The Islamization of Java and Sumatra. Dutch imperialism. Secularism and Islamism after independence. Neo-modernism and violent Islamism.

Map of Indonesia

Population of Indonesia 1898 35,000,0001960 93,996,0001980 148,303,0001990 178,232,0002000 206,265,0002008 228,248,538

Time line to 1800Before 1300 Beginning of Muslim rule in Sumatra1511 Portuguese take Malaccac 1525 Collapse of Majapahit, last Hindu kingdom

in Javac 1580-1650 Hamsa Fansuri and Nur al-Din al-

Raniri, Sufi teachers1619 Dutch E Indies Co establishes Batavia1613-46 Sultan Agung rules Mataram, height

of its power1768 Code of Manu replaced by Muslim

law in Central Java1800 Dutch government takes control from

Dutch E Indies Co

SlametanCeremonial feast, for neighbors, local spirits On varied occasions: e.g. life-cycle, Islamic

and otherUsually in the eveningFood prepared by women (rewang, includes

prayers to spirits).Incense usedSpeech by host in formal JavaneseRecitation of Qur’an and du‘ā’ (in Arabic)Food is eaten by men, some taken homeGoals: communal solidarity, placate spirits,

slamet (equanimity, emotional balance)

Pesantren (lit.: place for santris) or Pondok Pesantren  Usually founded by a kiaiKiai is teacher and spiritual guide Students (santris) board (Pondok = hostel)Studies include Qur’an, Hadith, fiqh, spiritual and

moral training; now also government school curriculum.

Close relation between kiai and santrisFinancially supported by students and local

communityUsually cheaper than other schools

Santris may work for pesantrenUsually in rural areasContination of pre-Islamic tradition of schools

(ashrams?)

Salat al-Maghrib at Pesantren Pabelan, near Yogyakarta, Java

Dutch Rule and Jihad 1825-30 Java War, led by Prince

Dipanegara1821-37 Padri wars, Sumatra1820-69 Endemic resistance in West Java1888 Insurrection in West Java1871-1910 Aceh war, resistance1900 “Ethical” Policy introduced

Three types of MuslimsAbangan: “Statistical Muslims”; some Islamic

practice along with “traditional” practices; mainly lower class

Santris: Fully practicing MuslimsPriyayi: Javanese nobility; value the pre-

Islamic heritage; most are “abangan” religiously, may follow forms of kebatinen; some are practicing Muslims; quickest to become Westernized

Some would question how clear these distinctions are.

Reform and Political Movements: early 20th century

Budi Utomo: 1908, secular, JavaneseMuhammadiya: 1912, Santri, modernist,

educational, dakwaSarekat Islam 1912, Santri, modernist,

nationalist, socialist orientation, politicalIndonesian Communist Party (PKI): 1920, secularPersatuan Islam (Persis): 1923, Islamist,

educational, dakwa, political in 1940s-50sNahdlatul Ulama (NU): 1926, Santri, pesantren

based, political 1941-84Indonesian National Party (PNI): 1927, secular,

led by Sukarno

Twentieth century politics to 1965c 1908-27 Beginnings of independence movement1942-5 Japanese Occupation

Office of Religious Affairs Masyumi

1945-9 Independence Struggle1952 NU withdraws from Masyumi1955 Elections: Muslim parties get 42.5% of

vote1959-65 “Guided Democracy”, Sukarno1960 Masyumi disbanded1948-65 “Dar al-Islam” revolts in W Java, S

Salawesi, W Sumatra1965 “Pogrom” of communists. (Jihad for

some Muslims)

Pancasila (The Five Principles)Belief in the one and only Divinity. (Ketuhanan Yang

Maha Esa)Just and civilized humanity, (Kemanusiaan Yang Adil dan

Beradab).The unity of Indonesia (Persatuan Indonesia).Democracy guided by consensus arising out of

deliberations amongst representatives (Kerakyatan Yang Dipimpin oleh Hikmat Kebijaksanaan, Dalam Permusyawaratan Perwakilan)

Social justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia (Keadilan Sosial bagi seluruh Rakyat Indonesia)

The “seven words” of the Jakarta Charter (1945) “with the obligation for the adherents of Islam to practice

the Shari‘a”

Sukarno on his religious beliefs“Not back to the early glory of Islam, not back to the

time of the caliphs, but run forward, catching up with time (chasing time).” (Boland 126)

“[My father’s] religion was Islam, but mixed with much Javanese religion. And my mother, her religion was Hinduism mixed with a lot of Buddhism.” (Boland 128)

“The Bhagavad-Gita says — I’m not concerned with whether that song is true or not — . . . ‘I am in the first, I am in the heat of the fire; I am in the moon . . . I am in the darkness. I am in the light. I am without beginning and without end. This agrees with my opinion . . . . I am a monotheist. But I am a pantheistic monotheist. Pantheism means: I feel — feel! — this God everywhere. . . . but He’s One, One. Like, in a rough example, like ether. Penetrating everything. (Boland 132)

Suharto period1968 Suharto elected president1973 Three political parties permitted: Golkar (gov’t),

United Development (PPP – Muslim), Democratic Party of Indonesia (PDI)

1976-2005 Aceh revolt1978 Gov’t begins to stress Pancasila as official

ideology; required of all voluntary organizations in 1985

1984 Abdurrahman Wahid becomes leader of NU; NU withdraws from politics, accepts Pancasila

as “sole basis”.1986 Paramadina founded by Nurcholish Madjid1990 Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals

(ICMI) founded by gov’t minister, B.J. Habibie.1991 Suharto goes on Hajj, has begun to follow a more

“Islamic” policy.1998 Collapse of Suharto government. Habibie interim

president

Neo Modernists: Nurcholish Madjid“Except for the fundamental value of taqwa [fear

of God] which grows out of faith in God and worship of Him, there are no fixed values. [Most] values are cultural values which have, of necessity, to develop continuously in accordance with the laws of change and development. Therefore the values of Islam are those which conform to humanity’s true nature or to universal truth and are supported by taqwa toward God. Those values are Islamic if they do not contradict iman [faith] or taqwa, are good according to humanity and its development.” (quoted in Defenders of Reason in Islam, 151)

From the “Mission Statement” of the Paramadina Foundation.

“Paramadina Foundation is a religious institution which is wholly convinced that as the universal values of Islam are made concrete in the context of Indonesia’s local traditions, Islamness and Indonesianness are profoundly integrated. Paramadina Foundation is designed to be a centre for Islamic religiosity which is creative, constructive and positive, for the purpose of the advancement of society, without being defensive or reactionary in attitude. For this reason its core activities are directed towards the building up of society’s capacity to answer the challenges of this age and to contribute towards its growing tradition. This means investing considerable resources in developing the quality and authority of scholarship. . . .” (Barton, 334)

Abdurrahman Wahid on “Fundamentalism”“This kind of ‘Scripturalism’, admittedly not a just

word to use here, denotes a rejection of the past adaptive ways of Islam as a religion ‘living’ in a concrete local tradition, replete with nuances enabling it to peacefully accept religious, ethnical and cultural (even political) plurality as the single most important principle regulating the life of the nation in the past. Tolerance is the catchword, now challenged by an increasingly strict and one-sided adherence to universal dictums not yet adapted to local needs.” (c 1984)

Politics post-Suharto1999 Parliamentary elections: 48 parties;

Muslim parties get 38% of vote (Parties backed by NU and Muhammadiya get 20%; Islamist parties get 18%). Abdurrahman Wahid chosen president.

2001 Abdurrahman Wahid impeached; Megawati Sukarnoputri becomes president.

2004 Muslim parties gain 37.4% of votes in parliamentary election; Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono elected president.

2009 Muslim parties gain 27.1% of votes in parliamentary election; Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono re-elected president.

Some Violent Islamist Movements and Activities

1971 Al-Mukmin Pesantren founded bu Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, later leader of Jemaah Islamiya (JI), and others.

c1975-85 Komando Jihad active (included Darul Islam activists; some say created by

gov’t to catch them); gov’t crackdown in 1981

1984 Tanjong Priok riots1985-95 Some JI leaders in Afghanistan1989 Proto-JI group in S Sumatra attacked

by military1992(3?) JI becomes a separate group2000 Mujahidin Congress in Yogyakarta

and Indonesian Mujahidin Council formed

Some Violent Islamist Movements and Activities, ctd.2000-2?Laskar Jihad attacks Christians in the

Moluccas and Sulawesi, whom they accused of separatist intentions.

2000 Christmas eve bombings of churches, JI cells involved

2002 12 Oct. JI member bombs night club in Bali2002 5 Dec. Bombings in Makassar by Wahdah

Islamiyah and Laskar Jundullah2003 5 Aug. Jemaah Islamiya member bombs

Marriott Hotel in Jakarta2004 Australian Embassy bombed, JI?2004 Sites in Kuta, Bali bombed, JI?2008 Nov. Bali bombers executed2009 July, attacks on the Marriott and Ritz-

Carlton hotels in Jakarta, JI?

A Radical Islamist View of Democracy“FKAWJ also rejects democracy as 'incompatible with

Islam' and refuses to support any political party, including the more Islamist parties. According to Ja'far, 'in democracy, people who don't understand anything, and they are the majority, elect their leaders without any educated considerations at all. They only elect those that give them money or say what they want to hear.' By these means, religious minorities and nominal Muslims have been able to 'thwart the application of Islamic law' in Indonesia. In a genuine Islamic society, it is God's law rather than the will of the people that is supreme. FKAWJ calls for democracy to be replaced by a council of experts (lit: people of loosing and binding) dominated by Islamic scholars who are learned in Islamic law. The council would have the power to appoint the head of state and control government policy.” (Fealy, “Inside the Laskar Jihad”)

FKAWJ = Forum Komunikasi Ahlus Sunnah wal Jama'ah (Sunni Communication Forum), parent organization of Laskar Jihad