea respiraţiei, muşchii foarte încordaţi, uscarea gurii, transpiraţie, o senzaţie de strângere a stomacului, tremur, confuzie, slăbiciune.

Un sportiv poate simţi mai multe emoţii, ca de exemplu: regret, frică, furie, bucurie, încredere, uimire, dezgust, descurajare, depresie, anxietate.

Emoţiile susţin efortul voluntar, influenţează gândurile sportivului şi hotărârile pe care acesta le ia, stimulează munca de perfecţionare fizică şi tehnică, sporesc energia, rezistenţa şi capacitatea de muncă. Pe de altă parte, sub aspectul lor negativ, emoţiile au influenţă asupra capacităţii de gândire şi atenţie a sportivului, micşorează energia şi capacitatea de muncă, reduc posibilitatea de conducere conştientă a activităţii. Se poate concluziona că emoţiile influenţează atât pozitiv, cât şi negativ întreaga activitate psihică a omului.

Este bine cunoscută imaginea sportivului cuprins de emoţie înaintea concursului: neatent, incapabil de a gândi clar şi de a se exprima cu uşurinţă, cu figura crispată, congestionat sau palid, incapabil să-şi stăpânească mişcările, stors de vlagă, transpirat înainte de a face efort, cu deranjamente stomacale şi vomitând înainte de a intra în concurs, într-o stare de indiferenţă sau agitaţie, precipitat în mişcări, irascibil, incapabil de a-şi respecta planul tactic dinainte fixat, incapabil de a înţelege şi a reacţiona la sfaturile antrenorului. Emoţia puternică de care este cuprins sportivul va influenţa mersul proceselor sale intelectuale, dar şi capacitatea sa de a executa corect acţiunile.

Trebuie să avem în vedere faptul că emoţiile apar spontan, fără controlul voinţei şi produc dereglări care influenţează direct rezultatul sportivului. Efectele negative ale acestor emoţii nu pot fi preîntampinate întotdeauna. Există şi emoţii cu efecte pozitive, stimulatoare, care ajută la performanţă, mobilizând energia sportivului, chiar sporind-o. O asemenea emoţie întâlnim la sportivii cu nivel bun de pregătire şi motivaţie, cu dorinţa de a se întrece şi a învinge, emoţie manifestată ca o „mânie


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sportivă�, care se caracterizează prin sporirea forţelor şi încrederea în posibilităţi, neluarea în seamă a oboselii, continuarea luptei până la victorie.

Stările afective ale sportivilor se manifestă foarte complex, ele combinându-se în grade diferite calitativ şi de intensitate.

Pentru măsurarea stărilor psihice cauzate de diferite situaţii de viaţa McNair, Lorr& Droppleman (1971) au imaginat chestionarul numit Profile of Mood States/ Profilul stărilor psihice/ - P.O.M.S. − care evaluează şase stări emoţionale tranzitorii: tensiunea, depresia, nemulţumirea, vigoarea, oboseala şi confuzia ( McNair, Lorr& Droppleman, 1971).

Profilul stărilor psihice ale sportivilor de succes diferă de cel al sportivilor mai slab pregătiţi. La sportivii de succes, graficul celor şase indicatori se prezintă ca un „iceberg� , după cum îl numeşte Morgan (Weinberg & Gould, 1995).

În sport, emoţiile foarte puternice influenţează negativ capacitatea de performanţă a individului. Dintotdeauna s-a pus problema nu de a înlătura emoţiile, ci de a le cunoaşte şi de a le stăpâni, de a le aduce la acel nivel al intensităţii care este cel mai potrivit pentru performanţa optimă.

Deci emoţiile tranzitorii care ar trebui stăpânite sunt :

• Anxietatea – definită de cei mai mulţi autori ca fiind „teama fără obiect�. Ea constă în nelinişte, nesiguranţă, teamă, îngrijorare; este sentimentul difuz al aprehensiunii (neliniştii) sau ameninţării.

Rainer Martens (1982) caracterizează principalele concepte din sfera anxietăţii:

• Anxietatea-stare − nivelul concret sau obişnuit emoţional, caracterizat prin sentimentul aprehensiunii şi tensiunii, asociat cu activarea organismului. Anxietatea-stare are efect negativ asupra comportamentului.

• Anxietatea-trăsătură − predispoziţia de a percepe anumiţi stimuli din ambianţă ca ameninţători sau neameninţători şi de a răspunde la ei cu niveluri diferite de axietate-stare.

După unii autori, există patru categorii principale de situaţii ordonate care induc anxietatea în timpul jocului:

a. situaţiile din timpul jocului;

b. situaţiile dependente de joc, scor şi de „criză� de timp;

c. situaţiile dependente de antrenor sau care sunt în legătură cu antrenorul;

d. situaţii diverse.

Studiul anxietăţii sportivilor a fost realizat de Rainer Martens (1982) care a elaborat „Testul anxietăţii competiţionale în sport � (Sport Competitition Anxiety Test – SCAT).

Observaţiile empirice subliniază existenţa unui nivel ridicat al anxietăţii înaintea unei competiţii, fie datorită imaginării situaţiilor, fie datorită trăirii directe a acestora. Odată cu începerea competiţiei, acest nivel scade, uneori până la „limita de bază � . În multe cazuri, după o competiţie „încordată � , sportivul trăieşte, în noaptea următoare, anxietăţile din ziua respectivă.

Făcând o relaţie între nivelul activării, exprimat prin nivelul „nevoii de performanţă� − need of achievement – şi nivelul anxietăţii, Cratty (1973) emite ipoteza următoare: performanţele îşi păstrează valoarea în cazul în care activitatea este slabă, atât atunci când anxietatea este mare, cât şi atunci când este scăzută; performanţa este deteriorată la anxioşii puternici şi cu activitate mare; performanţa creşte numai în cazul subiecţilor cu anxietate redusă şi cu nivel ridicat de activare. De aici reies cel putin două concluzii:

1. Nu este suficient să cunoşti nivelul anxietăţii sportivului într-un moment oarecare:


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trebuie să cunoşti în acelaşi timp şi alte coordonate (variabile) care direcţionează şi controlează comportamentul acestuia;

2. Reglarea nivelului anxietăţii devine o chestie de mare importanţă, dacă dorim să obţinem rezultate corespunzătoare aspiraţiei.

• Mânia (după opinia lui D. Goleman din volumul Inteligenţa emoţională), nu apare niciodată fără motiv. Este dispoziţia pe care oamenii reuşesc cel mai greu s-o controleze. Ea dă energie, chiar o stare de euforie. Unii autori consideră că mânia ar putea fi complet prevenită, iar alţii susţin că este incontrolabilă. Cu cât ne frământăm mai mult în legătură cu lucrul care ne-a înfuriat, cu atât găsim motive mai întemeiate şi justificări pentru faptul că ne-am mâniat. În schimb, dacă încercăm să privim lucrurile şi din alte perspective, totul se calmează.

Zillman a descoperit că, în toate cazurile, mânia este declanşată de senzaţia de a fi pus în primejdie. Această stare poate apărea atunci când cineva este tratat nedrept sau grosolan, fiind insultat sau ridiculizat ori frustrat în urmărirea unui scop important.

Atunci când corpul este într-o stare de agitaţie şi ceva declanşeză o deturnare emoţională, emoţia care apare este extrem de intensă.

• Furia este una dintre variatele emoţii pe care le poate trăi o fiinţă umană. În sport, aceasta este adesea cauzată de stres şi asociată cu surescitarea din timpul competiţiilor. Furia poate afecta performanţa, tulburând precizia şi concentrarea sau făcând un sportiv să rănească un alt jucător.

Isberg (1985) argumentează că agresivitatea este determinată printr-o interacţiune între personalitatea cuiva şi o situaţie specifică.

Diferiţi indivizi pot reacţiona în diferite moduri în aceeaşi situaţie, iar acelaşi individ

poate reacţiona diferit în aceeaşi situaţie în cadrul unui context diferit.

• Tensiunea este o forţă interioară care ia naştere într-un corp supus unor forţe exterioare, situaţie încordată.

• Depresia (de la latinescul „depressio� = coborâre, afundare) constituie un fenomen psihopatologic caracterizat prin pierderea sau scăderea interesului şi dispoziţie depresivă (tristeţe, deznădejde, lipsa speranţei, descurajare).

Depresia apare la acele persoane care au respect scăzut faţă de propria persoană (tendinţe de subapreciere) sau la cele care nu rezistă la stres.

Simptomele care apar sunt:

• pesimism;

• sentimente de vinovăţie, neajutorare;

• lipsă de energie, oboseală, încetineală;

• dificultăţi de concentrare.

Depresivii îşi reamintesc mai rapid evenimente negative, mai încet pe cele pozitive. Memoria depresivilor este mai globală, nu îşi amintesc detaliile şi tind să generalizeze. Inabilitatea de a fi specifici în reamintirea trecutului corelează cu inabilitatea de a rezolva probleme şi cu inabilitatea de a-şi imagina evenimente viitoare.

• Oboseala este o stare de slăbiciune generală datorată efortului intelectual intens depus în timpul unui antrenament sau meci.

• Confuzia este o stare patologică ce se caracterizează prin tulburări de percepţie, orientare, rationament, memorie însoţite de agitaţie.

Un jucător care prezintă o stare de confuzie este foarte agitat.


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• Vigoarea se manifestă prin forţa morală şi intelectuală a unui individ de a realiza ceva; capacitatea lui de a acţiona.

Un sportiv bun trebuie să aibă şi un caracter puternic pentru a face faţă diferitelor situaţii din timpul meciului sau din viaţa de zi cu zi.

Caracterul

Caracterul este ansamblul unitar de însuşiri psihice esenţiale şi stabile ale personalităţii ce condiţionează felul concret de a se comporta al personalităţii, precum şi stabilitatea orientării comportamentale şi atitudinale.

I. Radu defineşte caracterul drept „profilul psiho-moral al individului, manifestat în consistenţa relaţiilor interpersonale şi în activitatea sa� . În accepţia lui Raymond B. Cattell, caracterul este „ceea ce permite să se prezică ce va face un individ într-o situaţie dată�, iar pentru A.A. Robak caracterul este „o dispoziţie psihofizică permanentă de a stăpâni impulsurile instinctive în conformitate cu un principiu regulator�. Din perspectiva acestor puncte de reper, putem aprecia caracterul drept ansamblul însuşirilor psihice şi morale relativ stabile şi durabile, ansamblul modurilor obişnuite de a simţi şi de a reacţiona care disting o persoană de alta.

Caracterul este indisolubil legat de principiile, normele şi valorile morale. Caracterul este acel „minim� moral – o sumă de principii – care dă consistenţa interioară a persoanei în diversitatea caleidoscopică de situaţii în care ne pune viaţa zilnică. În consecinţă, caracterul nu cuprinde comportamente aleatorii sau situaţionale, ci moduri constante, stabilizate de conduită, pe baza cărora se poate prevedea cu o anumită probabilitate comportamentul viitor al unei persoane concrete.

În structura caracterului se distinge o latură internă de conţinut şi o latură externă sau formală. Latura internă a caracterului se referă la atitudinile şi mentalităţile persoanei − sociabilitatea, altruismul, solicitudinea, prietenia, camaraderia, compasiunea, empatia, încrederea, sinceritatea şi opusele lor, atitudinea faţă de sine, evidenţiată prin trăsături precum modestia, exigenţa, sobrietatea, aspiraţia spre autoperfecţionare şi autodesăvârşire.

Latura dinamic formală (sau externă) a caracterului se referă la atitudini şi comportamente cum sunt: altruismul, onestitatea, francheţea, modestia, entuziasmul, admiraţia şi opusul lor: egocentrismul, egoismul, agresivitatea, dispreţul, negativismul.

Cea mai frecventă clasificare a trăsăturilor de caracter distinge trei grupe de trăsături definitorii.

Trăsături afective de caracter pozitive: înflăcărarea, entuziasmul, patosul, mândria, veselia, duioşia şi trăsături negative: indiferenţa, lehamitea, emfaza, orgoliul, ranchiuna, invidia, gelozia, frica, timiditatea, sfiala, etc.

Trăsături volitive de caracter pozitive: răbdarea, calmul, stăpânirea de sine, tactul, perseverenţa, fermitatea, curajul, spiritul de iniţiativă, spiritul de disciplină etc. şi trăsături negative: pripeala, nestăpânirea, versatilitatea, laşitatea încăpăţânarea, capriciul, intoleranţa, indisciplina, etc.

Trăsături morale de caracter pozitive: francheţea, corectitudinea, simţul onoarei, principialitatea, simţul datoriei, responsabilitatea, autoexigenţa, modestia, hărnicia, conştiinciozitatea, bunătatea, sobrietatea, simplitatea, chibzuinţa, recunoştinţa, sentimentul demnităţii personale, politeţea, devotamentul, altruismul, decenţa, etc, şi trăsături negative cum sunt: incorectitudinea, ipocrizia, tendinţa de a minţi,


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disimularea, impostura, cupiditatea, zgârcenia, lenea, perfidia, grosolănia, vanitatea etc.

Din cele prezentate în această clasificare, se poate observa că nicio trăsătură de caracter nu scapă aprecierii morale, fiecare din ele având o semnificaţie socială pozitivă sau negativă.

Aşa cum nicio trăsătură de caracter nu scapă aprecierii morale, tot aşa nu se poate situa în afara influenţelor exercitate de temperament, adică de ceea ce Pavlov numeşte tipul de activitate nervoasă superioară. Într-un fel este invidios şi gelos un sangvinic şi în alt fel un coleric, un flegmatic sau un melancolic. Unele trăsături de caracter cum sunt înflăcărarea, entuziasmul, patosul, veselia par a fi apanajul sangvinicilor şi colericilor. Nu trebuie scăpat din vedere nici reversul medaliei, anume, influenţa uneori decisivă a caracterului asupra temperamentului, astfel se pot vedea colerici din naştere care însă datorită educaţiei, devin flegmatici în comportament.

Se admite azi de majoritatea autorilor că achiziţiile datorate mediului, educaţiei, experienţei şi efortului personal, grefate pe

temperament − de care ele sunt indisociabile − contribuie în mod esenţial la conturarea caracterului fiecărei persoane.

Tulburările de personalitate sau caracteriale sunt comportamente rigide şi dezadaptate care reprezintă o deviaţie semnificativă de la comportamentul normal. Aceste comportamente sunt stabile, generalizate şi durabile şi cuprind multiple domenii ale vieţii, sunt însoţite de suferinţa psihică a persoanei şi de o degradare a performanţelor intelectuale şi profesionale. Tulburările de personalitate apar încă din copilărie sau adolescenţă, persistă în timp şi adesea sunt asociate cu un grad semnificativ de suferinţă psihică şi de probleme profesionale sau sociale.

Tulburările de personalitate sunt afecţiuni cronice ale comportamentului. Ele influenţează, în diferite grade, toate aspectele personalităţii, inclusiv cunoaşterea, afectivitatea, comportamentul şi relaţiile interpersonale, dar nu sunt propriu-zis boli mentale, pentru că ele nu implică dezorganizarea gravă a activităţii perceptive, emoţionale sau intelectuale ale persoanei.

Bibliography:

Agenţia Naţională pentru Sport, Institutul National pentru Sport. Emoţii în sport, Bucureşti, 2003.

Epuran M., Holdevici Irina, Florentina Tomiţa. Psihologia sportului de performanţă, Bucureşti: Editura FEST, Bucureşti, 2001.

Goleman D. Inteligenţa emotională, Bucureşti: Editura Curtea Veche, 2001.

McNair D M, Lon M şi Droppelman L F. Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1971.

Neuman, O. Sport und Personalichheit, Versuch einer psychologischen Diagnostik und Deutung der Persönlichkeit des Sportlers, München, 1957.


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Weinberg Robert şi Gould D. Foundation of Sport and Exercise Psylochology Human Kinetics, Champaigne, Illinois, SUA,1995.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Pedagogia: o Şeherezadă

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Pedagogia: o Şeherezadă

Claudia Hulpoi, Ph.D., Choreography and Drama High School - Cluj

[email protected]

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS: seduction, literate, pedagogy,

Aș vrea să vorbesc aici despre o carte apărută în 2009 la Éditions de Minuit care a primit, în 2010, Premiul Montyon al Academiei Franceze: Viața omului de litere (Vie du lettré), scrisă de William Marx. E un eseu-traseu, o se-ducere 1 a cititorului către preceptele unei învățături. Autorul este, de altfel, și profesor – de literatură comparată – la universitatea Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense. Prin urmare, era inevitabil ca discursul său să reflecte și o pedagogie a vieții literate.

Paradoxul maestrului-discipol

Interesantă este însă maniera în care această pedagogie este expusă şi transmisă. Viața omului de litere este o carte dedicată maeştrilor: “ Maeştrilor mei, şi maeştrilor maeştrilor mei ”, aşa vedem scris pe pagina liminară. William Marx are eleganța şi smerenia de a reasuma aici statutul discipolului pentru a împărtăşi celorlalți

1 Gabriel Liiceanu, Despre seducție, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2007.

aventura spirituală, şi reală, demnitatea, mai ales, pe care le presupune viața unui om de litere. De aceea, parcurgerea acestei cărți este şi o experiență de lectură, în sensul că ea îşi inițiază – subtil, aproape diafan – cititorul la exigențele vieții literate. William Marx scrie astfel un manual al vieții literatului în care retorica reuşeşte adesea să camufleze dimensiunea formativă, la fel cum Umberto Eco, în Cum să faci o teză de licență, ne oferea reperele scrisului conform cu standardele literate în vigoare. Abordările şi palierele vizate de cei doi autori sunt diferite: Viața omului de litere nu are verva comunicativă a stilului lui Eco, ci îşi propune să “ se povestească ” (autorul evită sistematic – veritabil exercițiu de stil – folosirea pronumelui personal “ eu ”) pe un ton mai degrabă grav, în care accentele ludice şi ironice doar se insinuează; de asemenea, cartea lui William Marx descrie un savoir-vivre, pe când Umberto Eco era interesat de un savoir-faire, însă intenția formatoare este la fel de prezentă – implicită la primul, declarată la celălalt. Şi îi simțim, de-a lungul lecturii, la fel de prieteni.

Iată câteva dintre reperele acestei pedagogii sau înțelepciuni, pe care un literat ar

What is a literate? Or rather: what makes a literate? Can this be taught, or learnt? Is there a spiritual and professional hygiene of the literate’s life? Here are just some of the questions that can find answers in The Literate’s Life (2009) by William Marx. This book is not about pedagogy, but it implicitly contains and professes one; and it can indeed be used as a manual or a guidebook by those looking for initiation to the lettered life. William Marx knows how to set rules without losing the sense of their relativity.


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trebui să şi le însuşească sau la care ar trebui măcar să mediteze; ea îl va ajuta să se definească, chiar dacă – sau tocmai pentru că – omul de litere este atât de greu de definit (şi acesta este poate unul din riscurile asumate ale cărții lui William Marx) :

Literatul e un model, nu o matriță: deşi le este, poate, altora maestru, el se simte mereu pe drumul propriei inițieri; e o autoritate a acumulării şi a devenirii, nu o sumă de cunoştințe ce se vor transmise, punctual, mai departe. “ Ştiința literată îşi ştie limitele pentru că se ştie ştiință ”2 ; şi, la rându-i, literatul ştie – nu că nu ştie nimic, ci că nu ştie totul3.

A fi literat, în accepția dată aici de William Marx, nu e doar o vocație. Altfel spus, a fi literat nu e “ un dar ceresc ”, ci mai degrabă un meşteşug, asumat până la capăt cu toate exigențele lui de acribie, informare, disciplină, etică. Este o idee ce apare încă din primul capitol al cărții, Naşterea, ca reacție la tendința de a mitiza destinul cărturarului – Confucius, în cazul de față – sau de a-i asocia performanțele domeniului fantastic: “ Putem fi, scrie William Marx, multe încă de la naştere: blond sau brun, mare sau mic, fată sau băiat. Putem avea două capete sau trei picioare. Ba chiar ne-am putea naşte supradotaţi sau excepţionali, înzestraţi cu toate talentele necesare acumulării de cunoştinţe de-a lungul existenţei. Dar, la modul absolut, nu ne putem naşte literaţi. N-am putea fi nici măcar destinaţi să devenim unul, decât dacă negăm libertatea unei serii de alegeri de fiecare clipă, de o viaţă întreagă. Nouă luni nu sunt de-ajuns pentru a forma un literat. Gestaţia lui se continuă de-a lungul întregii existenţe ”4 .

2 “ Le savoir lettré ne connaît ses limites que parce qu’il se connaît d’abord comme savoir. ” (William Marx, Vie du lettré, Paris : Éditions du Minuit, 2009, p. 47). 3 Ibidem. 4 “ On peut être bien des choses dès sa naissance : blond ou brun, grand ou petit, fille ou garçon. On peut avoir deux têtes ou trois jambes. A la limite, on pourrait naître surdoué ou prodige, doté de tous les talents nécessaires à l’accumulation des

Literatul este, ca să spunem aşa, “ făcut ”, nu “ născut ”; el nu apare gata (in)format sau “ înarmat ” cu însuşirile autorității sale, precum Athena din capul lui Zeus: nu este – prin urmare – în mod aprioric venerat în panteonul unei culturi, ci reprezintă rezultatul unui parcurs anevoios care, odată încheiat, îl poate înrudi – prin exemplaritate – mitului. Autorul îşi argumentează ideea prin chiar o afirmație a cărturarului astfel mitizat : “ La cinsprezece ani, spune Confucius, voinţa mea era să studiez. La treizeci, ea se statornicise. La patruzeci, cunoşteam destinul pe care mi-l menise Cerul. La şaizeci, înţelegerea mea era totală, iar la şaptezeci puteam să-mi urmez fără nici o piedică chemările inimii “ 5 . Concluzia este evidentă : “ putem muri literaţi, dar nu ne naştem aşa ”6.

Şi soarta unei culturi poate depinde, în mare parte, de numele “zeilor” săi, dar şi cea a literatului, ca individ. Dat fiind că existența lui este centrată – sau, cum bine spune William Marx, “ excentrată ” – în jurul textelor, ea se confundă adesea cu acestea din urmă şi îşi fixează, în consecință,” miza ” : “ Viaţa literatului este, prin definiție, excentrică sau, mai bine zis, excentrată, adică ordonată în jurul unui alt centru: textele, care-şi impun propria lege. De unde şi miza acestei organizări: schimbaţi textele pe care le citiţi, se va schimba şi viaţa – a voastră, cel puţin.

connaissances au long de l’existence. Mais, en toute rigueur, on ne saurait naître lettré. On ne saurait même être voué à le devenir, sauf à nier la liberté d’une série de choix de tous les instants, de toute une vie. Neuf mois ne suffisent pas à former un lettré. Sa gestation se poursuit tout au long de l’existence. ” (Idem, p. 15-16). 5 “ A quinze ans, dit Confucius, ma volonté était d’étudier. A trente ans, je l’avais établie. A quarante ans, je n’avais plus de doutes et, à cinquante, je connaissais le destin que m’avait imparti le Ciel. A soixante ans, mon entendement était total et, à soixante-dix, je pouvais me laisser aller à ce que mon cœur désirait sans enfreindre les bornes. ” (Confucius, Entretiens avec ses disciples, apud William Marx, op. cit., p. 16). 6 “ … on peut mourir lettré ; on ne naît pas tel. ” (William Marx, op. cit., p. 16).


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Reciproca e valabilă: nu vă puteţi schimba lecturile decât schimbându-vă viaţa ”7. Care e, de fapt, această miză pentru literat ? Ea ne este explicată după câteva capitole: acceptarea, sau nu, de către comunitatea literaților care este majoritară într-un anumit moment istoric. Căci “nu gândim niciodată independent”, ci “ gândim cu sau contra unei tradiţii” şi, mai ales, “gândim cu sau contra contemporanilor noştri” : “ Cunoaşterea are şi această dimensiune colectivă. Ea se constituie progresiv ca rezultat al unei triple confruntări: între cărţi, între oameni, între oameni şi cărţi “8.

Ce opțiune rămâne atunci omului de litere care nu s-a născut într-o epocă care să-i privilegieze cunoaşterea ? Marginalizarea, compromisul, sau curajul de a-şi convinge, onest, contemporanii că tradiția poate avea multe forme, dar că ele pot coexista şi se pot completa, stimula reciproc. Dacă instituția bisericii l-a condamnat, aşa cum ne aminteşte William Marx, pe literatul Pico della Mirandola9 (şi pe omul de ştiință Galileo Galilei, de altfel, care a cedat rostind, totuşi, al său faimos “ Eppur si muove… ”), atunci universitățile trebuie să rămână spații ale pluralității cordiale, şi nu ale puterii exercitate în virtutea apartenenței la o tradiție sau alta. Adevărata forță a literatului ar trebui să vină din supunerea față de tradiția care îl validează, şi nu din impunerea respectivei tradiții în vederea ocultării celorlalte. O supunere

7 “ La vie du lettré est excentrique par principe ou, plus précisément, excentrée, c’est-à-dire ordonnée à un autre centre : les textes, qui lui imposent leur loi. D’où l’enjeu de cette ordonnance : changez les textes que vous lisez, vous changerez la vie – du moins, la vôtre. Inversement, vous ne pouvez changer de lecture qu’en changeant de vie. ” (Idem, p. 35). 8 “ … on ne pense jamais tout seul […] : on pense avec ou contre une tradition ; on pense avec ou contre ses contemporains. Le savoir est chose collective. Il émerge progressivement d’une triple confrontation : des livres entre eux, des hommes entre eux et des hommes avec les livres. ” (Idem, p. 141). 9 Idem, p. 139-145.

creatoare, totuşi. Căci orice tradiție se vrea revizitată şi interogată de pe poziția sau coordonatele momentului căruia literatul îi aparține.

Însă, în viziunea lui William Marx, literatul este nu atât omul unei tradiții unice, cât locul de întâlnire – şi conciliere – a unei serii duble de postulate: ale ştiinței exacte şi ale umanismului polifon, îmbinând (doar în această ordine) rigoarea filologică şi libertatea creatoare a hermeneuticii. Nici o tradiție literată nu trebuie să împrumute prerogativele religiei, fiindcă literatul este dator să se situeze dincolo de ea : “literele au raţiuni pe care Evanghelia nu le cunoaşte” 10 (sau le cunoaşte prea bine, dar nu le recunoaşte întotdeauna religia), şi aceste rațiuni sunt tocmai cele ale libertății de gândire, ale toleranței, ale concilierii sau, cel puțin, ale “disputei amiabile”: “Arta [literată] de a trăi nu exclude polemica: dimpotrivă, o face posibilă; controversa nu poate să se desfăşoare liber decât dacă adversarii au garanţia că niciunul dintre ei nu va fi rănit mortal ”11. Religia literatului, dacă există una, este “să opereze transmutaţia vorbei în cuvânt, a faptului în cunoaştere, a trecutului în viitor. Şi dacă, potrivit etimologiei, fără îndoială eronată, propusă de Lactanțiu, religia înseamnă „a lega” (religare), atunci literatul nu poate avea altă religie decât pe cea a legăturii pe care o stabileşte între două momente ale istoriei, două spaţii, două culturi, două fiinţe. De-acest fir atârnă umanitatea ”12.

10 “ … les lettres ont leur raison que l’Évangile ne connaît point. ” (Idem, p. 67). 11 “ Le savoir-vivre n’empêche pas la discussion : bien au contraire, il la rend possible ; la controverse ne peut se développer librement que si les adversaires ont la garantie qu’aucun d’entre eux ne sera mortellement blessé. ” (Idem, p. 142). 12 “ L’existence du lettré n’a guère d’autre justification que celle-ci : transmuter la parole en écrit, le fait en savoir, le passé en futur. Si, selon l’étymologie sans doute fautive proposée par Lactance, la religion consiste bien à “ relier ” (religare), alors le lettré ne saurait avoir d’autre religion que celle du lien à établir entre deux moments de l’histoire, deux lieux, deux cultures,


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Literele şi cunoaşterea care se bazează pe vehiculul lor sunt, prin urmare, o “religie” a dialogului liber, fie el şi polemic.

Dialogul şi povestea, poveşti în dialog

Pedagogia lui William Marx, sau a cărții sale, se exprimă mai ales indirect, ceea ce o şi apropie de acea înțelepciune împărtăşită, ca pe vremuri, prin poveste, prin povestea cu tâlc. Fiecare din cele douăzeci şi patru de capitole (“cât cele douăzeci şi patru de ore ale zilei” 13 ), fie ele despre instrucție, examen, hrană, locuință, sexualitate, melancolie, religie, economie, academie, politică, însingurare etc., transmit, dincolo de reperele unei posibile istorii a cutumelor literate, o pildă. În acelaşi timp, cartea este concepută dialogic, pentru că are în vedere un interlocutor viu, interpelat încă din primele pagini : “ Vei găsi, cititorule, chipuri de literaţi din diverse epoci, locuri, culturi – chipuri în care, poate, te vei recunoaşte şi tu”14. Este deci şi o carte-oglindă, care invită la privire către – şi dialog cu – sine. Însă tehnica acestui dialog nu este cea a maieuticii lui Socrate, care începea prin a afirma o ipoteza şi sfârşea, abil, prin a o vedea demonstrată de chiar partenerul de dialog care o contestase inițial. Deşi nu lipseşte nici argumentația frustă, angajată, puterea de convingere a acestei cărți vine mai degrabă, ca în cele O mie şi una de nopți, din forța povestirii şi din plăcerea cu care e spusă şi comentată mai apoi.

Desigur, cartea nu conține o mie şi una de poveşti despre o mie şi unu de literați, dar numărul lor este considerabil, ca şi erudiția de care dă dovadă autorul: de la Confucius şi Aristotel, Cicero, Plutarh şi Sugawara no

deux êtres. L’humanité ne tient qu’à ce fil. ” (Idem, p. 123) 13 Idem, p. 14. 14 “ Tu y trouveras, lecteur, diverses figures de lettrés à travers les âges, les lieux et les cultures, et pourras même t’y reconnaître. ” (Ibidem).

Michizane, Sfântul Ieronim şi Sfântul Augustin, Pico della Mirandola şi Petrarca, până la Michel de Montaigne, Blaise Pascal şi Marie de Gournay, Armand Jean de Rancé şi Jean Mabillon, Émilie du Châtelet şi Virginia Woolf, Emmanuel Kant şi Victor Cousin, Ulrich von Wilamowitz şi Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, William Empson, Roland Barthes, toate aceste personalități (dintre care unele sunt surprinse chiar în dialog), şi altele încă, devin personaje purtătoare ale unui mesaj din care orice literat poate trage propria învățătură. Iar povestitorul, el însuşi literat, se salvează în măsura în care salvează de uitare, nu atât opera, cât viața acestor oameni. De aceea moartea literatului, povestită în ultimul din cele douăzeci şi patru de capitole, ne pare o renaştere: proiectul cărții, mărturiseşte autorul, a fost inspirat de un altul – rămas nerealizat – al lui Roland Barthes15.

Găsim, în Viața omului de litere, detalii de tot felul : care erau ambițiile lui Cicero şi Petrarca, animalele de companie ale lui Justus Lipsius şi Marie de Gournay, neajunsurile fizice ale lui Leopardi, gusturile în materie de gastronomie ale lui Kant, cele în materie de artă ale lui Freud, cele sexuale ale lui Empson. Însă redarea detaliului biografic este mereu dublată de gestul care, fie elucidează o tipologie umană, fie descifrează un context cultural, social, economic, politic din care literatul de astăzi poate trage concluzii utile.

De exemplu, semnificația împrejurării prin care poetul Giacomo Leopardi, “ cocoşat, cu vederea fragilă, trecut prin nenumărate boli” 16 , ținea să-şi explice toate aceste handicapuri fizice prin faptul că se dedicase de timpuriu studiului : aflăm că explicația sa devine atât de elaborată, încât se transformă într-un veritabil sistem al cărui postulat este că “vigoarea corpului dăunează facultăţilor intelectuale, favorizând facultăţile imaginative, şi că, dimpotrivă, fragilitatea corpului este

15 Idem, p. 180. 16 “ malingre, bossu, les yeux fragiles, sujet à d’innombrables maladies ” (Idem, p. 24).


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foarte propice reflecţiei”17. Câtă candoare – observă şi William Marx. “Un Leopardi care nu s-ar fi dedicat studiului, se întreabă autorul, care n-ar fi învăţat latina, greaca, ebraica şi limbile moderne, ar fi devenit oare un atlet, sau măcar un bărbat sănătos? N-avem niciun motiv să credem asta. Ceea ce contează este că el o crede şi, crezând-o, construieşte în jurul acestei realităţi individuale palpabile o întreagă doctrină a vieţii literate, pasibilă să dea un sens propriei existențe. Un suflet ca cel al lui Leopardi preferă să se ştie supus legii generale a literaţilor, fie ea şi nedreaptă, decât victimă a unei sorți întâmplătoare: ordinea cunoaşterii îl afectează mai puțin decât loviturile imprevizibile ale destinului ”18.

Este instructiv şi felul în care se negocia în trecut renta literatului cu mai bogații şi puternicii vremurilor. William Marx îl semnalează prin redarea unei anecdote povestite de un memorialist al secolului al XVII-lea, Tallemant des Réaux, care îi surprinde pe cardinalul Richelieu, bătrâna domnişoară de Gournay şi pe prietenul acesteia, Boisrobert, în pline tratative : “ Cardinalul [...] zise lui Boisrobert: „Trebuie să ajut cumva pe domnişoara de Gournay. Îi fac o pensie de două sute de scuzi” – „Dar are şi servitori”, insistă Boisrobert. – „Ce servitori?”, se interesă cardinalul. – „D-ra

17 “ … la vigueur du corps nuit aux facultés intellectuelles et favorise les facultés imaginatives et, à l’inverse, […] la faiblesse du corps est très favorable à la réflexion. ” (Giacomo Leopardi, Zibaldone, apud William Marx, op. cit., p. 24). 18 “ Un Leopardi qui ne se fût point voué à l’étude, qui n’eût point appris le latin, le grec, l’hébreu et les langues modernes, fût-il pour autant devenu un athlète ou, tout au moins, un homme bien portant ? Rien n’est moins certain. L’essentiel est, cependant, qu’il le croie et que, le croyant, il construise autour de cette réalité individuelle palpable toute une doctrine de la vie lettrée, susceptible de donner un sens à sa propre existence. Une âme de la trempe de celle de Leopardi préfère se penser soumise à la lois générale des lettrés, fût-elle injuste, plutôt que victime d’un sort aléatoire : l’ordre du savoir lui pèse moins que les coups imprévisibles du destin. ” (Idem, p. 24).

Jamin”, răspunse Boisrobert, „bastarda lui Amadis Jamin, pajul lui Ronsard.” – „Atunci îi dau cincizeci de livre pe an”, spuse cardinalul. – „Şi-ar mai fi şi sufleţelul meu, Piaillon”, adăugă Boisrobert; „e pisica dumneaei” – „Ei îi fac o pensie de douăzeci de livre”, răspunse Eminenţa sa, „Numai să fie vrednică” – „Cum să nu, Monseniore, tocmai a făcut pui”, spuse Boisrobert. Cardinalul mai adăugă un galben şi pentru pisoi “ 19 . Valoarea muncii literate e convertită aici în orice în afară de ea însăşi. Deşi demnitatea acestei munci a trecut, în timp, de la stadiul de otium şi, mai apoi, negotium, la cel de officium20, situația actuală a literatului, de asemenea pusă în discuție de William Marx, poate fi la fel de interesantă şi, adesea, precară.

La fel este şi relația literatului cu politica. Avem aici, printre altele, exemplul lui Sugawara no Michizane, un ilustru literat din Japonia secolului al IX-lea. Ajuns ministru, el va fi denigrat de puternici adversari politici şi forțat să se exileze, pentru ca mai târziu să fie venerat, sub numele de Teijin, ca zeu al literaturii. “Morala e clară”, conchide amar-ironic William Marx: “e mai uşor pentru un literat să obţină imortalitatea celestă decât să fie numit ministru al împăratului”21.

Asemenea exemple, şi lecțiile lor, abundă în Viața omului de litere. Şi toate aceste 19 “ Le cardinal […] dit à Boisrobert : "Il faut faire quelque chose pour mademoiselle de Gournay. Je lui donne deux cents écus de pension." – "Mais elle a des domestiques", dit Boirobert. – "Et quels ?", reprit le cardinal. – "Mlle Jamin", répliqua Boirobert, "bâtarde d’Amadis Jamin, page de Ronsard." – "Je lui donne cinquante livres par an", dit le cardinal. – "Il y a encore ma mie Piaillon", ajouta Boisrobert ; "c’est sa chatte." – "Je lui donne vingt livres pension", répondit l’Éminentissime, "à condition qu’elle aurait des tripes." – "Mais, Monseigneur, elle a chatonné", dit Boisrobert. Le cardinal ajouta encore une pistole pour les chatons. ” (Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux, Historiettes, Paris, Gallimard, 1960, vol. I, p. 380, apud William Marx, op. cit., p. 83). 20 William Marx, op. cit., p. 36. 21 “ La leçon est claire : il est plus facile pour un lettré d’obtenir l’immortalité céleste que d’être nommé ministre de l’empereur. ” (Idem, p. 153).


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“poveşti” îşi răspund, se completează, se întrepătrund, sfârşind prin a da o imagine de ansamblu: o privire proaspătă, în acelaşi timp realistă şi subtilă, asupra existenței literatului din diverse epoci şi culturi, cu partea ei sublimă, rituală, dar şi cu culisele şi nevoințele ei. Căci, într-o viață de literat, precum cea văzută de William Marx, nu sunt doar Grații şi Muze; întâlnim şi dureri de spate sau de membre care-au stat prea mult înțepenite la masa de lucru, indigestii datorate neglijenței sau uitării de sine, insomnii, pisici care ni se alintă pe lângă picioare, iubiri, plictiseli, melancolii. În accepția lui William Marx, literatul, ca şi prelatul (la un moment dat textul original mizează tocmai pe acest dublu sens al substantivului “ clerc ”) are un oficiu la înălțimea căruia trebuie să încerce mereu să se ridice, fără însă a deveni mai puțin uman.

Viața literelor şi viața literatului

Pedagogia lui William Marx ne pune în vedere, cu gravitate, şi următorul aspect: pentru ca literatul să poată da viață literelor, trebuie să sacrifice din propriul timp, deci din propria viață. O poate face în mod radical, ca Giacomo Leopardi – sau ca filosoful şi cunoscutul traducător al operei lui Platon, Victor Cousin care, potrivit mărturiilor unuia dintre discipoli22, “trăia în cea mai desăvârşită dezordine; mânca, niciodată la o oră fixă, un cotlet şi o linguriţă de dulceaţă, cu un pahar de vin roşu îndoit cu apă ; nu se ducea să se culce decât atunci când chiar nu mai putea amâna momentul fatidic (Parcă aş merge la eşafod, nu la culcare, spunea); pleca la librar cu noaptea-n cap, fără palton în plină iarnă – sau fără umbrelă, ori cu ea sub braţ, prin ploaie; nu-şi îngrijea corpul; era în întregime absorbit de gândurile şi cărţile sale, acestea

22 Jules Barthélémy-Saint-Hilaire, M. Victor Cousin, sa vie et sa correspondance, Paris, Hachette, 1895.

nelăsându-i vreodată răgazul regăsirii de sine ”23.

Literatul îşi poate însă duce existența şi cumpătat, fără să uite deci să se bucure de plăcerile simple: de mâncare (Emmanuel Kant), de natură (Justus Lipsius), de prieteni, fie ei oameni sau animale de companie. Igiena vieții literate presupune, între altele, a nu lăsa forța absorbantă a cărților – sau a trecutului – să-ți anuleze spațiul şi timpul. Aşa cum există un spațiu consacrat lecturii, trebuie să existe şi un timp : “Nu vă grăbiţi, spune William Marx, să catalogaţi drept obsesional obiceiul cititorului care merge la bibliotecă în fiecare zi la aceeaşi oră: paradoxal, atemporalului îi plac întâlnirile la ore fixe. Este chiar singurul mod de a-l îmblânzi; altfel, dacă nu-i acordaţi din proprie iniţiativă o porţiune delimitată a zilei, o va devora el pe toată. Cine nu se conformează acestei reguli riscă, precum Cousin, să-şi vadă viaţa transformată în haos sau, mai rău, distrusă”24.

Şi mai este, peste toate acestea, nostalgia armoniei şi echilibrului din antichitatea greacă şi romană, când natura nu se rupsese atât de drastic de cultură, iar intelectul – de viață; este evocat, nu fără

23 ” … vivait dans l’irrégularité la plus complète ; déjeunait, "sans heure fixe", d’"une côtelette" et d’"une cuillère de confiture, avec un verre d’eau rougie" ; n’allait dormir que lorsqu’il ne pouvait vraiment plus reculer le moment fatidique ("Je monte à l’échafaud, quand je me couche", disait-il) ; se rendait chez le libraire à l’aube, en plein hiver, sans prendre de manteau – ou sous la pluie sans parapluie, sinon plié sous le bras ; n’accordait aucun soin à sa toilette ; était tout entier dans ses pensées et ses livres, sans que jamais livres et pensées l’abandonnassent à lui-même. ” (William Marx, op. cit., p. 34) 24 “ Ne vous hâtez pas de prendre pour obsessionnel le lecteur qui s’y rend tous les jours à la même heure : paradoxalement, l’intemporel aime les rendez-vous à heure fixe. C’est même la seule manière de l’apprivoiser ; sinon, si vous ne lui donnez de votre propre mouvement une portion délimitée de la journée, il la dévorera toute entière. Qui ne se conforme pas à cette règle, comme Cousin, risque de voir sa vie tourner au chaos ou, pis, détruite. ” (Idem, p. 35).


196

melancolie, şi modelul oriental din reprezentările vizuale ale celor Şapte înţelepţi din crângul de bambus: şapte aristocraţi literaţi reuniţi pe proprietatea poetului chinez Xi Kang (223-262), care discută, cântă la instrumente muzicale, se dedică contemplației – adică fac orice altceva în afară de muncă literată. Cel puțin în aparență, pentru că îndeletnicirea literelor este, după cum indică William Marx, “tocmai această forţă de a te smulge din vârtejul existenţial pentru a te reîntoarce în tine: fiinţa se oferă aceluia care ştie să se sustragă jocului iluziilor politice şi sociale pentru a savura suverana libertate a tihnei”25.

Spuneam la început că dialogul cu cartea lui William Marx nu are tirania – fie ea şi subtilă – a maieuticii lui Socrate şi, se pare, nici a filosofiei lui; autorul o şi mărturiseşe de altfel, indirect, referindu-se la “deosebirea dintre filosof, care nu se simte acasă decât în extremă şi în absolut (totul, nimicul, binele, răul), şi literat, un familiar al compromisului”26. Există, într-un dialog al lui Platon, aceste două replici pe care Viața omului de litere pare să le reitereze fără a da cu-adevărat dreptate niciunuia dintre protagonişti :

“ PHILEBOS : Îți lauzi prea mult zeul, Socrate !

SOCRATE: Şi tu, amice, zeița! Totuşi trebuie să dăm răspuns întrebării”27.

Frumusețea cărții lui William Marx constă, între altele, în aceea că evită “să dea răspuns întrebării”. Dar oare există cu adevărat “un

25 “ … précisément cette puissance qui permet de s’extraire du tourbillon des choses pour entrer dans la présence à soi : l’être s’offre à qui sait fuir le jeu des illusions politiques et sociales pour jouir de la souveraine liberté du loisir. ” (Idem, p. 55). 26 “ …l’écart entre le philosophe, qui n’est à l’aise que dans l’extrême et l’absolu (le tout, le rien, le bien, le mal etc.), et le lettré, familier du compromis. ” (Idem, p. 47). 27 Platon, Philebos, în Opere VII, Bucureşti: Editura Ştiințifică, 1993, p. 43.

răspuns” ? sau, mai degrabă, doar un triumf (al intelectului, “zeul” pe care Socrate îl impune interlocutorilor săi, Protarchos şi Philebos, partizani ai plăcerilor vieții) – un triumf care, pe termen lung, nu câştigă însă “războiul”. Suntem, cu toții şi de peste tot, ipotetice “câmpuri de luptă”: trebuie doar să ştim să o purtăm cu grație – aceeaşi la care Socrate însuşi nu a avut dreptul; moartea sa ne spune multe în acest sens.

Viața omului de litere nu postulează monopolul absolut al intelectului – cum nici Socrate nu o făcea întru totul: în Philebos, intelectul este într-adevăr venerat ca primul între plăceri, cea mai înțeleaptă, cea mai divin creatoare, dar nu şi singura agreată de zeii olimpieni – nici de oamenii care-şi ridicau spre ei privirile. La William Marx, viața – literatului – şi savoarea ei ne înconjoară de pretutindeni, ne invită la dialog, şi la grație.


197

Bibliography:

Liiceanu, Gabriel, Despre seducție, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2007.

Platon, Opere VII, ediție îngrijită de Petru Creția, traducere, lămuriri preliminare şi note de Andrei Cornea şi Cătălin Partenie, Bucureşti: Editura Ştiințifică, 1993

Book Reviews

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Influență socială și schimbare socială

197

Serge Moscovici, Influență socială și schimbare socială

Recenzată de Casian Popa, Assist. Prof., Babeș-Bolyai University, Romania

[email protected]

Ultima carte semnată de (către) Serge

Moscovici, născut în 1925 în România,

fondator al psihologiei sociale moderne, şi

publicată de (către) prestigioasa editură

Polirom 1 oferă publicului românesc

posibilitatea de a lua contact cu una dintre

cele mai noi contribuţii ale directorului

Laboratorului European de Psihologie Socială.

Volumul Influenţă socială şi schimbare socială,

destinat iniţial publicului anglo-saxon avizat, a

fost scris într-o manieră „á la americaine” şi cu

un ton voit polemic şi persuasiv, tocmai pentru

a sublinia noutatea abordării modelului

genetic, propusă de către autor, faţă de

1 Serge Moscovici, Influenţă socială şi schimbare socială, Polirom, Iaşi, 2011, colecţia Collegium, traducere de Irinel Antoniu, prefaţă de Adrian Neculau şi Andreea Ernest, 301 pagini, ISBN 978-973-46-1956-6.

modelul funcţionalist, cu care se operează

astăzi în mediul intelectual american.

Ineditul cărţii, care aduce atingere şi

domeniului educaţiei prin abordarea propusă,

constă în înţelegerea spaţiului public dintr-o

perspectivă diferită faţă de cea privilegiată

până acum, a majoritarului. Marcată şi de

experienţa sa de minoritar din România

interbelică, S. Moscovici,

integrează probleme legate de grupurile

minoritare şi deviante care au debutat în

tumultoşii ani ’60 –’70 ai secolului trecut, în

sensul înţelegerii societăţilor noastre

contemporane, profund neomogene şi

fragmentate, fiind o „lecţie magistrală de

raţionament critic în ştiinţele umane şi sociale,

care a condus la o schimbare de perspectivă”,

după cum consideră şi semnatarii prefeţei.


198

Elementul fundamental al lucrării este

chestionarea serioasă şi hotărâtă a teoriilor

precedente ale conformismului şi ale

proceselor de influenţă (din partea grupurilor

majoritare) dintr-o societate. Ceea ce mi-a

atras atenţia este următorul citat: „Era un fapt

inevitabil, de vreme ce individul a fost mereu

privit ca un deviant potenţial, ca un posibil

obstacol pentru locomoţia de grup, şi ca un

inadaptat dacă opunea rezistenţă grupului. Nu

vom putea vorbi despre schimbare socială

autentică decât atunci când vom fi inversat

termenii, făcând din grup în ansamblu, din

normele şi atitudinile lui ţinta schimbării, iar

din indivizi şi minorităţi sursa acestor

schimbări”2.

Cartea este împărţită de către autor în

două mari părţi. Partea întâi, intitulată

Consens, control şi conformare. Influenţă

socială din punct de vedere funcţionalist

cuprinde 3 capitole (I. Dependenţă şi control

social; II. Presiunile de conformare; III.

Confruntarea între logica teoriilor şi logica

faptelor), iar partea a II-a, Conflict, inovare şi

recunoaştere socială. Influenţa socială din

punct de vedere genetic cuprinde 7 capitole

(IV. Minorităţi şi majorităţi; V. Nucleul

schimbării: conflictul; VI. Stilurile de

comportament; VII. Norme sociale şi influenţă

socială; VIII. Conformare, normalizare,

inovare; IX. Minorităţile deviante şi reacţia

majorităţilor; X. Concluzii). La acestea se

adaugă şi un Apendice: Disidenţa unuia singur,

în fapt, un consistent studiu de caz dedicat lui

Alexandr Soljeniţîn.

2 Ibidem, p. 123.

Atât prima parte, cât şi cea de-a doua,

se structurează în jurul a câte şase aserţiuni

care sunt rediscutate, infirmând „daturile

sociale” cu care am fost până acum obişnuiţi,

în ceea ce priveşte fenomenele de influenţă

socială, conformism, control social, schimbare

socială, inovaţie, conflict şi recunoaştere

socială. Modelul propus de către Moscovici în a

doua parte, pornind şi de la conceptul de

„schimbare de paradigmă” a lui Thomas Kuhn

în 1962, modifică atât întrebările care trebuie

să le punem, felul cum ne raportăm la

interpretarea rezultatelor, dar şi raporturile

dintre majoritate şi minoritate, conflictele şi

negocierea lor, modalităţile de influenţă,

precum şi normele care determină

interacţiunile şi controlul social. Una dintre

diferenţele majore dintre cele două modele,

funcţionalist şi genetic, a fost exprimată de

autor în termeni de raportare la realitatea

socială, modelul funcţionalist abordând-o ca pe

un dat social, şi, în consecinţă, a subliniat

dependenţa indivizilor faţă de grup, iar celălalt

model, genetic, consideră realitatea ca fiind un

construct social şi subliniază, prin intermediul

interacţiunilor, interdependenţa dintre individ

şi grup3.

Pornind de la ideea că „nu e nimic rău în

a fi deviant; tragic este să rămâi astfel”, care îi

aparţine autorului, consider că abordarea lui

Serge Moscovici este extrem de utilă pentru a

înţelege nu doar controlul social exercitat de

grupuri precum familie, şcoală, biserică,

armată, partide politice, corporaţii, ci şi

specificităţile grupurilor din aria ştiinţelor,

3 Ibidem, p. 23.


199

artelor, modei sau high-tech-ului. Lectura

cărţii, scrisă coerent, organic şi prietenos,

poate fi subiectul unor noi dezbateri şi în

cîmpul profesioniştilor educaţiei, fiind o ocazie

de a contribui mai bine la integrarea

minorităţilor profesionale diverse, existente în

cadrul unui grup atât de eterogen, precum cel

al didacticienilor.

THE JOURNAL OF DIDACTICS Idea #35/2011

200

Idea #35/2011

Dosar: Campus de luptă. Împotriva neoliberalizării universității

Recenzată de Cătălin Vasile Bobb

Postdoctoral Fellow with the Romanian Academy in Jassy

[email protected]

Numărul 1 35/2010 al revistei Idea, Artă +

Societate, ne propune un dosar tematic

intitulat, destul de vehement, Campus de

luptă. Împotriva neoliberalizării universităţii.

Însă, datorită importanţei de nenegat a

subiectului, orice lector va trebui să-şi

abandoneze prejudecăţile tendenţioase la

auzul faptului că un nou câmp de luptă s-a

deschis şi să parcurgă calm paginile acestui

dosar. Revoltele studențești din Franţa din

2006 împotriva „contractului de prima

1 Această lucrare a fost realizată în cadrul proiectului Societatea Bazată pe Cunoaştere – cercetări, dezbateri, perspective, cofinanţat de Uniunea Europeană şi Guvernul României din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007–2013, ID 56815.

angajare”, manifestaţiile din Italia din 2008

grevele şi „ocupările campusurilor” din 2009,

din California, Austria, Germania, Croația,

Elveţia şi Marea Britanie, motivează un astfel

de titlu. Până la urmă, vehemenţa în discuţie

nu e o exagerare retorică, ci o stare normală,

atunci când subiectul propus vizează criza

educaţie în societăţile postindustriale,

marcate, în marea lor majoritate, de ideologia

neoliberalismului.

Piesele dosarului (compus din patru

texte şi o anexă ce adună manifeste, apeluri,

modalități şi documente de lucru (2009 -

2010) preluate de pe resursele disponibile on-

line) răspund câtorva întrebări directoare: cum

putem înţelege actuala criză a universităţii

(deci a educaţiei) în cadrul crizei mondiale

artæ + societate / arts + society

#35, 2010 20 lei / 11 €, 14 USD

w


201

(economic - financiare)? Care sunt motivele ce

declanșează actualele revoltele studenţeşti?

Cum putem înţelege raportul dintre

producerea de cunoaştere şi capital? Cum se

produce „comercializarea” vieţii academice? Ce

înseamnă „educație profitabilă”? Ce putem

înţelege prin „universitate globală”? Ce

înseamnă „procesul Bologna”? Sub ce formă

cunoaşterea se transformă în marfă? etc. Nu-

mi propun să răspund, fapt aproape imposibil,

în marginea textelor dosarului, tuturor acestor

întrebări, ci doar să evidenţiez câteva direcţii

generale asumate de către autorii în discuţie.

Evident, perspectiva este cea a unei gândiri de

stânga (poate chiar radical de stânga), fără a

fi contrabalansată de gânditorii asumaţi

liberalismului.

Textul gardă, Criza universităţii, criza

societăţii, scris de Bogdan Ghiu, într-un stil

necruțător, deşi metaforic, tranșează

problema: „Neoliberalizarea universităţii caută

să extindă şi să radicalizeze tradiţionala

biopolitică liberă a codificării umanităţii sub

forma individului – capital şi a populaţiei –

resursă (în acelaşi timp unealtă şi materie)”

(p.125). În fapt, întregul dosar priveşte tocmai

acest punct: metamorfozarea rolului

universităţii: de la producerea de indivizi

critici, populaţie emancipată (prin cunoaştere)

la indivizi – capital, populaţie – resursă.

Astfel, Bogdan Ghiu consideră că astăzi

nu ar trebui să discutăm, în primul rând,

despre o criză economică, ci despre criza

universităţii: „Criza universităţii poate fi, cel

mult, amplificată şi radicalizată de actuala

criză generală (…) Criza universității are

propria ei istorie (…) Dacă umanitatea nordică

(occidentală) nu şi-ar fi delegat tot mai mult

creativitatea morală dispozitivelor tehnologice

şi s-ar fi comportat cu adevărat pragmatic

(elaborând tehnici de luptă, adică de

rezistenţă), criza universităţii ar fi putut (logic,

virtual, intensiv) declanșa social politic, nu

economic politic, criza mondială, o criză cu

adevărat vindecătoare, de eliberare, nu de

aservire, așa cum este criza actuală

(instrument pentru putere, nu pentru

societate) (…) Criza universităţii, nu criza

economică financiar provocată, este adevărata

criză globală accesibilă, neconfiscată, în care

lupta (mai) poate să fi purtată” (p.125).

Accentul cade aici pe rolul social specific

universităţilor, pe rolul emancipator prin

cunoaştere pe care universitatea trebuie să şi-l

asume firesc.

Analizele structurale produse de filosoful

George Caffentzis în articolul Renunţarea la

scară: universitățile în criză au în vedere

dezvoltarea luptei de clasă în universităţile

americane (anii 1960 -1975). Mi se pare cel

mai semnificativ text din întregul dosar,

întrucât punctează într-o manieră analitică

problemele pe care le aduce identificarea

investițiilor în educaţie (în universitate în

special) cu speranţa creşterii PIB-ului.

Strategiile politic-economice ale Americii,

specifice perioadei 1960 - 1965, mizau pe o

creştere semnificativă a PIB-ului datorată

investiţiilor în universitate. Faptul că perioada

imediat următore (anii 1965 – 1970 ) infirmă o

astfel de ipoteză, duce, mai departe, la refuzul

Administraţie Nixon de a prioritiza politicile

investiţionale în educaţie. Ceea ce pune în

evidenţă George Caffentzis este tocmai


202

greşeala de a privi educaţia dintr-o perspectivă

exclusiv contabilă (investiţii=profit) fără a lua

în seamă efectele, să le numim

necuantificabile strict economic, indirecte, pe

care educaţia le produce. Un citat este în acest

sens edificator: „Educaţia eliberează în mod

inerent, iar capitaliştii au o problemă, căci,

deşi au nevoie de ea, „prea multă educaţie” a

reprezentat o sursă de insatisfacţie în

rândurile clasei muncitoare. În concluzie, ei

urmează să închidă universitățile publice şi să

trimită clasa muncitoare înapoi în beznele

neștiinței (p.135)”. Ceea ce nu înţeleg

capitaliştii, pare a ne spune George

Caffentzis, este faptul că nu atât programarea

directă în speranţa unui profit este esenţială

atunci când privim educaţia, ci tocmai invers,

capacitatea educaţie de a-i oferi subiectului

uman posibilitatea de a se reprograma:

„Esenţială pentru capital nu este doar

capacitatea de a fi programat, ci si capacitatea

de a fi reprogramat”.

Al doilea text (în fapt, în dosar, primul)

al filosofului George Caffentzis Lupte

universitare la sfârşitul pactului educaţional

(2010) aduce în discuţie problema

comercializării educaţiei şi a efectelor pe care

acesta le propagă : „Deschiderea

laboratoarelor universitare spre afaceri

private, vânzarea de cunoaştere pe piaţa

mondială (prin educaţie on-line şi învățământ

off-shore), precarizarea muncii academice şi

introducerea unor taxe de şcolarizare tot mai

mari, care i-au silit pe studenţi să se

îndatoreze şi mai mult, au devenit elemente

standard ale vieţii academice americane şi, cu

diferențe regionale specifice, aceleași direcţii

pot fi înregistrate acum în întreaga

lume”(p.127). Analiza sa vizează şi Procesul

Bologna „Procesul Bologna pune fără ruşine

universitatea la dispoziţia mediului de afaceri,

el defineşte educaţia ca producţie de muncitori

mobili şi flexibili care posedă abilitățile

solicitate de angajatori; centralizează cererea

de standarde pedagogice, le confiscă actorilor

locali controlul şi devalorizează cunoaşterea

locală şi preocupările locale”.

Silvia Federici (profesor emerit şi

teaching fellow la Hofstra University, co-

fondatoarea, împreună cu George Caffentzis, a

Comitetului pentru libertate Academică în

Africa) în conferinţa Educaţia şi îngrădirea

cunoaşterii în universitatea globală, pune

accentul pe două aspecte: (1) „accentuata

comercializare şi corporatizare a vieții

academice şi, în special, pătrunderea

intereselor de afaceri în universitate, precum

şi (2) pe dezvoltarea instituțiilor educaţionale

care restructurează programele educaționale,

în particular prin înmulţirea cursurilor on-line

standardizate, predate în ceea ce ea numește

fabricile de diplome digitale.” În opinia

autoarei, educaţia globală realizată prin

intermediul standardizării cunoaşterii respectă

exclusiv logica profitabilităţii: „Educaţia este în

tot mai mare măsură evaluată în funcţie de

profitabilitate, nu de contribuţia ei la progresul

social. Altfel spus, educaţia a devenit o marfă

a cărei producere şi distribuire sunt supuse

valorilor şi condiţionărilor pieţei.(136)”.

Procesul de balcanizare a universităţilor

africane (este cel puţin interesantă descrierea

pe care Silvia Federici o face atomizării

sistemului universitar african sub numele de


203

balcanizare ), lipsa investiţiilor publice,

privatizarea învățământului, controlul Băncii

Mondiale asupra învățământului universitar,

fragmentarea vieții universitare prin agrearea

departamentelor aducătore de profit împotriva

departamentelor fără bani etc., toate acestea

sunt efectele directe ale globalizării

universităţii. Astfel încât, „globalizarea

educaţiei şi a culturii a avut, de fapt, ca

rezultat o centralizare a producţiei de

cunoaştere, în sensul că acum aceasta este

organizată conform unei structuri piramidale,

în care aceleași ţari şi instituţii care

controlează economia mondială stabilesc şi

regulile, canoanele şi paradigmele ideologice

ale educaţiei şi ale culturii la nivel global.

Astfel, în ciuda interesului aparent crescut faţă

de multiculturalism, cultura şi cunoaşterea din

lumea întreagă devin tot mai omogenizate şi

mai controlate, pentru a reflecta interesele

marilor puteri” (p.139.). Concluzia deloc

liniştitoare a Silviei Federici este aceea că

universitățile contemporane „începe să

semene din ce în ce mai mult cu o operaţie

financiară, din ce în ce mai comercială

(p.139)”.

Dosarul impune concluzii tranșante2 în

ceea ce priveşte viitorul (precum şi prezentul)

universităţii. Textele de faţă sunt, cred, o

lectură aproape obligatorie pentru oricine

2 Am lăsat la o parte manifestele, apelurile, documentele de lucru ale diferitelor organizaţii studenţeşti, ONG-uri etc. Ele pot fi consultate la următoarele adrese: http://reseau-europe.eu, www.emancipating-education-for-all.org,http://spring2010.eu, precum şi www.eucationcongress.eu.

încearcă să gândească asupra educaţiei; şi cu

toţii ar trebui să facem acest lucru.


204

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