The Islamic and Christian Spain in The Early Middle Ages

7/18/2019 The Islamic and Christian Spain in The Early Middle Ages

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ISLAMIC AND CHRISTIAN SPAIN

IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Thomas F. Glick

1

AT THE CROSSROADS OF CIVILIZATION

1. The Arab Co!"es#s$ O%ei& or Clos"re

'1() The global impact of the Islamic con!ests has been an iss!e of histo"ical #ebate since Hen"i

$i"enne fo"m!late# the p"oblem a half cent!"% ago& In $i"enne's (ie)* the con!est of the easte"n an#so!the"n sho"es of the +e#ite""anean* of Spain* an# of st"ategic islan#s ha# sh!t off the mainsp"ings of

the mo(ement of )o"l# t"a#e )hich ha# flo!"ishe# #!"ing the late Roman times* )ith the "es!lt that

)este"n E!"ope felt an intensification of "!"ali,ation an# )as impelle# to "et!"n to a close#* mone%less*-nat!"al- economic s%stem& The con!ests* then* set in motion a chain of e(ents that )as* cent!"ies

late"* to "es!lt in the shifting of the balance of po)e" in E!"ope f"om the +e#ite""anean "egion

no"th)a"#&

In fact* the Islamic con!est ha# mo"e nea"l% the opposite effect than that posite# b% $i"enne. it opene#the +e#ite""anean* p"e(io!sl% a Roman la/e* an#* b% connecting it )ith the In#ian Ocean* con(e"te# it

into a "o!te of )o"l# t"a#e&012 Initiall%* the"e )as no #islocation of the inte"national economic s%stem

an#* in the 345's )hen 'Ab# al6+ali/ t"ie# an economic bloc/a#e against the 7%,antine Empi"e* onl% alimite# an# pa"tial clos!"e )as achie(e#. onl% the easte"n +e#ite""anean )as affecte#* an# altho!gh the

flo) of ce"tain items* s!ch as pap%"!s* )as inte"#icte#* othe" p"o#!cts* s!ch as spices* t"a(ele# as

befo"e& 8hen 7%,antine po)e" "easse"te# itself* bet)een 9:; an# <;9* it )as the 7%,antines )hoclose# off t"a#e* not the A"abs& D!"ing this pe"io# the"e )as in#ee# a "et"eat f"om the +e#ite""anean* b!t a #o!ble "et"eat. the F"an/s to =e"man%* the A"abs to I"a& Spain* it appea"s* )as minimall%

affecte# b% this sit!ation* o)ing to a tacit alliance of the >ma%%a# Emi"ate )ith the 7%,antine Empi"e

in m!t!al opposition to the F"an/s&

The "es!lt of 7%,antine6A"ab conf"ontation )as to th"o) the fo"me" into a sit!ation of economic#epen#ence on )este"n E!"ope fo" the "a) mate"ials it co!l# no longe" obtain f"om the East an# to

ma/e the 8est a ma"/et fo" 7%,antine goo#s& This )as a "e(e"sal of the economic balance of Roman

times* )hen the 8est ha# been #epen#ent on the East& 7% the tenth cent!"%* )hen the +!slims ha#ta/en cont"ol of st"ategicall% '*+) impo"tant islan#s 0C"ete* Sicil%* the 7alea"ics2 Islam effecti(el%

cont"olle# the +e#ite""anean* )hich #i# not constit!te a ba""ie" to t"a#e* b!t "athe" a me#i!m )he"eb%

all bo"#e"ing states co!l# pa"ticipate in a )o"l# econom%* fe"tili,e# b% health% in?ections of S!#anesegol#&

8este"n E!"ope* the 7%,antine Empi"e an# the Islamic )o"l# fo"me# an inte"#epen#ent economic

s%stem* the #%namics of )hich can be seen in the flo) of gol# f"om the Islamic )o"l# to )este"n

E!"ope 0in e@change fo" "a) mate"ials2 an# then to the 7%,antine East 0fo" l!@!"% items an# spices2&+o"e than t"a#e !n#e"la% this "elationship& The "atio in (al!e bet)een sil(e" an# gol# th"o!gho!t the

mi##le ages #iffe"e# in each of the th"ee secto"s* an# gol# ten#e# to mo(e f"om "egions )he"e it )as

less highl% (al!e# to those )he"e it )as )o"th mo"e the flo) of sil(e" follo)e# the opposite "o!te& The



"es!lt of this mo(ement )as to enco!"age the #e(elopment of moneta"% s%stems of e@change* )hethe"

base# on a gol# o" sil(e" stan#a"#* an#* togethe" )ith specific t"a#e "elationships* e@plains the

p"e(alence of sil(e" in ea"l% me#ie(al E!"ope* of gol# in 7%,anti!m* an# of a bimetallic s%stem in the

Islamic Empi"e& No" )as this s%stem enti"el% close#* beca!se of t"a#ing "elations )ith the Fa" East&

In the ele(enth cent!"%* a c%cle of in(asions #is"!pte# the )o"l# econom% of the high mi##le ages

0altho!gh* once again* the Ibe"ian penins!la )as minimall% affecte# at this time* inasm!ch as the

Almo"a(i#s )ho con!e"e# al6An#al!s also cont"olle# the S!#anese gol# "o!tes2& If the a"g!ment fo"economic clos!"e falls* )hat can be sai# of the political an# c!lt!"al "epe"c!ssions of the Islamiconsla!ghtB

As $i"enne's (ie)s came !n#e" sc"!tin%* it became inc"easingl% clea" that the iss!e of the opening o"

clos!"e of the +e#ite""anean )o"l# t"anscen#e# economic iss!es an# "e(eale# the inte"#epen#ence of

economic facto"s )ith b"oa#e" socio6political an# c!lt!"al iss!es& Altho!gh it is no) clea" that the"e)as no economic clos!"e* the t)o hal(es of the +e#ite""anean )o"l# )e"e no longe" !nite# b% a

common he"itage* an# in this sense 66 that of m!t!al pe"ceptions 66 the con!est #i# e"ect a ba""ie"

)hich* altho!gh pe"meable to man% /in#s of c!lt!"al elements* pe"se(e"es to this #a%& The sense of asha"e# comm!nit%* the pa"tic!la" stamp of the Roman Impe"i!m* )as gone fo"e(e"&

In#ee# me#ie(al people ten#e# to thin/ of c!lt!"e an# "eligion as coe@tensi(e o" cote"min!s catego"ies*an# the"efo"e of a !nifie# Ch"istianitas in opposition to Islam& In "eaction to the Islamic con!ests*

impinging !pon the E!"opean hea"tlan# f"om t)o #i"ections* the"e eme"ge# the '*1) notion of E!"opeas a geog"aphical entit% )hich )as also the seat of Ch"istianit%* a c"ite"ion ampl% ?!stifie# b% the

cote"minalit% of the "eligio!s an# political bo!n#s of the Islamic Empi"e& Th!s the notion that appea"s

in the Ch"istian /ing#oms of no"the"n Spain of the common ca!se of cristianos 0ta/ing p"ece#ence o(e""egional ethnic #enominations2 against moros )as pa"t of a gene"ali,e# phenomenon&

The"efo"e* altho!gh )e inten# to st!#% the inte"nal #e(elopment of Islamic an# Ch"istian societies in

Spain an# thei" inte""elationships* )e )ill not lose t"ac/ of thei" embe##e#ness in a la"ge" s%stem of

c!lt!"al an# economic e@changes& Rathe"* )e )ill be conce"ne# )ith the )a%s in )hich the la"ge"s%stem impinge# !pon the t)o societies* f"om the changes in the h!man lan#scape #i"ectl% "es!ltant

f"om the emplacement of the penins!la in that )i#e" )o"l# to mo"e s!btle st"!ct!"al an# pe"cept!al"epe"c!ssions&

*. ,i--"sio Tras%or# /o0eme#

The +!slims inhe"ite# the Roman Empi"e* not onl% its te""ito"% b!t its peoples& The impo"tance of thisfact has been obsc!"e# b% the (ast c!lt!"al changes )hich fo"me"l% Roman te""ito"ies !n#e")ent& 7%

!nif%ing the a"ea again* the +!slims c"eate# a me#i!m th"o!gh )hich technologies an# i#eas co!l# be

easil% #iff!se# f"om one en# of the Empi"e to the othe"&0;2

Diff!sion is one of the c"!cial ing"e#ients of inno(ation* )hethe" technological o" c!lt!"al* an# its pa"tic!la" conto!"s )ill be o!tline# belo)& 7!t the pe"sisting infl!ence of the Roman )o"l# on the

Islamic Empi"e has gene"all% not been emphasi,e#&02

To be s!"e* man% of the ph%sical st"!ct!"es of theclassical age s!"(i(e# mo"e o" less intact& To)a"#s these the A"abs ha# an ambi(alent attit!#e. on theone han#* "e(e"ence fo" the ancients (al-'uwal), especiall% fo" thei" maste"% of technologies !n/no)n to

noma#ic peoples on the othe"* the pl!n#e"ing of Roman "!ins fo" the'i" mate"ials )itho!t "ega"# to the

o"igin o" aesthetic )o"th of the st"!ct!"e&02

7!t mo"e than this s!"(i(al of Rome as a /in# of (ag!e memo"%* the"e )as a pe"sistence of localc!stom "eg!lating* in pa"tic!la"* the ag"ic!lt!"al %ea" an# the !tili,ation of "eso!"ces 0pa"tic!la"l%

)ate"2 )hich e(ent!all% ente"e# the co"p!s of Islamic la)& Al6+)a"#* a Shfi' ?!"isp"!#ent in the

An#al!si t"a#ition* note# the special place in Islamic la) of i""igation canals #!g b% the ancients*0:2 an#



the"e is goo# "eason to '**) ass!me also the #i"ect bo""o)ing of Roman )ate"6allocation p"incipals b%

the +!slims& Roman la)* )hich ma% be "ega"#e# as a compen#i!m of c!stoma"% +e#ite""anean

!sages* has ne(e" been compa"e# s%stematicall% )ith Islamic la)* gene"all% ass!me# to ha(e ha#

"a#icall% #iffe"ent an# highl% i#ios%nc"atic "oots&

The mo(ement of #iff!sion c"eate# b% Islamic e@pansion in the high mi##le ages )as* in gene"al

o!tline* f"om China an# In#ia in the East* "a#iating b% lan# th"o!gh cent"al Asia* b% sea to so!the"n

A"abia an# the easte"n +e#ite""anean* an# then )est)a"# to No"th Af"ica an# E!"ope& The East6to68est mo(ement is constant the Islamic )o"l# is its focal point an#* th"o!gho!t* $e"sia appea"s to ha(e been an e@t"emel% acti(e hea"th of c!lt!"al inno(ation in a )i#e (a"iet% of a"eas 66 t"a#e* technolog%*

science* the "e(i(al of pha"mace!tical inte"ests* a"t* lite"a"% themes* m!sic* ag"ic!lt!"al technolog% an#

c!lina"% tastes& The cent"al place of $e"sia in this mo(ement seems e@plicable in te"ms of the high le(elof economic #e(elopment of the Sasani# Empi"e "elati(e to the A"abs #!"ing the epoch of con!est&

The $e"sian economic s%stem 0base# on #%namic !"ban cente"s s!ppo"te# b% intensi(e i""igation

ag"ic!lt!"e* )hich pe"mitte# the maintenance of a la"ge pop!lation2 p"o(i#e# the mo#el !tili,e# b% theA"abs in the economic #e(elopment of the con!e"e# a"eas& $e"sia's economic #omination in the East

helps to e@plain the #iff!sion of specificall% $e"sian techni!es* a"tistic themes* an# i#eas to the 8est

in ea"l% Islamic times&032 The p"ocess of #iff!sion has* of co!"se* both spatial an# c!lt!"al #imensions&

The"e a"e ba""ie"s )hich hin#e"* an# mechanisms )hich p"omote* the #iff!sion of specific elements)hich ma% be geog"aphical o" c!lt!"al 0o" a combination of both2& F!"the"mo"e* these mechanisms* of

)hate(e" nat!"e* act in (e"% selecti(e )a%s* #epen#ing on )hat is being #iff!se#& Nee#ham points o!t*

fo" e@ample* that the ba""ie"s* c!lt!"al o" geog"aphical* that bloc/e# the t"ansmission of Chinesescience th"o!gh Cent"al Asia an# into the Islamic +i##le East ha# no s!ch effect on technical i#eas*

)hose t"ansmission contin!e# !ninte""!pte#l% f"om East to 8est o(e" a millenni!m&&092

The (ie) th!s fa" p"esente#* that the high mi##le ages )e"e cha"acte"i,e# mo"e b% openness than b%clos!"e follo)s f"om Fe"nan# 7"a!#el's notion of net)o"/s* techni!es* an# me#ia of comm!nications

as constit!ting an inf"ast"!ct!"e !pon )hich e@changes* )hethe" economic o" c!lt!"al* ta/e place& 0<2

This inf"ast"!ct!"e )as compose# of a mi@t!"e of lan# an# ma"itime comm!nications* )ith

cha"acte"istic lin/s bet)een them&'*) The c"!@ of the p"oblem of lan# t"anspo"tation in Spain #!"ing this pe"io#* an# gene"all%

th"o!gho!t all the lan#s of the fo"me" Roman Empi"e* )as the e@tent to )hich Roman "oa#s s!"(i(e#&

To the e@tent that the% #i#* the% fo"me# a "ea#%6ma#e g"i# fo" the mo(ement of t"a(ele"s* comme"cial

t"affic* an#* )e )ill note in the case of the con!est of Spain b% the +!slims* a"mies& 7!t in fact* inEast an# 8est ali/e* Roman "oa#s ten#e# to #eca%* fo" #iffe"ent "easons& In the 8est* the f"actionation

of ?!"is#iction t%picall% associate# )ith a fe!#ali,e# societ% ma#e it #iffic!lt to o"gani,e la"ge6scale

"oa#6b!il#ing o" maintenance p"o?ects& Alfonso the 8ise state#* as a gene"al "!le* that citi,ens of to)ns)e"e !n#e" the obligation to maintain -the pa(ements of the g"eat high)a%s an# of the othe" "oa#s

)hich a"e p!blic*- a gene"ali,ation that "eflects the )i#esp"ea# c!stom that to)ns ha# the "ight to

#eman# that its citi,ens spen# a specifie# time in co"(Ge )o"/ on "oa#s an# b"i#ges& 042 St"etches of

Roman "oa#s in goo# con#ition ten#e#* if the% passe# th"o!gh seigno"ial #omains* to be maintaine# atthe e@pense of p"i(ati,ation* s%mboli,e# b% the collecting of tolls b% the lo"#s conce"ne#& In places

)he"e Roman "oa#s )e"e aban#one# an# no ne) "oa#s b!ilt* a "oa# became a footpath* an# the (e"%

concept fa#e# in an abst"action. -mo"e an abst"act "ight of passage than an act!al st"ip of lan#&-0152

T"a(ele"s )o!l# follo) a "oa# if the"e )as one* o"* if not* )o!l# st"i/e o!t ac"oss !nt"ac/e# lan#& The

inc"easing #e(elopment of sheep)a%s (cañadas) p"o(i#e# an inc"easingl% (iable alte"nati(e g"i# fo" thet"a(ele" on foot&



In ce"tain a"eas* maintenance an# contin!e# !se of Roman "oa#s )e"e "einfo"ce# b% economic stim!li&

T"a#e bet)een the +e#ite""anean coast of Spain* the Eb"o Valle%* an# t"ans6$%"enean E!"ope too/

place along the Roman s%stem )hen the pilg"image to the tomb of St& ames in =alicia c"eate#*

th"o!gh the #eman#s of t"a(ele"s an# comme"ce* the nee# fo" a passable lan# "o!te* Roman "oa#s )e"e!se# )he"e possible* neolithic "o!tes )e"e "e(i(e#* an# if these #i# not f!lfill the "e!i"ements of

sec!"e an# efficient comm!nication* the "o!tes )e"e change# if the p!blic a!tho"it% )as st"ong eno!gh

to mobili,e the necessa"% "eso!"ces* as )hen Sancho the ="eat of Na(a""e change# a section of the "oa#to Santiago in the ea"l% ele(enth cent!"% to ma/e it safe"& $op!lation cente"s not on Roman "oa#s )e"e*

as if b% #efinition* isolate#& In the ele(enth an# t)elfth cent!"ies* )hen comme"ce "e(i(e#* it ac!i"e#

o"ientations gene"all% #ictate# b% the s!"(i(ing Roman "oa#s an# b"i#ges* as fo" e@ample in the case ofSalamanca* )he"e t"affic f"om the so!th mo(e# along '*2) the Roman "oa# f"om Cce"es* ac"oss the

To"mes o(e" the Roman b"i#ge* into the to)n* an# o!t again along the Roman high)a% to Zamo"a&0112

As pop!lation inc"ease# an# settlement became #ense"* the #oc!ments of seigno"ial #omains began to

mention ne) "oa#s (via nova), nee#e# to o"gani,e s!ch hol#ings mo"e efficientl%& 7!t that man% of

these "oa#s m!st ha(e been no mo"e than footpaths seems e(i#ent&01;2

Con#itions #i# not fa(o" the !se of )heele# (ehicles in eithe" 8est o" East& Chi(al"ic (al!es ten#e# to

e@alt the ho"se an# to #is#ain the !se of )heele# (ehicles& E(en so* the ill state of "epai" of most "oa#sma#e passage fo" s!ch (ehicles #iffic!lt* if not impossible& A "e(ealing Castilian #oc!ment of 49; gi(eslicense to the mon/s of Ca"#eJa to #"i(e -a ca"t th"o!gh )hate(e" place it might go if the"e is no #i"ect

"o!te* )e gi(e license to go th"o!gh )oo#lan#s* th"o!gh c!lti(ate# fiel#s* th"o!gh (ine%a"#s* an# to c!t

ac"oss bo!n#a"ies in o"#e" to t"a(e"se the )a% )ith ca"t* ho"se* o" pac/ m!les&-012 This is a st"i/ingcommenta"% on the #iffic!lt% of t"anspo"tation an# comm!nication !n#e" con#itions )he"e a ca"t co!l#

bette" be #"i(en th"o!gh someone's (ine%a"# than along the establishe# )a% 66 the mo"e so in (ie) of

the sensiti(it% of me#ie(al lan#lo"#s to the sanctit% of p"ope"t% bo!n#a"ies&

In the Islamic )o"l#* )heele# (ehicles #isappea"e# completel%* an# all long6#istance lan# t"a(el )asaboa"# camels* ho"ses* #on/e%s& The #isappea"ance of the ca"t in the East* ante#ating b% se(e"al

cent!"ies the age of A"ab e@pansion* )as associate# )ith a technological inno(ation* the "igi# No"th

A"abian camel sa##le* mo"e sec!"e than its p"e#ecesso"* )hich ma#e the camel a mo"e effecti(emilita"% animal* an# )ith a social phenomenon )hich this inno(ation "einfo"ce#. the ascen#anc% of

noma#s o(e" settle# societies& -In schematic s!mma"%*- Richa"# 7!lliet "easons* -the No"th A"abian

sa##le ma#e possible ne) )eapon"%* )hich ma#e possible a shift in the balance of milita"% po)e" in

the #ese"t* )hich ma#e possible the sei,!"e of cont"ol of the ca"a(an t"a#e b% camel b"ee#e"s* )hichma#e possible the social an# economic integ"ation of camel6b"ee#ing t"ibes into settle# +i##le Easte"n

societ% )hich ma#e possible the "eplacement of the )heel b% the pac/ camel&-012 In fact* the"e is

e(i#ence to sho) that e(en befo"e the Islamic Empi"e )as establishe#* t"anspo"t )as mo"e economical b% camel than b% ca"t* b% a facto" of t)ent% pe"cent* an# the s!bse!ent change in the socio6milita"%

balance of po)e"* in fa(o" of noma#ism* simpl% accent!ate# the camel's s!pe"io"it% an# hastene# the

#emise of )heele# (ehicles th"o!gho!t the Empi"e& A '*3) f!"the" technical imp"o(ement* the

#e(elopment of a p"e6h!mp camel sa##le b% No"th Af"ican 7e"be"s* also enco!"age# the comme"cial!se of this animal* a mo(ement )hich #e(elope# into the g"eat t"ans6Saha"an ca"a(ans of the high

mi##le ages* to the #et"iment of the ca"t& The ascen#anc% of the camel sho!l# not obsc!"e the "ole ofthe ho"se* fo" the A"ab t"ibesman )as as obsesse# )ith the ho"se as )as the E!"opean /night& Camel6

b"ee#ing )as minimall% p"actice# in al6An#al!s* )hose )a""io"s !se# ho"ses. the h!ge stables

maintaine# b% the Caliph at +a#na al6Zah"' a"e an apt s%mbol& 7!t ho"se6b"ee#ing* 7!lliet points o!t*

m!st be s!staine# b% a highe" #eg"ee of the noma#s' integ"ation )ith settle# societ% than is nee#e# tos!ppo"t a camel6base# comm!nication s%stem. the nee#s of the ho"se fo" g"ain* an# i"on fo" bits an#

shoes "e!i"e an !"ban6base# econom%&



Visigothic economic #ecline an# #is"ega"# fo" "oa#s #o!btless le#* in 7!lliet's (ie)* to a s!bstantial

#ecline in the !se of ca"ts befo"e 911* in fa(o" of pac/ m!les* )hich contin!e# to #ominate lan#

t"anspo"t afte" the con!est& +!slims in Spain* then* #i# not !se ca"ts fo" o(e"lan# t"anspo"tation*

altho!gh me#ie(al A"ab ch"onicles "epo"t an appa"ent anomal%. -$se!#o6Ibn K!taiba- )"ote that +saibn N!sa%" ha# thi"t% ca"ts ma#e in Algeci"as in )hich he loa#e# boot% to be ta/en to the East* an# al6

+aa" also states that )heele# (ehicles )e"e !se# fo" t"anspo"ting the boot%&01:2 If t"!e* in#igeno!s

c"aftsmen )o!l# ha(e const"!cte# the ca"ts beca!se the techni!e ha# b% then been lost among bothA"abs an# 7e"be"s&

+e"chants an# othe" people t"a(eling o(e"lan# in the Islamic )o"l# "o#e #on/e%s o" m!les& If the

?o!"ne% )as pa"t b% sea an# pa"t b% lan#* a sa##le )as ta/en along an# a #on/e% hi"e# )hen the

o(e"lan# po"tion of the t"ip began&0132

T"a(el in the mi##le ages )as cha"acte"i,e# both b% its slo)ness* )hich ha# the effect of "eta"#ing all

economic p"ocesses* an# b% its !nce"taint%& Distances* especiall% in ma"itime t"a(el* )e"e tho!ght of in

#a%s* "athe" than in miles 0b% the common man geog"aphe"s "ec/one# in miles2 an# the time it too/ to

t"a(e"se the same t)o points (a"ie# )i#el%& The #istance one co!l# co(e" o(e"lan#* "i#ing an animal*"ange# f"om 5 to :5 /ilomete"s a #a%* the lo)e" fig!"e mo"e "ealisticall% app"oaching the mean* in all

p"obabilit%& In the tenth cent!"% it too/ one )ee/ to t"a(el f"om Algeci"as to CM"#oba&0192

Ho) pe"meable )as the political f"ontie" bet)een Ch"istian an# '*4) Islamic te""ito"%B The Islamic)o"l#* as )e )ill obse"(e* )as a f"ee t"a#e a"ea )he"e one's place of o"igin )as no ba" to t"a(el&

C"ossing a "eligio!s f"ontie"* as in Spain* p"esente# p"oblems of a #iffe"ent nat!"e& =& +enGn#e, $i#al

ta/es the #esc"iption in the Poem of the Cid of DoJa imena's ?o!"ne% f"om the monaste"% of Ca"#eJa

in Castile* into Islamic te""ito"% at +e#inaceli* th"o!gh the #omain of AbengalbMn* to "each The Ci# inValencia* as in#icati(e of the pe"meabilit% of the political f"ontie"& On this t"ip she )as accompanie# b%

a"me# /nights )ho )e"e /no)n to the +!slim lo"#s of the #omains t"a(e"se#& Clea"l% the"e )as a

selecti(e facto" in t"a(el. it )as easie" fo" some people to c"oss the f"ontie" than fo" othe"s& In 11 aF"ench mon/ in Za"ago,a )ishe# to t"a(el to Valencia b!t #em!""e#* fo" fea" of +!slims& He )as

a#(ise# that if he )ante# to go to Valencia he ha# bette" go fi"st to Santiago an# ?oin !p )ith some

me"chants )ho )o!l# ?ointl% pa% fo" a safe6con#!ct& The enti"e ?o!"ne% )as estimate# at fi(e )ee/s& In peacetime* one co!l# concl!#e that the f"ontie" )as !ite easil% b"eache#* especiall% in the inte"ests of

co"nme"ce&01<2

In o(e"seas t"a#e* lan# t"a(el )as con?oine# )ith sea t"a(el to fo"m patte"ns )ith #istinct seasonal

"h%thms& A c"!cial lin/ to the East )e"e the lan# ca"a(ans 66 calle# mawsim, -season*- beca!se the%#epa"te# at set times 0late +a%* most t%picall%* fo" the s!mme" ca"a(an2 66t"a(e"sing +o"occo* Alge"ia*

T!nisia 0)hich )as fo" most of the pe"io# the ent"ept bet)een An#al!si an# easte"n comme"ce2*

finall% a""i(ing in Eg%pt afte" a ?o!"ne% of t)o o" th"ee months& Ca"a(ans )e"e of pa"tic!la" impo"tancein the )inte"* )hen the sea )as gene"all% close# to shipping* an# in the s!mme"* )hen the "h%thm of

t"a#e an# t"a(el pic/e# !p* to fill in bet)een the mo"e o" less "eg!la" sailings of o"gani,e# t"a#ing

e@pe#itions& Ships saile# in con(o%s* setting o!t in the sp"ing an# "et!"ning in the fall the con(o% f"omal6An#al!s !s!all% a""i(e# in Eg%pt in late A!g!st o" ea"l% Septembe"&0142 +e"chants* in pa"tic!la"*

p"efe""e# sea to o(e"lan# t"a(el. it )as faste"* s!"e"* an# less ha,a"#o!s& This )as t"!e e(en )hen the

#istance in(ol(e# )as sho"t& A man )anting to t"a(el f"om Lib%a to T!nisia a"o!n# 115 )as a#(ise#

to accomplish this mission b% ta/ing a boat fi"st to Se(ille an# then p"ocee#ing to his #estination&0;52

7% the ea"l% t)elfth cent!"%* a #i"ect shipping "o!te f"om Eg%pt to al6An#al!s ha# been establishe# 66

bet)een Se(ille an# Ale@an#"ia* o" Alme"a an# Ale@an#"ia* the latte" (o%age ta/ing si@t%6fi(e #a%s*

app"o@imatel%* in the 115's& A sailing f"om T"ipoli to Se(ille too/ abo!t eight '*5) #a%s )ith a

fa(o"able )in#& F"om an easte"n Spanish po"t* a +!slim pilg"im co!l# gain +e#ina in as little as



t)ent%6fi(e #a%s* b!t man% An#al!si pilg"ims too/ !p to a %ea" to effect the t"ip&0;12

The e@t"eme mobilit% possible )ithin the +e#ite""anean )o"l# ga(e it an !n#eniabl% cosmopolitan

tone& A mi#6ele(enth6cent!"% lette" "eco"#s that its bea"e"* a e) f"om Ph!"sn 0easte"n $e"sia2* ha#

been e@ten#e# the "ecommen#ation of the =aon of e"!salem* !pon the a#(ice of f"ien#s in Se(ille& Ins!ch an atmosphe"e* comm!ting bac/ an# fo"th bet)een al6An#al!s an# the East )as not in the least

o!t of the o"#ina"%& A $e"sian me"chant )o!l# accompan% his te@tile goo#s to al6An#al!s anothe"

e)ish me"chant* f"om 7a#a?o,* t"a#e# in e"!salem an# S%"ia& $olitical bo!n#a"ies )e"e no hin#"anceto t"a(el* an# #isc"iminato"% t"eatment of fo"eign t"a(ele"s o" me"chants )as hel# to be scan#alo!s& Fo"

this "eason* at the base of )hich )as a notion of la) that )as pe"sonal an# not te""ito"ial 0pe"sons )e"e

?!#ge# acco"#ing to the la)s of thei" "eligio!s comm!nit%2* S& D& =oitein cha"acte"i,es the Islamic

)o"l# of the ele(enth an# t)elfth cent!"ies as a f"ee t"a#e a"ea* a /in# of me#ie(al common ma"/et&This comm!nications net)o"/* sha"e# b% Ch"istians an# e)s as )ell as +!slims* )as the palpable

e@p"ession of the notion that the"e )as -blessing in mo(ement- (fi'l-harakabaraka), a (al!e )hich ha#

"epe"c!ssions )ell be%on# the st"ict #omain of comme"ce0;;2

The con!est that b"o!ght most of the Ibe"ian penins!la into this )o"l# #i# not the"eb% e@cl!#e theCh"istian /ing#oms& As +a!"ice Lomba"# s!ggeste#* the t)o points at eithe" en# of a gi(en t"a#e "o!te

o!ght not to be (ie)e# as termini, b!t "athe" as foci of secon#a"% #iff!sion* )hence goo#s an# i#easca""ie# along those "o!tes a"e f!"the" #iff!se#&0;2 8hile not minimi,ing the "!"al nat!"e of Ch"istianSpanish societ% in the high mi##le ages* one m!st also note that the contacts bet)een the t)o secto"s of

the penins!la )e"e con#itione# b% the incl!sion of al6An#al!s )ithin this g"eat net)o"/ of open

comme"cial an# c!lt!"al comm!nication&

. The Colla%se o- #he 6isi&o#hic S#a#e a7 #he Islamic Co!"es#

The Visigothic state )hich the +!slims fo!n# s!ch an eas% (ictim )as an ethnicall% st"atifie# societ%*

)ith a f"agmente# political st"!ct!"e* a #ep"esse# an# !nbalance# "!"al econom%* an# a to)n life )hich

)as "!#imenta"% at best& These =oths 0)ho also calle# themsel(es The"(ings* o" '*8) -$eople of the

8oo#s-2 )e"e a he"#ing people )ho* ente"ing the penins!la in the ea"l% si@th cent!"%* ten#e# to settle

in a"eas ecologicall% s!ite# to thei" t"a#itional economic p!"s!its& Th!s the g"eatest concent"ation ofVisigoths settle# in a t"iangle t"ace# b% $alencia* Tole#o* an# Calata%!#* )ith the #ensest settlement in

the p"esent p"o(ince of Sego(ia* the Campi =oticl* o" p"esent6#a% Tie""a #e Campos& Abo!t ;55*555=oths "!le# an in#igeno!s pop!lation of abo!t eight million Hispano6Romans as a milita"% elite& The

ethnic clea(age bet)een =e"man6spea/ing "!le"s an# Latin6spea/ing s!b?ects )as heightene# b%

"eligio!s #iffe"ence the =oths )e"e A"ian Ch"istians )ho #enie# the #i(init% of Ch"ist* )hile theHispano6Roman ma?o"it% )as Catholic&

The sepa"ation of the t)o g"o!ps )as s!ppo"te# instit!tionall% b% a #!al a#minist"ati(e an# legal

s%stem. each p"o(ince ha# a Roman go(e"no"* )ho a#ministe"e# Roman la) to the Hispano6Roman

pop!lation* an# =othic officials 0#!/e o" dux at the p"o(incial le(el* co!nt* comescivitatis, at the to)nle(el2* )ho #ealt )ith inf"actions committe# b% Visigoths* acco"#ing to =e"man c!stoma"% la)* an#

)ho ha# some ?!"is#iction o(e" Romans as )ell& The"e )e"e in(i#io!s legal #istinctions inte"ma""iage bet)een =oths an# Romans )as fo"bi##en !ntil 3:;* )hen Recces)inth "efo"me# the /ing#om's

a#minist"ati(e an# legal s%stem b% abolishing Roman la) an#* )ith it* the #!al s%stem of ?!stice& 7!tthis mo(e* in the (ie) of E& A& Thompson* "athe" than p"omoting the f!sion of the t)o g"o!ps* se"(e#

onl% to heighten ethnic tensions& 7% abolishing Roman la)* the /ing ha# #ep"i(e# the Hispano6Romans

of thei" co6e!al legal stat!s an# "elegate# them to secon#6class citi,enship& Thompson's (ie)cont"o(e"ts the gene"all% accepte# opinion that Recces)inth's "efo"ms consoli#ate# the mo(es to)a"#

f!sion set in motion b% the con(e"sion of the =oths to Catholicism !n#e" Recca"e# a half cent!"% o" so

befo"e&0;2 In te"ms of the #%namics of this /in# of a st"atifie# social s%stem* )ith an elite mino"it%



"!ling a ma?o"it% of a #iffe"ent ethnic g"o!p* Thompson's (e"sion is #o!btless co""ect& The =oths*

ha(ing con(e"te#* fo" political "easons* to the ma?o"it% "eligion* "eacte# to the competition affo"#e# b%

the Catholic elite an# fea"e# being eng!lfe# b% the shee" n!mbe"s of Hispano6Romans& Ha(ing #one

a)a% )ith one of the #eepest clea(ages bet)een the g"o!ps b% con(e"sion* the% ha# to sha"pen lines ofsocio6economic #iffe"entiation* an# this co!l# not be accomplishe# )hile the Romans "etaine# the legal

safeg!a"#s of a sepa"ate a#minist"ati(e s%stem& Once that s%stem )as abolishe#* the Romans ha# to

pla% '*() acco"#ing to "!les set b% the =othic elite* )ho ha# the milita"% an# economic po)e" 0a s%stemten#ing to)a"# a -fe!#almo#el2& Th!s* pa"a#o@icall%* the "eligio!s an# legal me"ge" of the t)o

peoples p"o(e# onl% ficti(e the intense st"atification of the societ% along ethnic lines )as "einfo"ce#

"athe" than #iminishe#* to the point )he"e #istinctions bet)een Romans ancl =oths pe"siste# e(en afte"

the Islamic con!est&0;:2 At the same time* the political st"!ct!"e of Visigothic societ% manifeste#

#istinct #isinteg"ati(e ten#encies* as the #!/es ten#e# to ma/e thei" p"o(inces inc"easingl% a!tonomo!s

!nits )hich the% )e"e able to cont"ol tightl% b% g"anting lan# to thei" o)n (assals in "et!"n fo" lo%alt%an# milita"% se"(ice&

Little is /no)n of the ag"a"ian econom% of Visigothic times* e@cept that an economic #i(ision of labo"

f!"the" #isting!ishe# the t)o peoples. the =oths )e"e he"#e"s 0thei" la) co#e* the Forum Iudicum --

Fuero u!"o in Castilian 6 contains specifications "eg!lating he"#s #ating f"om the si@th o" se(enth

cent!"ies2 an# the Romans ste"eot%pe# them as c"!#e an# igno"ant* the last people to lea"n )"iting*0;32

m!ch in the same )a% as A"abs )e"e late" to po"t"a% the 7e"be"s* anothe" he"#ing people&

The Hispano6Romans follo)e# the gene"al patte"n of +e#ite""anean ag"ic!lt!"e. ce"eal g"ains 0)heat

an# ba"le%2* g"apes* an# (egetables g"o)n in i""igate# fiel#s in the Eb"o Valle% an# the Easte"n litto"al&0;92 8hat is clea" is that the enti"e econom% )as in a state of p"ofo!n# #isa""a% an# ag"ic!lt!"e )as

"!ine# as "es!lt of a se"ies of nat!"al #isaste"s beginning in the se(enth cent!"%& $e"haps )e can accept

at the "oot of this st"ing of ba# ha"(ests* famine* an# plag!e Ignacio OlagQe's theo"% of a gene"alclimatic shift in the )este"n +e#ite""anean )o"l#* beginning in the thi"# cent!"% A&D&*)hich ha# the

"es!lt of ma/ing the climate #"ie" an# hotte" an# )hich "eache# c"isis p"opo"tions in the high mi##le

ages* fo"cing a g"eate" #epen#ence on i""igation ag"ic!lt!"e in No"th Af"ica an# Spain&0;<2 +e#ie(al

ch"onicles note# famine an# plag!e in the "eign of E")ig 03<563<32* )hen half the pop!lation )as sai#to ha(e pe"ishe#& $lag!es of loc!sts )e"e "epo"te#& The"e can be no #o!bt that the constant political

t!"moil of late6se(enth6 an# ea"l%6eighth6cent!"% Spain ta/e on mo"e poignant meaning if set against a

bac/g"o!n# of )o"sening ha"(ests* p"olonge# #"o!ght* famine* an# #epop!lation& +o"eo(e"* it ma/esmo"e intelligible the shift in the balance of penins!la" ag"ic!lt!"e* a)a% f"om #"%6fa"ming an# he"#ing*

to)a"#s an inc"ease# "eliance on i""igate# c"ops* #!"ing the Islamic pe"io#& Islamic societ% in Spain

)as able '+) to a#?!st to an a"i# ecolog% b% #i"ecting the flo) of economic "eso!"ces into thetechnological a#?!stments "e!i"e# to inc"ease i""igate# ac"eage* )he"eas the Visigoths !n#e"stoo# onl%

a he"#ing* fo"est ecolog% an# co!l# not a#?!st to an% othe"&

If the ag"a"ian econom% )as in #eca%* the same can be sai# of the !"ban econom% an# of comme"ce&

Visigothic t"a#e )as la"gel% in the han#s of e)s* )ho fo"me# a n!me"o!s mino"it%* an# fo"eigne"s&

8hen economic "ecession set in* e)s )e"e blame# an# a "eg"essi(e c%cle of "est"icti(e anti6e)ishlegislation co!l# onl% ha(e le# to mo"e #is"!ptions of t"a#e& The ba"ba"ian in(asions )e"e f!"the"

"esponsible fo" the ph%sical "!in of m!ch of the !"ban plant b!ilt b% the Romans& A"chaeologicale(i#ence #emonst"ates that )hen the +!slim in(a#e"s a""i(e# in 911 man% Hispano6Roman cities )e"e

al"ea#% la"gel% b!"ie# in s!bsoil&0;42 In s!ch con#itions* it is not s!"p"ising that Roman m!nicipal

instit!tions faile# to s!"(i(e the Visigothic #omination&

The economic "eg"essi(eness of Visigothic Spain is )ell ill!st"ate# b% the fail!"e of the =oths to ca""%on the (ast mining ente"p"ise beg!n b% the Romans* )ho "emo(e# f"om Ibe"ian pits a )i#e (a"iet% of



metals* incl!#ing sil(e"* gol#* i"on* lea#* coppe"* tin* an# cinnaba"* f"om )hich me"c!"% is ma#e& The

"elati(e insignificance of mining in Visigothic Spain is atteste# to b% the )inno)ing of the f!ll acco!nt

gi(en b% $lin% to the meage" #etails s!pplie# b% Isi#o"e of Se(ille* )ho omits an% mention* fo"

e@ample* of i"on #eposits in Cantab"ia& The most impo"tant Roman mines ha(e lost thei" Latin names*gene"all% %iel#ing to A"abic ones 66 as in Alma#Gn an# Al?!st"el 66 p"obabl% an in#ication of thei"

!iescence #!"ing the Visigothic pe"io# an# thei" "e(i(al b% the +!slims& The =oths ma% ha(e allo)e#

thei" noma#ic fo"aging instinct to #i"ect thei" !tili,ation of metal "eso!"ces& In some a"eas mine# b% theRomans the% p"obabl% sca(enge# fo" "esi#!al p"o#!cts of aban#one# shafts that "emaine# !n)o"/e#*

an# metal fo" ne) coinage seems la"gel% to ha(e been p"o(i#e# b% boot% capt!"e# f"om enemies o"

f"om ol#e" coins fleece# f"om ta@pa%e"s&052

Th!s the fail!"e of the Visigothic state* seen in its !nbalance# econom%* as )ell as in its #is?ointe# an#incohesi(e social o"gani,ation* )as also "eflecte# in its technological aton%* )hich )as at the co"e of

the elite's inabilit% to a#apt to an% ecolog% othe" than that )ith )hich it )as o"iginall% familia". the

men of the )oo#s ne(e" st"a%e# too fa" f"om the"e& The% )e"e !nable to b!il# on the Roman base& In< the #!/e Salla "epai"e# '1) the Roman b"i#ge at +G"i#a %et in 911 the A"abs fo!n# the b"i#ge at

CM"#oba in "!ins* ?!st as +sa ibn N!sa%" )as sai# to ha(e fo!n# the Roman6b!ilt i""igation s%stems in

#is!se&012

Recepti(eness to technological inno(ation an# intellect!al c"eati(it% in gene"al a"e lin/e#* the fo"me"mo"e clea"l% than the latte"* to gene"al economic con#itions& Th!s Antonio >bieto cites the

#t$molo"ies, the enc%clope#ic )o"/ of Isi#o"e of Se(ille* )"itten in the ea"l% se(enth cent!"%* as a

t%pical e@p"ession of the state of c!lt!"e in a #ep"esse# econom%& Altho!gh >bieto's gene"ali,ation thatenc%clope#ias a"e )"itten in moments of c!lt!"al stagnation ma% be o(e"#"a)n* his cha"acte"i,ation

seems a (ali# eno!gh obse"(ation on the #t$molo"ies% 8hen "efe""ing to mining* Isi#o"e seems

sca"cel% to !n#e"stan# the technologies in(ol(e#&0;2

Ho)e(e" "e#!ce# its st"aits an# confine# its (isions* Visigothic c!lt!"e )as not* fo" that* totall%isolate#& It is tempting to see the Islamic con!est as the act )hich place# Ibe"ia bac/ into the

mainst"eam of -)o"l#- ci(ili,ation 66 in To%nbee's fancif!l an# h%pe"bolic cha"acte"i,ation* a "e6t"ie(al

of the penins!la* once $!nic in his (ie)* fo" -S%"iac societ%&- 7!t* as ocel%n Hillga"th notes*Visigothic Spain ha# s!ccee#e# No"th Af"ica as the seat of ancient an# Ch"istian lette"s an# in Isi#o"e's

time ha# man% c!lt!"al an# a"tistic lin/s )ith the 7%,antine East* as )ell as )ith the p"e6fe!#al

societies of +e"o(ingian F"ance* I"elan#* an# 7"itain&02

The imme#iate "es!lt of the Islamic con!est* ho)e(e"* )as to intensif% g"eatl% the "elations of the penins!la )ith the lan#s encompasse# in the Islamic Empi"e an# to "e#!ce* b!t b% no means te"minate*

"elations )ith lan#s to the no"th 66 o" pe"haps* mo"e acc!"atel%* s!ch "elations )ith Ch"istian E!"ope

)e"e channele# selecti(el%& Di"ect comme"cial contacts ne(e" cease# intellect!al an# a"tistic contacts)e"e achie(e# b% mo"e s!btle an# ci"c!ito!s means&

The con!est of 911* stage# in +o"occo an# ca""ie# o!t mainl% b% 7e"be" ho"se ca(al"% !n#e" A"ab

comman#* is* fo" a phenomenon of s!ch t"anscen#ence* poo"l% !n#e"stoo#& Its most salient acto"s* half6legen#a"%* half6"eal* con!e"e# nea"l% the enti"e penins!la an# s!b?!gate# its massi(e pop!lation in amatte" of fi(e %ea"s an# )itho!t m!ch "esistance& The ol# legen# has it that the last Visigothic /ing*

Ro#e"ic/* ha# fo"ce# the #a!ghte" of Co!nt !lian* 7%,antine go(e"no" of Ce!ta* a casus belli )hich

le# to !lian's as/ing fo" +!slim help in coming to the ai# of Ro#e"ic/'s #omestic enemies& It )as

"elati(el% common* of co!"se* fo" me#ie(al people to e@plain social an# political phenomena )hosemoti(es '*) )e"e incomp"ehensible to them b% imp!ting e(ents to the pe"sonal !i"/s of one lea#e" o"

anothe"& In an% case* acco"#ing to A"abic an# Ch"istian so!"ces ali/e* afte" a small "econnoite"ing

e@pe#ition le# b% Ta"f in the s!mme" of 915* a pa"t% of 9*555 7e"be"s !n#e" the comman# of T"i ibn



Zi%# lan#e# nea" =ib"alta" 0abal T"i* -T"i's mo!ntain-2 on o" abo!t Ap"il ;<* 911& T"i then

occ!pie# the a"ea a"o!n# Algeci"as* sent a "e!est fo" :*555 a##itional t"oops to the go(e"no" of Islamic

No"th Af"ica* +sa ibn N!sa%"* an# p"ocee#e# along the Roman "oa# to)a"#s Se(ille& +ean)hile

Ro#e"ic/* a)a% in the no"th fighting 7as!e "ebels* hastene# so!th)a"#* gathe"ing a host of -155*555-men& The t)o a"mies #i# battle on the ban/s of the =!a#alete bet)een !l% 14 an# ;* "es!lting in an

Islamic (icto"% an# the "o!t of the Visigothic a"m%* cappe# b% the #eath of Ro#e"ic/&02

+ost of the elements of this sto"% a"e !nbelie(able& In the past cent!"% the D!tch Islamist* R& Do,%*)ho belie(e# these acco!nts to be as legen#a"% as the &housand and ne i"hts, note# that man% of

the elements in ea"l% "epo"ts of the con!est of Spain 0)"itten b% )"ite"s li(ing in Eg%pt2 simpl%

"epeate# ol# t"a#itions ha(ing nothing to #o )ith the Ibe"ian penins!la& Late" embellishments )e"e

a##e# b% Ch"istian ch"onicle"s* #"a)ing !pon 7iblical t"a#itions #eci#e#l% apocal%ptic in cha"acte"&0:2

!lian )as mo"e li/el% a =oth than a 7%,antine go(e"no" of Ce!ta* bea"ing a gene"ic name* comes

ulianus, the co!nt of !lia T"a#!cta 0the Roman name fo" Ta"ifa2 & Ta"f* it seems clea"* )as an

epon%mo!s name concocte# to e@plain the o"igin of the to)n of Ta"ifa& T"l* too* seems to ha(e been

epon%mo!s fig!"e )hose name simpl% meant -chief*- acco"#ing to oa!in Vall(G&032

No" #oes Vall(G accept the (ie) that the c"!cial battle too/ place on the ban/s of the =!a#alete* b!t

places the site fa"the" so!th* nea" the po"t of ent"%* nea" =ib"alta" on the ban/s of the =!a#a""an!e* a

name )hich pe"haps means Ro#e"ic/'s Ri(e" 08a# al6Rin2&092 8h% #i# -T"i- )ait fo" th"ee monthsin o"#e" to ma"ch no"th)a"# to meet the =othic a"m%B His fo"ces m!st ha(e n!mbe"e# s!bstantial ho"se

ca(al"% to ha(e #efeate# an a"m% man% times la"ge"& If )e ta/e the accepte# n!mbe" of t"oops an# boats

gi(en b% A"abic so!"ces* it is clea" that a fo"ce of 15*555 to 1:*555 men co!l# not ha(e c"osse# the

st"aits in less than th"ee months&0<2

The con!est of Spain appea"s to ha(e been a )al/6th"o!gh& Afte" the fi"st #ecisi(e battle* fe) mo"e

challenges of an% se"io!s #imension a"ose& The +!slim col!mns follo)e# the Roman "oa#s* obtaining

the s!""en#e"s ') of /e% to)ns* an# in man% cases lea(ing e)ish ga""isons behin#& In most cases* the+!slims #eman#e# f!ll s!bmission to thei" a!tho"it%* altho!gh in some cases pacts )e"e ma#e )ith

Visigothic lo"#s* g!a"anteeing them s!bstantial a!tonom%& S!ch )as the case of the a""angement ma#e)ith Theo#omi" in the +!"cian #ist"ict 0late" calle# b% the A"abs T!#mi"* afte" its fo"me" lea#e"2*

)hose ea"l% a#minist"ation the"efo"e p"obabl% contin!e# a patte"n of local a!tonom% p"ominent in lateVisigothic times&

2. The C"r0e o- Co0ersio

The eas% con!est of the penins!la is gene"all% ass!me# b% histo"ians to ha(e been follo)e# b% a "api#

Islami,ation of the in#igeno!s pop!lation* altho!gh the e(i#ence fo" s!ch an asse"tion is )holl%infe"ential& It m!st be ass!me# that the p"ocess of con(e"sion to Islam )as g!i#e# b% the same

mechanisms that )e"e ope"ati(e in othe" societies ne)l% con!e"e# b% the A"abs& 7ase# on a st!#% of

naming patte"ns among con(e"ts to Islam* Richa"# 7!lliet has #esc"ibe# a gene"al p"ocess of

con(e"sion )hich he belie(es to ha(e been the no"m in all me#ie(al Islamic societies con!e"e# b% theA"abs&042

The essence of 7!lliet's h%pothesis* base# !pon common notions of inno(ation #iff!sion* is that the

"ate of con(e"sion to Islam is loga"ithmic* an# ma% be ill!st"ate# g"aphicall% b% a logistic c!"(e& Thatis* fe) a#opt the inno(ation at fi"st* b!t* as mo"e #o* the p"obabilit% of othe"s follo)ing s!it inc"eases&

In the case of con(e"sion to Islam* the g"eate" the n!mbe" of +!slims* the g"eate" the p"obabilit% of

contact bet)een +!slims an# non6+!slims* an# hence of the con(e"sion of the latte"& This is a

selfgene"ating p"ocess an# the "ate of con(e"sion inc"eases )itho!t the necessit% of an% specific socialo" political policies* o" of an$ facto" e@t"insic to the p"ocess&



It follo)s f"om this anal%sis that in >ma%%a# times Islam )as a -smallscale affai"- cha"acte"i,e# b% the

"!le of (ast non6+!slim pop!lations b% a tin% A"ab elite fo" )hose social an# political nee#s t"a#itional

A"ab t"ibal st"!ct!"e )as s!fficient& A"abs* an# the"efo"e Islam itself* )as fi"st concent"ate# in the

to)ns* an# the ea"l% ch"onicles "eflect this !"ban A"ab milie!&

At the moment )hen the logistic c!"(e begins to "ise p"ecipito!sl%* the"e begins an e@plosi(e pe"io# of

con(e"sion #!"ing )hich most of the p"e(io!sl% !ncon(e"te# pop!lation t!"ns +!slim& 8hen the

con(e"sion '2) p"ocess is complete#* 7!lliet "ec/ons that eight% pe"cent of the o"iginal in#igeno!s pop!lation con(e"te#* )ith the "emaining t)ent% pe"cent still !ncon(e"te#* )ith the stat!s of p"otecte#"eligio!s mino"ities&

A n!mbe" of #istincti(e social phenomena a"e associate# )ith this p"ocess 0altho!gh the eme"gence an#

se!encing of s!ch phenomena #iffe"e# f"om societ% to societ%2& In the fi"st place* the /in# of social

mo(ements that att"acte# con(e"ts #iffe"e# in st%le an# content* #epen#ing on )hethe" the con(e"ts)e"e a mino"it% o" a ma?o"it%& +illena"ian "e(ol!tiona"% mo(ements )hich att"acte# con(e"ts !n#e" the

A"ab state #ecline# in appeal as the #ensit% of the con(e"t pop!lation inc"ease# an# as -ol#- con(e"ts

ente"e# the po)e" st"!ct!"e& D!"ing the e@plosi(e pe"io# of con(e"sion* )hen the composition ofsociet% )as changing "api#l%* ab"!pt political an# social changes occ!""e# )ithin a matte" of #eca#es&

8hen the g"eat mass of in#igeno!s people ha# become +!slim* the /in# of societ% that eme"ge# )as

"a#icall% #iffe"ent f"om that of the A"ab state of the past& Societ% ha# become #istincti(el% +!slim*)ith instit!tions that "eflecte# the social nee#s of a ma?o"it% +!slim pop!lation& This )as a mo"e self6

ass!"e# societ%* able to asse"t its in#epen#ence )ithin the Islamic )o"l#& Ne(e"theless* social

#istinctions a"ose bet)een -ol#- an# -ne)- con(e"ts* the fo"me" t%picall% associating themsel(es )itho"tho#o@ "eligio!s positions* the latte" )ith mo(ements s!ch as Ash'a"ism an# S!fism&

7!lliet's #esc"iption of the con(e"sion p"ocess* )hile a#mitte#l% a h%pothesis* p"o(i#es a compelling

f"ame)o"/ fo" anal%,ing the #%namics of social* political* an# c!lt!"al change in the eme"gent Islamic

societies of the mi##le ages an#* at the same time* offe"s a stan#a"# b% )hich to assess s!ch#e(elopments in an% one Islamic societ% in compa"ati(e pe"specti(e&

In the follo)ing section* an# th"o!gho!t the boo/ )he"e app"op"iate* I )ill attempt to sho) ho)

7!lliet's h%pothesis sha"pens an# cla"ifies a n!mbe" of episo#es an# phenomena of An#al!si histo"%)hich a"e th!s fa" poo"l% !n#e"stoo#& The logistic c!"(e fo" al6An#al!s is "ep"o#!ce#* f"om 7!lliet's#ata* in Fig!"e 1& The "ate of con(e"sion is slo) !ntil the tenth cent!"% 0less than one6!a"te" of the

e(ent!al total n!mbe" of con(e"ts ha# been con(e"te#2 the e@plosi(e pe"io# coinci#es closel% )ith the

"eign of 'Ab# al6Rahm#n III 041;64312 the p"ocess is complete# 0eight% pe"cent con(e"te#2 b% a"o!n#

1155& The c!"(e* mo"eo(e"* ma/es possible a "easonable estimate of the "eligio!s #ist"ib!tion of the

'3) pop!lation& Ass!ming that the"e )e"e se(en million Hispano6Romans in the penins!la in 911 an#

that the n!mbe"s of this segment of the pop!lation "emaine# le(el th"o!gh the ele(enth cent!"% 0)ith

pop!lation g"o)th balancing o!t Ch"istian mig"ation to the no"th2* then b% 41; the"e )o!l# ha(e beenapp"o@imatel% ;&< million in#igeno!s +!slims (muwallad*n) pl!s A"abs an# 7e"be"s& At this point

Ch"istians still (astl% o!tn!mbe"e# +!slims& 7% 1155* ho)e(e"* the n!mbe" of in#igeno!s +!slims

)o!l# ha(e "isen to a ma?o"it% of :&3 million&

3. The Arab S#a#e -rom 9ro0ice #o Cali%ha#e

The histo"% of Islamic Spain th"o!gh the tenth cent!"% ma% be con(enientl% #i(i#e# into t)o phases.012 a pe"io# of adustment e@ten#ing f"om a"o!n# 91:* )hen a go(e"no" (w+l) )as appointe# an# the

ne)l% capt!"e# te""ito"% began to be o"gani,e# as a p"o(ince of the >ma%%a# caliphate of Damasc!s*

!ntil the mi#6ninth cent!"%* at )hich time the go(e"nmental appa"at!s )as "eo"gani,e# to b"ing it intoline )ith a societ% that ha# g"o)n (astl% mo"e comple@ since the inception of A"ab '4) "!le an# 0;2 a

pe"io# of consolidation, ma"/e# b% the g"o)ing po)e" an# )ealth of al6An#al!s* c!lminating in the

http://chart1.jpg/

http://chart1.jpg/



establishment of the caliphate of CM"#oba b% 'Ab# al6Rahmn III* an# te"minating )ith the #issol!tion

of the go(e"nmental s%stem in the #eca#e 155561515& The "eign of the emi" 'Ab# al6Rahmn II 0<;;6

<:;2 )as a c"itical epoch of t"ansition* )hen it )as "ecogni,e# that a highe" le(el of socio6economic

o"gani,ation* the conse!ence of the "api# pace of !"bani,ation an# a change in the scale of theeconom%* calle# fo" a mo"e comple@ an# sophisticate# a#minist"ati(e "esponse on the pa"t of the "!le"s&

This appa"ent lac/ of fit bet)een >ma%%a# mo#els an# a socio6economic st"!ct!"e that ha# change#

"a#icall% f"om the time of the state's inception calle# fo"th a )i#e6"anging change in (al!es an# a b"oa#ening of c!lt!"al ho"i,ons* )itho!t* ho)e(e"* alte"ing the basic social st"!ct!"e of an A"ab elite

"!ling a mass of !ncon(e"te# Ch"istians&

As )as t"!e on othe" f"ontie"s of the Islamic empi"e* e@pansion contin!e# !ntil b"o!ght to a halt b% a

combination of enem% "esistance* the o(e"e@tension of s!ppl% lines* an# the stea#% att"ition of fightingfo"ces as !nits )e"e assigne# to ga""ison #!t% in ne)l% capt!"e# to)ns& It is also t"!e that the "esistance

met b% the Islamic col!mns in so!the"n F"ance )as the "es!lt not onl% of a milita"% o"gani,ation

s!pe"io" to that )hich the% ha# face# in Spain* b!t also of a lac/ of the /in# of pop!la" s!ppo"t o" atleast in#iffe"ence that facilitate# the "api# con!est of the penins!la& Ibn Phal#n !n#e"stoo# this

p"ocess )ell )hen he "ema"/e# that the"e is a "elationship bet)een the e@tent of lan# a #%nast% can

occ!p% an# the n!mbe"s of people )ho s!ppo"t it&052

+!slim t"oops ha# gaine# the easte"n $%"enees )ithin the fi"st #eca#e of Islamic "!le in the penins!la*)hen 7a"celona* =e"ona* an# Na"bonne ha# been capt!"e#& In 914 a +!slim col!mn st"!c/ o!t in the

#i"ection of To!lo!se& The th"eat )as /ept ali(e !ntil 9;* )hen* in Octobe"* Cha"les +a"tel #efeate#

an Islamic host !n#e" the )ali 'Ab# al6Rahmn al6=hfi nea" $oitie"s* a battle often sai# to ha(ema"/e# a t!"ning point in E!"opean histo"%* b!t )hich* in the conte@t of the times* )as p"obabl% ?!st

anothe" bo"#e" s/i"mish& In#ee#* the +!slims hel# on in so!the"n F"ance !ntil $epin the Sho"t

"ecapt!"e# Na"bonne in 9:1&

The effect of all this acti(it% in the F"an/ish secto" #et"acte# the attention of the )alis f"om a #iffic!ltsit!ation in no"th)est Spain& The mo!ntains of =alicia ha# been thinl% settle# b% 7e"be" t"ibesmen 66

)hethe" b% t"a#itional p"e#ilection o" b% #esign of the A"ab lea#e"ship* 7e"be"s '5) th"o!gho!t the

penins!la ten#e# to be settle# in the mo!ntains* )hile the lo)lan#* m!ch of it i""igate#* )as hel# b% theA"abs an# )o"/e# b% Neo6+!slim o" Ch"istian tenants& In 95 these 7e"be"s ha# ?oine# )ith othe"ssettle# on the lo)e" slopes of the Cantab"ian mo!ntains an# in the Sie""a #e =!a#a""ama* in a gene"al

"ebellion against the )alis* p"obabl% lin/e# to No"th Af"ican Ph"i?ism* an egalita"ian mo(ement

oppose# to A"ab #omination of the Islamic state& It is li/el% that Ph"i?ite i#eolog% me"el% s!pplie# a"all%ing c"% fo" #isaffection bo"n of the mo"e homel% s!ffe"ing ca!se# b% the fail!"e of past!"es to

s!ppo"t the he"#s& The 7e"be"s )e"e !elle# b% a ne)l% a""i(e# fo"ce of 9*555 S%"ian A"abs !n#e" 7al?

ibn 7ish" in the a!t!mn of 91& 7al? not onl% #efeate# the 7e"be" #issi#ents b!t too/ cont"ol of the statehimself* initiating a ne) "o!n# of t"ibal infighting amongst no"the"n 0Ka%s2 an# so!the"n 0Palb

o"emeni2 A"abs& emenis o!tn!mbe"e# Ka%ss in the ne) p"o(ince* b!t )hen a st"ong p"o6Ka%s )ali

eme"ge# in the fig!"e of s!f al6Fih" 0"!le# 9969:32* the% t"ie# to fo"ge alliances )ith 7e"be"s in the

hope of !nseating thei" m!t!al enem%&The t"ibal* ethnic* an# social conflicts in al6An#al!s #!"ing this pe"io# 0)hich )ill be anal%,e# in late"

chapte"s2 )e"e cha"acte"istic of a p"ocess of a#?!stment in )hich the #i(e"se g"o!ps th"o)n togethe" b%

the ci"c!mstances of the con!est )e"e not so m!ch t"%ing to #est"o% a state* b!t "athe" to c"eate one*th"o!gh a p"ocess of m!t!al accommo#ation an# a#?!stment* inc"easingl% me#iate# an#* to an e@tent*

manip!late# b% the A"ab elites )ho compose# the cent"al go(e"nment&

In 9:5 a #isast"o!s #"o!ght 0)hich OlagQe sees as the final phase of a climatic p!lsation that began

a"o!n# 3<52012 ca!sing famine in e@tensi(e a"eas of the penins!la* b!t pa"tic!la"l% the cent"al an#



no"th)este"n "egions* in#!ce# the 7e"be"s of =alicia to "et!"n to thei" No"th Af"ican homelan#& At this

point =alicia )as anne@e# to the /ing#om of Ast!"ias* an# the +!slims #i# not ma/e an% se"io!s

attempt to settle the lan#s no"th of the D!e"o Ri(e"&

D!"ing the ea"l% %ea"s of Islamic #omination* the +!slims )e"e able* in most of the penins!la* toconsoli#ate thei" "!le "api#l%* e(en tho!gh the histo"ical commenta"% ten#s to #)ell !pon the constant

t"ibal fighting among A"abs& At one point* the Caliph '>ma" II )as sai# to ha(e )"itten to the )ali al6

Samh 09I469;12* s!ggesting that the +!slims aban#on Spain beca!se of thei" ten!o!s n!me"ical position the"e& Al6Samh "eplie# that in fact Islam )as )i#esp"ea# an# that +!slims fo"me# a la"ge pa"t

'8) of the pop!lation* an ob(io!sl% anach"onistic acco!nt in (ie) of the minimal possibilities fo"

nati(e e@pos!"e to +!slims at this ea"l% #ate&

7% the time the S%"ian ?!n#s !n#e" 7al?'s comman# )e"e "ea#% to settle #o)n in the 95's* the"e ha#

al"ea#% a"isen a #istinction bet)een A"ab ne)come"s an# the (ete"ans of ea"l% campaigns& These latte"* pa"tic!la"l% those )ho ha# a""i(e# befo"e 913* )e"e "efe""e# to as baladi$$*n o" ahl al-balad 0-people

of the co!nt"%*- e!i(alent to -nati(es-2&0;2 The social an# legal stat!s of these baladi$$*n is

significant* fo" the% ha# al"ea#% cease# to "ecei(e the milita"% pension 0'at'2 an# )e"e pa%ing theno"mal tithe ('ushr) pai# b% all +!slims& This t"ansit* f"om sol#ie" to settle"* is the best in#ication that

pe"manent settlement ha# "eplace# milita"% occ!pation as the goal of the con!e"o"s& In cont"ast* 7al?'s

t"oops contin!e# to "ecei(e the pension& This ea"l% phase of consoli#ation )as cappe# b% the sei,!"e of po)e" in 9:3 b% 'Ab# al6Rahmn I 0calle# al6D/hil* -The Immig"ant-2* an >ma%%a# p"ince )ho ha#

fle# the 'Abbsi# "e(ol!tion in the East* see/ing "ef!ge in the No"th Af"ican homelan# of his mothe"* a

Naf,a 7e"be"& The >ma%%a#s ha# man% s!ppo"te"s in al6An#al!s* notabl% among the t"oops of 7al?*)ho ha# been settle# in the so!th an# east of the co!nt"%& These )e"e emeni A"abs* embitte"e# !n#e"

the "!le of s!f al6Fih"* an# the% )e"e easil% pe"s!a#e# to ?oin "an/s behin# the ne) lea#e"* as emi"

of a "esto"e# >ma%%a# state* in#epen#ent of the Caliphate&

'Ab# al6Rahmn I's polic% )as to stabili,e the "egime* fi"st* b% att"acting masses of >ma%%a#s!ppo"te"s f"om S%"ia to CM"#oba* )he"e the% soon constit!te# a ne) elite* an#* secon#* b% #ealing

se(e"el% )ith #issi#ence at home& In the 935's he face# t)o !p"isings b% emeni A"abs* the fi"st one

!n#e" ostensible 'Abbsi# pat"onage* an# a mo"e se"io!s challenge f"om the +i/nsa 7e"be" Sha/%a*)ho ha"asse# >ma%%a# col!mns f"om mo!ntain st"onghol#s bet)een 93<6993&02

Dissi#ence in Za"ago,a became in(ol(e# )ith inte"national politics )hen the +!slim go(e"no" the"e

plotte# against 'Ab# al6Rahmn along )ith an 'Abbsi# en(o%* finall% calling !pon Cha"lemagne fo"

help& The F"an/ish /ing beseige# Za"ago,a in 99< )hen the go(e"no"'s s!b?ects "ef!se# to open the cit%to him an# "eti"e# in fail!"e )hen ne)s of a "ebellion in Sa@on% "eache# him& As the F"an/ish a"m%

"et!"ne# to F"ance* 7as!e g!e""illas fell !pon its "ea" g!a"# at the pass of Ronces(alles* p"o(i#ing the

/e"nel fo" the m!ch embellishe# on" of .oland% The fail!"e of Cha"lemagne's campaign #o!btless

too/ a ps%chological '() toll on the Ch"istians* fo" it is onl% afte" 99< that )e hea" of Hispani 66Ch"istian "ef!gees f"om al6An#al!s 66 fleeing no"th)a"# to see/ as%l!m in F"an/ish lan#s&

>n#e" 'Ab# al6Rahmn's son Hishm I 09<<69432* )ho !n#e"too/ s!mme" campaigns against the/ing#om of Ast!"ias* an# his g"an#son al6Ha/am I 09436<;;2* the )o"/ of pacification contin!e#& Al6

Ha/am I's "eign )as t"o!ble# b% #issi#ence on the pa"t of the Neo6+!slim ma?o"it%& One poc/et of"esistance in Tole#o )as )ipe# o!t in 949 )hen the >ma%%a#s enginee"e# a ban!et of Neo6+!slim

#ignita"ies* )hose se(e"e# hea#s lan#e# in the moat 0-Da% of the Ditch-2&

Anothe" "ebellion in )hich Neo6+!slims pa"ticipate#* along )ith Ch"istian elements* )as the Re(olt of

S!b!"b* "efe""ing to an a"tisan #ist"ict of C3"#oba )he"e a plot to #eth"one the emi" )as concocte# b%fanatical "eligio!s lea#e"s in <5:& Al6Ha/am finall% !nleashe# his t"oops in the S!b!"b* )hich he ha#

"a,e#& Those )ho )e"e not /ille# )e"e e@ile# f"om the cit%66 as man% as ;5*555 people& +ost left the



co!nt"%* one g"o!p establishing the -An#al!si- !a"te" of Fe, an# anothe" sailing east an# establishing

itself on the isle of C"ete&

Al6Ha/am left his son 'Ab# al6Rahmn II a pacifie# b!t #isg"!ntle# /ing#om& 7eca!se of the gene"al

calm at home* the emi" )as able to mo!nt attac/s against Alfonso II of Ast!"ias an# against the F"an/sas )ell* altho!gh he ha# to face a ma?o" 7e"be" an# Neo6+!slim "e(olt in the +G"i#a "egion in <;<&

D!"ing the "eign of 'Ab# al6Rahmn II 0<;;6<:;2* al6An#al!s eme"ge# as one of a n!mbe" of cente"s of

in#epen#ent po)e"* as the 'Abbsi# state began to #isinteg"ate& 'Ab# al6Rahmn II's "eign alsocoinci#e# )ith the b"ea/ing of 7%,antine na(al po)e" in <;9& Altho!gh it is p"obable that #i"ect t"a#e)ith the East ha# ne(e" cease#* #!e to a tacit alliance bet)een the 7%,antines an# the >ma%%a# emi"s

against the F"an/s* the opening of the easte"n +e#ite""anean at this time set in motion a g"eat

comme"cial mo(ement )hich )as to sp!" the g"o)th of al6An#al!s into a )ealth% state an# to p"omotethe "api# #e(elopment of its ma?o" to)ns* pa"tic!la"l% CM"#oba an# Se(ille&

The a#minist"ati(e appa"at!s of the ga""ison state )hich* follo)ing >ma%%a# p"actices* st"esse# a

#ecent"ali,e# fo"m of political cont"ol )he"eb% s!bstantial a!tho"it% )as (este# in the to)n go(e"no"s*

)as ina#e!ate to meet the nee#s of a )ealthie"* mo"e comple@ societ%& Th!s it happene# that at themoment of g"eatest tension )ith the 'Abbsi# state* 'Ab# al6Rahmn II initiate# an a#minist"ati(e

o(e"ha!l #esigne# to '2+) o"gani,e the co!nt"%'s instit!tions an# econom% along 'Abbsi# lines& This

le# cent"ali,ing political po)e" b% concent"ating it in the pe"son of the emi"* "!ling th"o!gh a tightl%cont"olle# hie"a"chical cent"al b!"ea!c"ac%* in )hich the t"eas!"% )as the /e% b!"ea! an#* at the same

time* b% ?oining political )ith economic cont"ol 0e@p"esse# in the establishment of state monopolies

an# in the cont"ol of !"ban ma"/ets2&

To)a"# the en# of this "eign an# contin!ing into that of his son +!hamma# I 0<:;6<<32* thego(e"nment ha# to #eal )ith an o!tb"ea/ of (ol!nta"% ma"t%"#oms among the Ch"istians 0+o,a"abs2 of

CM"#oba& On the )hole* this #iffic!lt sit!ation )as han#le# )ith "est"aint* altho!gh the e@ec!tion of the

Ch"istian lea#e"ship )as a facto" that infl!ence# man% +o,a"abs to emig"ate to the Ast!"o6Leonese/ing#om& +!hamma#'s "eign* e@cept fo" an initial challenge b% the pe"pet!all% "ebellio!s Tole#ans 0in

<:* )ith pa"ticipation of an Ast!"ian fo"ce sent b% O"#oJo I2 )as peaceable* cha"acte"i,e#* pe"haps*

b% the consoli#ation an# e@tension of the b!"ea!c"atic no"ms int"o#!ce# b% his fathe"&The "eign of 'Ab# Allh 0<<<641;* follo)ing the t)o6%ea" "eign of al6+!n#hi"2 )itnesse# )hat is!s!all% #esc"ibe# as ana"ch%* the nea" #issol!tion of the polit% !n#e" a se"ies of "epeate# an# s!staine#

"ebellions& The most se"io!s of the thi"t% o" so that the emi" ha# to #eal )ith )as that of the Neo6

+!slim '>ma" ibn Hafsn* )ho fi"st "aise# the stan#a"# of "e(olt in <94 in the mo!ntains of Ron#a& Ibn

Hafsn )as a pop!la" he"o )ho b!ilt his s!ppo"t on Neo6+!slim "esentment of the Co"#oban A"abelite an# t"ansfo"me# it into a h!ge te""ito"ial encla(e st"etching f"om +!"cia to Algeci"as in the so!th*

an#* on the no"th* f"om Eci?a to >be#a& Ibn Hafsn an# his sons hel# o!t fo" nea"l% fift% %ea"s& 0The

social basis of this an# contempo"aneo!s "e(olts )ill be anal%,e# in Chapte" :&2 In this pe"io# theethnic foc!s of "ebellion ha# passe# f"om the 7e"be"s to the Neo6+!slims* )hose p"otest m!st be

place# )ithin the conte@t of the c!"(e of con(e"sion& If the e@plosi(e phase ha# beg!n in the last

!a"te" of the ninth cent!"% 0some)hat ea"lie" than 7!lliet's p"o?ection2* the g"eat n!mbe"s of "ecentcon(e"ts might e@plain ibn Hafsn's po)e"& +o"e li/el%* the fitna of the ninth cent!"% )as the last

p"otest of ol# con(e"ts )hose social sit!ation )o!l# change "a#icall% an# s!##enl% )ith the appea"ance

of masses of ne) con(e"ts&

The tenth cent!"% )itnesse# the height of An#al!si fame* po)e"* an# )ealth !n#e" th"ee st"ong "!le"s*the fi"st of )hom )as 'Ab# al6Allhs g"an#son* 'Ab# al6Rahmn III* calle# al6Nsi" 0-The Victo"io!s-2&

He '21) imme#iatel% emba"/e# !pon a campaign of pacification* spen#ing the ea"l% pa"t of his "eign

)ea"ing #o)n ibn Hafsn an# othe" "ebels& 7% the 4;5's inte"nal con#itions ha# stabili,e# to the point

)he"e he )as able to b"ing p"ess!"e !pon the Ch"istian /ing#oms* sac/ing $amplona an# inflicting



hea(% losses on the 7as!e t"oops of Sancho =a"cGs of Na(a""e in 4;& At the same time* he began a

(igo"o!s offensi(e an# #efensi(e campaign against the Fatimi#s* )hose na(% cont"olle# the

+e#ite""anean& He ha# st"engthene# his coastal #efenses an# inte"#icte# the possible flo) of t"oops o"

mate"iel #i"ecte# f"om No"th Af"ican po"ts to)a"#s ibn Hafsn's "ebels* an# in 4;9 an# 41 too/ the No"th Af"ican st"onghol#s of +elilla an# Ce!ta* "especti(el%* to se"(e as a#(ance# posts against the

Fatimi#s&

To !n#e"line this opposition to Fatimi# po)e" an# to st"engthen f!"the" his inte"nal position* 'Ab# al6Rahmn a#opte# the title of Caliph in 4;4* a #ecision #ictate# b% po)e" politics b!t base# in thefamil%'s con(iction that >ma%%a#s ha# a st"onge" "ight to the caliphal #ignit% than eithe" 'Abbsi#s o"

Fatimi#s& The fact that at the same time al6An#al!s )as in the p"ocess of becoming a societ% )ith a

+!slim ma?o"it% lent social s!bstance to this #ecision&

The Caliph no) became a g"an# an# #istant fig!"e* an#* afte" "!ling a !a"te" of a cent!"%* he began to b!il# a palace6cit%* +a#nat al6Zah"'* o!tsi#e of CM"#oba& He "!le# th"o!gh a hie"a"ch% of sla(es an#

began to impo"t 7e"be" me"cena"ies to bolste" >ma%%a# milita"% effo"ts on the no"the"n f"ontie"& 'Ab#

al6Rahmn #ie# at the height of his po)e" an# )as s!ccee#e# b% anothe" st"ong caliph* the schola"l% al6Ha/am II 043164932&

Al6Ha/am contin!e# to p"ess the Ch"istian /ing#oms )ith constant "ai#s* /eeping his militia st"ong an##%namic th"o!gh the contin!e# impo"tation of 7e"be" sol#ie"s* an# in the ea"l% 495's "ecei(e#

contin!o!s embassies f"om the /ing of Na(a""e* the "egent of LeMn* an# the co!nts of Castile* =alicia*an# 7a"celona* )ho came to "en#e" homage an# t"ib!te befo"e the #a,,ling st"ength of the g"eatest

po)e" in E!"ope&

His #eath in#!ce# a #%nastic c"isis* lea(ing the co!nt"% !n#e" the "!le of a bo%* Hishm II* b!t in the

act!al po)e" of the h+ib 0chambe"lain2* +!hamma# ibn Ab 'Ami"* /no)n as al6+ans" 0the te""o"6inspi"ing Alman,o" of the Ch"istian ch"onicles2& Al6+ans" ha# )o"/e# his )a% !p th"o!gh the state

b!"ea!c"ac%* gaining t"emen#o!s pop!la"it% among the masses of CM"bo#a #!"ing his ten!"e as $"efect

of the Cit%* )hen he '2*) b"o!ght !"ban c"ime to a stan#still& As h+ib he contin!e# to sco!"ge Ch"istiante""ito"%* his "ai#s c!lminating in the sac/ of Santiago #e Co"npostela in 449* )hen he "a,e# the

cathe#"al an# ca""ie# off its bells to CM"#oba& 8hen he #ie# )hile "et!"ning f"om his last campaign in155; he seemingl% left the state in a st"ong position& 7!t his milita"% st"ength )as gaine# at the e@penseof #is"!pting the ethnic balance of po)e" !pon )hich the state's political fo!n#ations "este#& He

p"ofessionali,e# the a"m% b% #et"ibali,ing it 0fo"cing A"abs into mi@e# !nits )itho!t "ega"# to t"ibe o"

place of o"igin2 an# b% in?ecting into it la"ge n!mbe"s of ne)l% "ec"!ite# 7e"be" "eg!la"s& The coming

apa"t of this st"!ct!"e 0#isc!sse# in Chapte" 32 )as p"efig!"e# in the changing ethnic an# "eligio!s balance of po)e"&

Ta/ing the pe"io# as a )hole* )e ha(e seen al6An#al!s e(ol(e f"om a ga""ison state b!ilt on a #elicate

balance of t"ibal an# ethnic factions* !nite# in a highl% #ecent"ali,e# a#minist"ati(e s%stem* an apt

inst"!ment fo" managing this /in# of pl!"al societ% )ith #eep c!lt!"al an# social clea(ages&Cent"ali,ation an# !nification became possible in the ninth cent!"%* )hen the b!"geoning economies of

the g"eat so!the"n cities ga(e the emi" the financial po)e" to !n#e")"ite a tighte" s%stem of

a#minist"ati(e an# economic cont"ol& It then became possible to na""o) some of the clea(ages* )hich b"o!ght ne) tensions& The political s!ccess of the Caliphate seems to ha(e been base#* fi"st* on its

economic s!ccess* an#* secon#* on c"eating a climate fo" the f!sing of Neo6+!slim an# A"ab elements&

8ith the eme"gence of a mass +!slim societ%* its !sef!lness )as at an en#&

4. The Chris#ia Nor#h #o A.,. 1+++

D!"ing the same pe"io# the pace of change in the Ch"istian ,ones )as m!ch slo)e"* obe%ing #iffe"entsocio6economic impe"ati(es& F"agmente#* "!"al* #iso"gani,e# in the eighth cent!"%* b% the en# of the



tenth the Ch"istian /ing#oms ha# consoli#ate# themsel(es into #istincti(e political entities* in )hich

fo"ms of social an# ag"a"ian life ha# e(ol(e# )hich p"o(i#e# the basis fo" the late" e@pansion an#

#e(elopment of those states&

7!t in A&D& 1555* )e a"e still #ealing )ith a static ag"a"ian societ%* p"acticall% )itho!t cities* an##epen#ent in a n!mbe" of )a%s on the Islamic economic s%stem& In the eighth cent!"% it is possible to

#isting!ish b"oa#l% bet)een th"ee ,ones* #iffe"ing f"om one anothe" in social o"gani,ation an# c!lt!"e&

In '2) the )est )as =alicia* )he"e contin!it% of settlement ha# been !nb"o/en f"om late Roman timesan# )he"e elements of Roman social o"gani,ation 0a noble elite an# se"(ile peasant"%2 s!"(i(e#& In thecente"* a contin!o!s mo!ntain belt* f"om the Cantab"ian s%stem in the )est to the $%"enees* )as

pop!late# b% Cantab"ian an# 7as!e mo!ntainee"s* )ho also "ep"esente# an ancient t"a#ition* one of

hostilit% to the po)e" cente"s of the penins!la& In the e@t"eme east )as the f!t!"e Catalonia* an a"eaonl% lightl% ga""isone# b% the +!slims an# )hich in the ea"l% ninth cent!"% came into the o"bit of

Ca"olingian political po)e" an# social o"gani,ation&

7efo"e the famine of 9:5* )ith 7e"be"s occ!p%ing the mo!ntains of so!the"n =alicia* the +!slims'

no"the"n line of #efense in the cent"al ,one follo)e# a line e@ten#ing east)a"# f"om Sal#aJa in the

p"esent p"o(ince of $alencia* to Ama%a* +i"an#a #e Eb"o 07!"gos p"o(ince2* an# Cenice"o&02 This

line* on the so!the"n slopes of the Cantab"ian "ange* )as basicall% that )hich the Visigoths ha#

fo"tifie# against the Vascones an#* fa"the" )est* the Cantab"i 0calle# Ast!"es f"om the si@th cent!"% on2&These mo!ntain fol/ p"actice# a "elati(el% p"imiti(e* !nspeciali,e# he"#ing econom% an# ha# "esiste#

Romani,ation an# !"bani,ation in late Impe"ial times& 0The intensit% of Romani,ation )as st"ongest in

=alicia* an# #iminishe# mo(ing east)a"#. the Cantab"i )e"e mo"e Romani,e# than the 7as!es of the)este"n an# cent"al $%"enees* )ho began to spea/ Romance an# become Ch"istian onl% in the si@th an#

se(enth cent!"ies&2

The "esistance offe"e# b% these mo!ntainee"s to Roman c!lt!"e is one of the most st"i/ing phenomena

of late impe"ial Hispania& D!"ing the ba"ba"ian in(asions* Sal(ian )"ote* the ma?o"it% of the Hispani

si#e# )ith the 7a"ba"ians* -not )ishing to be Roman&-0:2

The Visigoths in t!"n )e"e !nable to "e#!ce the te""ito"% o" its inhabitants to s!bmission& The social

st"!ct!"e of these mo!ntaino!s a"eas )as !ite #istinct f"om the "est of the co!nt"% capt!"e# b% the

+!slims& The"e )e"e fe) la"ge estates* a ma?o"it% of f"eemen* an# scant class #iffe"entiation* incont"a#istinction to the sha"pl% st"atifie# social st"!ct!"e of the Visigothic /ing#om& These f"ee men

ha# ample moti(e to #efen# thei" f"ee#om against a ne) in(a#e"&

It is tempting to see* in the ea"l% eighth cent!"%* a gene"ali,e# phenomenon of the filling !p of

aban#one# Visigothic niches in cent"al an# no"th)este"n "egions of one he"#ing people b% anothe"& Theflight of Visigoths to the mo!ntains )o!l# ha(e "einfo"ce# an# int"o#!ce# g"eate" o"gani,ation into the

he"#ing economies the"e& The ea"l% a"me# st"!ggles '22) bet)een =othic "emnants an# +!slim

ga""isons ma% ha(e been "elate# to competition bet)een the t)o g"o!ps o(e" past!"es that )e"e g"eatl%#iminishe# o)ing to p"olonge# #"o!ght& 0He"#e"s )e"e not the onl% "ef!gees to flee the +!slims* of

co!"se #"%6fa"me"s f"om the cent"al meseta also fle# no"th)a"# an# infl!ence# the ag"a"ian "egimesthe"e&2

Th!s* in anal%,ing the o"igins of the -Recon!est*- one m!st #epa"t* not f"om the "e(i(al of theVisigothic t"a#ition* fomente# b% the =othic elite of the Ast!"ian /ing#om* b!t "athe" f"om the

contin!ing* t"a#itional stance of fie"ce in#epen#ence of the mo!ntain peoples to)a"#s )hoe(e" )as in

cont"ol in the so!th& In#ee# the (e"% notion of a re6con!est in(ol(es f"om a histo"iog"aphical

pe"specti(e a n!mbe" of anach"onisms an# anomalies& The notion )hich s!bse!entl% becameensh"ine# in Ch"istian i#eolog%* pa"tic!la"l% as a concomitant of eme"ging ethnic #iffe"entiation among

Ch"istian g"o!ps that the%* as s!ccesso"s of the =oths* )e"e "e6con!e"ing al6An#al!s* in(ol(es a



c!lt!"al misapp"ehension. namel%* that those )ho lost Spain an# those )ho gaine# it late" )e"e

i#entical in c!lt!"e&

The me#ie(al legen# of the o"igins of the -Recon!est*- inte")o(en )ith Neo6=othic st"ains* places

the bi"th of the mo(ement of "esistance at Co(a#onga* )he"e in 9;; a small g"o!p of Ch"istians !n#e"$ela%o* a =othic noble* #efeate# a +!slim col!mn& The "ichl% emb"oi#e"e# acco!nt of this s/i"mish* as

it appea"s in the Ch"onicle of Alfonso III* "epo"ts the #eath of ;:*555 +!slim sol#ie"s* thei" "an/s

b"o/en b% #i(ine inte"(ention* )hich ca!se# thei" missiles to fl% bac/ against them& The acco!nt gi(en b%A"abic ch"onicles is sca"cel% mo"e acc!"ate* #esc"ibing $ela%o's ban# -thi"t% )il# #on/e%s- b!tne(e"theless ta/es note that $ela%o )as the ancesto" of the 7an Alfonso* t"a#itional enemies of al6

An#al!s&

In#ee#* $ela%o's g"an#son Alfonso I 09469:92 ha# ca"(e# o!t a small p"incipalit% in the mo!ntains of

Ast!"ias* )ith its capital in O(ie#o* an# he began the fi"st tentati(e steps to)a"#s e@pansion into a"easaban#one# #!"ing the #"o!ght of 9<69: b% 7e"be"s* o" those )hich ha# not been completel%

aban#one# b!t onl% thinl% ga""isone#& Late" A"abic so!"ces state that the +!slims might ha(e been

con!e"e# at this point* ha# not the Ch"istians also been p"eocc!pie# )ith sta(ing off h!nge"&032 +o"eo(e"* the last )alis* as note# abo(e* )e"e mo"e inte"este# in the no"theaste"n secto"* )hich hel#

the p"omise of boot% f"om F"an/ish to)ns of the +i#i* than the% )e"e in the po(e"t%6st"ic/en

no"th)est&

In the mi##le pa"t of the cent!"% the D!e"o Valle% became mo"e o" less '23) totall% #epop!late# an#came to constit!te a no6man's lan# bet)een the Ast!"ian /ing#om an# al6An#al!s& A"o!n# 9:3* the last

%ea" of Alfonso I's "eign an# the fi"st of that of 'Ab# al6Rahmn I* the Ch"istian line 0incl!#ing the

b!ffe" ,one2 follo)e# the co!"se of the D!e"o f"om its mo!th to Osma an# then t!"ne# no"th)a"#*e@ten#ing into the 7as!e co!nt"%& The Islamic f"ontie" 0abo!t )hich mo"e )ill be sai# in Chapte" ;2*

"ep"esenting the line !p to )hich pe"manent settlement )as enco!"age#* "an f"om some)hat no"th of

Coimb"a in the )est* th"o!gh Co"ia* Tala(e"a* an# Tole#o* then s)inging no"th to encompass=!a#ala?a"a* T!#ela* an# $amplona& The Ch"onicle of Alfonso III* a t)elfth6cent!"% #oc!ment* "epo"ts

that Alfonso I capt!"e# thi"t% to)ns 0incl!#ing L!go* Asto"ga* Zamo"a* A(ila* an# Sego(ia2 f"om the

+!slims an# then )ith#"e)* ta/ing bac/ Ch"istian inhabitants of those places along )ith him toAst!"ias* lea(ing a -#ese"t- ($ermo) behin# him&092

It is p"obable that the #"o!ght mo"e than the /ing )as "esponsible fo" the #epop!lation of the D!e"o

Valle%* )he"e in an% case at least scatte"e# n!clei of he"#ing fol/ m!st ha(e "emaine#& Ne(e"theless*

the"e )as a mo(ement of pop!lation no"th)a"# )hich lent #emog"aphic )eight to Alfonso I's nascent/ing#om an# p"o(i#e# ne) n!clei of settlement )hich acte# to #iff!se Ch"istianit% among the 7as!es&0<2

A mo"e o"gani,e# effo"t at e@pansion so!th)a"# )as beg!n in the "eign of Alfonso II 09416<;2* #!"ing

)hich time the mo!ntain people began to mo(e #o)n onto the plain to begin small ag"a"ian settlementsin )hat )e"e to become LeMn an# Castile* the fi"st stage of )hich 0ca& <55<:2 in(ol(e# the settlement

of the hea#)ate"s of the Eb"o Ri(e" 0+i"an#a #e Eb"o* +ena Valle%2& >n#e" O"#oJo I 0<:56<332 thefoc!s shifts )est)a"# the Ping )as sai# to ha(e #i"ecte# the settlement of the #ese"te# to)ns of LeMn*

Asto"ga* T!%* an# Ama%a )ith people fleeing al6An#al!s&042 Fa"the" to the east* settle"s mo(e# ac"oss

the Eb"o an# fo"tifie# a line e@ten#ing f"om Ama%a to Oca&

>n#e" Alfonso III 0<3364112 the pace of settlement ha# to be slo)e# #o)n some)hat* fo" )ant of

s!fficient #ensit% of pop!lation in the ne)l% settle# a"eas to pe"mit f!"the" e@pansion& 7oth Alfonso IIan# Alfonso III attempte# to "ec"eate the image of the Visigothic mona"ch%* b% "eestablishing the

ecclesiastic st"!ct!"e of Visigothic times an# b% attempting to mo#el thei" "!#imenta"% "o%al



a#minist"ation afte" the mo"e highl% #e(elope# =othic mo#el&

In Castile* the line of settlement a#(ance# to the "i(e" A"lan,a in <95 '24)* an# to the A"lan,Mn in the

<45's* "eaching the D!e"o in the ea"l% tenth cent!"%& He"e the effo"t "este# #!"ing the apogee of Islamic

po)e"&

Se(e"al points sho!l# be ma#e abo!t the p"og"ess of e@pansion in the no"th)est !p to 1555& Fi"st* the"ate of settlement )as #ete"mine# la"gel% b% pop!lation #ensit% the D!e"o line )as "eache# in $o"t!gal

fift% %ea"s befo"e it )as in Castile* beca!se =alicia ha# a s!"pl!s pop!lation of settle"s* "ea#% to mo(e

so!th)a"# to coloni,e ne) lan#s& Castile* on the othe" han#* )as ch"onicall% !n#e"pop!late#& Secon#*the e@pansion of the Ch"istians #i# not in(ol(e the capt!"e of a single to)n f"om the +!slims 0the onl%

lan# act!all% capt!"e# #!"ing this pe"io# )as the >ppe" Rio?a in the 4;5's2 & 7% the en# of the cent!"%

the enti"e "egion ha# b!t one to)n )o"th% of the name* LeMn* )ith a pop!lation of onl% a fe) tho!san#&

Fa"the" east* Sancho =a"cGs I of Na(a""e 045:64;:2 )as able to capt!"e $amplona an# fo"tif% a longline of fo"ts in the foothills of the $%"enees* afte" the #ecline of the po)e"f!l 7an Kas clan ma#e s!ch

an a#(ance possible& 7!t no f!"the" a#(ances )e"e "egiste"e# #!"ing the tenth cent!"%* as 'Ab# al6

Rahmn III )as able to t!"n the Na(a""ese bac/ in a se"ies of campaigns in the 4;5's&

In the easte"n $%"enees a n!mbe" of mo!ntain co!nties ha# ta/en shape !n#e" F"an/ish pat"onage

0Sob"a"be* Ribago",a* $alla"s2& The F"an/s ha# p!she# the +!slims o!t of 7a"celona in <51 an#stabili,e# the f"ontie" some)hat to the so!th& The f!t!"e Catalonia "emaine# )ithin the F"an/ish o"bit

!ntil the Ca"olingian collapse of the mi#6ninth cent!"% ma#e it possible fo" the so!the"n co!nts to

establish in#epen#ent he"e#ita"% #%nasties& In the <95's =!if"e# the Hai"%* a #escen#ant of the =othicco!nt 7o""ell of A!sona* ha# establishe# his famil%'s cont"ol o(e" the co!nties of 7a"celona* =e"ona*

an# the mo!ntain te""ito"ies of >"gell* Ce"#aJa* an# Conflent& In a mo(ement analogo!s to the

settlement of the D!e"o Valle%* the plain of Vich )as settle#* beginning !n#e" =!if"e#'s #i"ection in theclosing %ea"s of the ninth cent!"% an# contin!ing into the mi##le of the tenth& 7% A&D& 1555 the pale of

settlement ha# e@ten#e# so!th of 7a"celona into the $ana#Gs an# )est to Sega""a&

5. The Ele0e#h:Ce#"r; Re0ersal$ Ca"ses a7 Cose!"eces

The ele(enth cent!"%* the most c"itical an# significant of the Spanish mi##le ages* )itnesse# a changeof sign in the penins!la" balance of '25) po)e"& Afte" the #eath of al6+ans"* the Caliphate of CM"#oba*still the st"ongest po)e" in E!"ope* collapse# in "!ins in a matte" of %ea"s& Afte" a pe"io# of st"!ggle

an# shifting po)e" "elations 0the fitna o" ana"ch% of 155<61512 the !nita"% Islamic state )as "eplace#

b% a shifting constellation of t)o #o,en o" so small states* "!le# b% the so6calle# $a"t% Pings 0mul/k

al- taw+'if)%0:52

The Ch"istian co!nt"ies )e"e then able to ta/e !ic/ a#(antage of the f"agmentation of Islamic po)e"*

b% fi"st establishing thei" s!,e"aint% o(e" the $a"t% Pings b% e@acting t"ib!te an# then b% "ene)ing the

con!est of Islamic te""ito"%& In the cent"al an# easte"n "egions the mo(ement began in 15:* )hen=a"ca #e N?e"a* /ing of Na(a""e* capt!"e# Calaho""a* sta"ting a penet"ation of the Eb"o Valle%* an#

en#e# )ith the capt!"e of To"tosa 011<2 an# LG"i#a 01142 b% the co!nt of 7a"celona* RamMn7e"eng!e"& In the )est* significant a#(ances )e"e ma#e b% Alfonso VI of Castile* beginning )ith thesei,!"e of Co"ia in I594 an# c!lminating in the capt!"e of Tole#o* the fi"st ma?o" Islamic to)n to fall* in

15<:& He"e the Castilians )e"e halte# b% the Almo"a(i# in(asion* b!t mo(ement on the )este"n coast

contin!e#* c!lminating in the capt!"e of Santa"em an# Lisbon b% Alfonso Hen"i!es of $o"t!gal in119&

The Taifa /ings fo!n# themsel(es fo"ce#* in #espe"ation* to call fo" help f"om the ma?o" po)e" in the

+ag"ib* the Almo"a(i#s* 7e"be" camel noma#s of the Sanh?a confe#e"ation )ho ha# e@ten#e# thei"

cont"ol o(e" most of )hat is no) +o"occo #!"ing the 15<5's& Afte" the fall of Tole#o* al6+!'tami# of



Se(ille in conce"t )ith othe" Taifa "!le"s in(ite# s!f ibn Tsh!fin to c"oss the st"aits an# sa(e them

f"om the Ch"istian pe"il& In the late s!mme" of 15<3 the Almo"a(i#s met Alfonso VI's a"m% at Sag"a?as*

nea" 7a#a?o,* an# inflicte# a st!nning #efeat !pon the Ch"istians& s!f "et!"ne# to No"th Af"ica* b!t

)hen the An#al!sis )e"e !nable to follo) !p on thei" (icto"%* he "et!"ne# in fo"ce* #ete"mine# to"emo(e f"om po)e" the elites that ha# been !nable to mobili,e Islamic fo"ces& 7et)een 1545 an#

115;*)hen Valencia* )hich Ro#"igo Dia, -El Ci#- ha# "!le# as an a!tonomo!s p"incipalit%* )as

capt!"e#* the Almo"a(i#s establishe# cont"ol of all al6An#al!s* con(e"ting it into a p"o(ince of thei"+ag"ibi empi"e&

The Almo"a(i#s )e"e able to stabili,e the sit!ation fo" onl% t)o #eca#es* thei" #ecline becoming

e(i#ent )hen Alfonso I of A"agon capt!"e# Za"ago,a* in the hea"tlan# of the mi##le Eb"o Valle% in

111<& Inc"easing p"ess!"e b% Alfonso I an# Alfonso VII of Castile e@ace"bate# the '28) #isaffection ofthe An#al!si masses )ith thei" 7e"be" o(e"lo"#s* lea#ing to a se"ies of pop!la" "ebellions in 11611:

)hich en#e# Almo"a(i# "!le in Spain& No)* ho)e(e"* the +!slims )e"e as f"agmente# as befo"e*

"egional cente"s coalescing into a ne) constellation of se(enteen Taifas& The c%cle then "epeate# itselfas the #isa""a% of these /ing#oms in(ite# a ne) "o!n# of Ch"istian (icto"ies 0sieges of CM"#oba an#

Alme"a* 11361192 )hich in t!"n le# to the in(asion of a ne) 7e"be" #%nast%* the Almoha#s* in 1191&

Once again the"e )as a g"eat +!slim (icto"%* )hen Ab s!f a'b #efeate# Alfonso VIII of Castile

in Ala"cos* on the CM"#oba6Tole#o "oa# in !l% 114:* an# once again the battle )"o!ght no change inthe balance of po)e"& Instea#* the Ch"istians )e"e incite# to "eg"o!p* to combine thei" fo"ces* an#

finall% to #efeat the Almoha#s #ecisi(el% at the 7attle of Las Na(as #e Tolosa 01;1;2* nea" 7ailGn in

no"the"n An#al!sia* the same spot )he"e Scipio ha# #efeate# the Ca"thaginians mo"e than a millenni!m befo"e&

The stage )as no) set fo" the final stage of the con!est& In the )est* Alfonso I of LeMn con!e"e#

7a#a?o, in 1;5* an# $o"t!g!ese (icto"ies in the lo)e" =!a#iana basin an# the Alga"(e follo)e#&

>n#e" Fe"#inan# III the Castilians occ!pie# the hea"tlan# of al6An#al!s* ta/ing CM"#oba in 1;3* aGnin 1;3* an# Se(ille in 1;<& In the east* ames I of A"agMn ha# capt!"e# the 7alea"ic Islan#s in 1;;4

an# Valencia in 1;<& Rights to the con!est of +!"cia ha# been the s!b?ect of th"ee #istinct

negotiations bet)een the c"o)ns of Castile an# A"agMn 0$acts of T!#ilGn* 11:9 Ca,ola* 1194 an#

Almi,"a* 1;2& $!"s!ant to t"eat% a""angements* Fe"#inan#'s son Alfonso* the f!t!"e Alfonso *ga""isone# +!"cia in 1;* completing the s!bmission of Lo"ca* +!la* an# Ca"tagena the follo)ing

%ea"& Afte" a "ebellion in 1;3* Alfonso ha# to call !pon his fathe"6in6la) ames I of A"agMn to s!b#!ethe te""ito"% a secon# time& The "es!lt )as that the /ing#om of +!"cia* altho!gh "emaining )ithin the

C"o)n of Castile* )as to become c!lt!"all% h%b"i#&

O!" anal%sis of An#al!si an# Spanish Ch"istian societ% en#s )hen the o"gani,ation of the con!e"e#

te""ito"ies b% the Ch"istians is complete# an# patte"ns of a#?!stment bet)een con!e"o"s an# con!e"e#ha(e been establishe#& At this point* in the last !a"te" of the thi"teenth cent!"%* )e can sa% that the

sit!ations an# p"ocesses that lent tonalit% to Ibe"ian histo"% in the high mi##le ages )e"e complete#

an#* altho!gh conf"ontation )ith the +!slims of ="ana#a contin!e# !ntil 14; an# s!bstantial n!mbe"s

of +!slims "emaine# behin# to contin!e '2() inte"acting )ith Ch"istians* the #%namics of Spanishsociet% of the late" mi##le ages )e"e the "es!lt of !ite #iffe"ent social phenomena&

et man% of the elements )hich came to cha"acte"i,e that Spanish societ% follo)e# #i"ectl% f"om the

"e(e"sal of the ele(enth cent!"%& In the fi"st place* the economic s%stem of the Islamic impe"i!m )as

se(e"el% #is"!pte# b% noma#ic in(asions& T!nisia* fo" e@ample* )hich ha# been the ma?o" ent"ept fo"An#al!si t"a#e )ith the East )as effecti(el% c!t off b% the Hill in(asions& Ibe"ian me"chants no)

t"a#e# #i"ectl% )ith Eg%pt* en#!"ing inc"easing competition f"om =enoan an# $isan t"a#e"s* )ho )e"e

the #i"ect beneficia"ies of the T!nisians' loss of inte"me#ia"% stat!s& 7!t easte"n t"a#e "o!tes ha# also been #is"!pte# b% +ongol an# T!"/ish )a""io"s* an# the f"agile econom% of the Islamic )o"l#*



#epen#ent !pon a comple@ s%stem of long6#istance t"a#e "o!tes fo" the s!ppl% of "a) mate"ials an#

gol# )hich !n#e")"ote the !"ban affl!ence of the Islamic high mi##le ages* )as b"o/en* initiating a

long pe"io# of #ecline&0:12

The 7e"be" in(asions ha# pa"a#o@ical "es!lts& The% ma#e comm!nication bet)een Islamic Spain an#the East mo"e #iffic!lt an# ten#e# to #"a) al6An#al!s in its )aning %ea"s into a +ag"ibi o"bit&

Heightene# intole"ance* the "es!lt of inc"easing Ch"istian p"ess!"e on a no) f!ll% Islami,e# societ%*

intensifie# the c!lt!"al isolation of al6An#al!s 0note the mo(ement of e)s to the Islamic east o" theCh"istian no"th* the p"actical #isappea"ance of Ch"istian mino"ities* an# the "ise of pop!la" "eligio!s

e@p"essions )ith @enophobic o(e"tones2& +!slim intole"ance )as matche# b% the ha"#ening of

Ch"istian attit!#es*0:;2 as the mo(ement of con!est gaine# fo"ce& C!"io!sl%* the gene"al economic

#islocation #i# not m!ch affect the Ibe"ian co!nt"ies* as both 7e"be" #%nasties "etaine# cont"ol of theS!#anese gol# "o!tes& The Almo"a(i#s an# Almoha#s coine# gol# pieces of high (al!e* )hich )e"e

copie# b% the Ch"istians 0e&g&* the gol# morabetinos of Alfonso VIII2& In essence* this gol#* )hen pai#

in t"ib!te o" capt!"e# in boot% 0the enti"e Almoha# t"eas!"% )as sai# to ha(e been capt!"e# at Las Na(as2 f!ele# the Ch"istian milita"% effo"t&

At the same time as al6An#al!s )as mo(ing into a ma"/e#l% +o"occan c!lt!"al o"bit* F"ench infl!ences

ma#e themsel(es felt in the Ch"istian /ing#oms& D!"ing the ele(enth cent!"% the to)ns along the pilg"image "o!te to Santiago #e Compostela became foci fo" the concent"ation an# "a#iation ofelements of F"ench c!lt!"e& As the Cl!niac "efo"m sp"ea# to '3+) Ch"istian Spain an# the ecclesiastical

hie"a"ch% became pe"meate# b% F"ench cle"ics* the c!lt!"al shift became ob(io!s& Visigothic )"iting

)as "eplace# b% the F"ench st%le* in#!cing a b"ea/ in t"a#itional c!lt!"al lin/s )ith the Visigothic6+o,a"abic c!lt!"al t"a#ition* as the co#ices )"itten in the ol# han# became inc"easingl% #iffic!lt to

"ea#& T)o of the p"ime o!t)a"# s%mbols of F"ench infl!ence )e"e the s!bstit!tion of the +o,a"abic

lit!"g% b% the Roman "ite an# the #iff!sion of Romanes!e a"t an# a"chitect!"e&0:2

The ele(enth cent!"% also )itnesse# an economic t!"n6a"o!n# in the Ch"istian /ing#oms& >"bani,ation*f!ele# b% S!#anese gol# an# the inte"national t"a#ing c!""ents flo)ing along the "oa# to Santiago* as

)ell as b% the opening of the )este"n +e#ite""anean to Ch"istian shipping* )as in e(i#ence

e(e"%)he"e* an# )ith it the #iff!sion of comme"cial metho#s an# c"aft techni!es b% the settling offo"eigne"s 0An#al!si e)s an# F"enchmen 66 francos2& The F"ench also )e"e agents of the #iff!sion of

fe!#al instit!tions an# st%les that ha# hithe"to been !n#e"#e(elope# in Spain& In pa"t* this mo(ement of

fe!#ali,ation )as enco!"age# b% the g"o)ing maste"% of i"on techni!es an# s!bse!ent imp"o(ements

in the !alit% of Spanish a"ms an# tac/&0:2 The pop!la" ca(al"ies of the ea"l% phases of the f"ontie"

)a"fa"e ten#e# in the t)elfth an# thi"teenth cent!"ies to ce#e in impo"tance to mo"e p"ofessionali,e#

!nits 0the milita"% o"#e"s2&

8e ha(e seen* in this "api# o(e"(ie) of the ch"onolog% of e(ents in Spain f"om the eighth th"o!gh thethi"teenth cent!"ies* that neithe" of the societies #isc!sse# #e(elope# in isolation* eithe" f"om each othe"

o" f"om the la"ge" )o"l# s%stem o" "egional s!bs%stems in )hich the% fo!n# themsel(es embe##e#& The

specific conto!"s p"o#!ce# b% these mol#ing infl!ences a"e the s!b?ect of the anal%tical chapte"s thatfollo)&

Notes fo" Chapte" 1

1& This section is base# !pon $hilip ="ie"son* -Comme"ce in the Da"/ Ages. A C"iti!e of theE(i#ence*- &ransactions of the .o$al 0istorical ociet$, :th se"ies* 4 014:42* 1;615 Den%s Ha%*

#uro1e2 &he #mer"ence of an Idea 0Ne) o"/. Ha"pe" an# Ro)* 14332 A"chibal# R& Le)is* aval

Power and &rade in the 3editerranean, A&D& :5561155 0$"inceton. $"inceton >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 14:12



Lomba"#* #s1aces et r4seaux du haut mo$en +"e5 an# An#"e) +& 8atson* -7ac/ to =ol# an# Sil(e"*-

&he #conomic 0istor$ .eview, ;n# se"ies* ;5 014392* 16&

;& On the Islamic )o"l# as a me#i!m of #iff!sion* see An#"e) +& 8atson* -The A"ab Ag"ic!lt!"al

Re(ol!tion an# its Diff!sion* 95561155*- ournal of #conomic 0istor$, 01492* 146; see alsoA"nol# To%nbee's "ema"/s on the c!lt!"al con#!cti(it% of noma#ism* 6 tud$ of 0istor$, 15 (ols&

0Lon#on. O@fo"# >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 1461432* III. 4164&

& One of the fe) to st"ess the Roman he"itage is Ha"ol# Li(e"mo"e* &he ri"insof 1ain and Portu"al

0Lon#on. =eo"ge Allen an# >n)in* 14912* p& 5;* )he"e he #esc"ibes the Islamic Empi"e* in its ea"l%stages at least* as a neo6Roman s%stem&

& On A"abic "esponse to Roman h%#"a!lic mon!ments* see L!cie 7olens* -L'Ea! et l'i""igation #'ap"s

les t"aitGs #'ag"onomie an#alo!s a! mo%en6ge 0Ie6IIe sicles2*- 1tions 34diterran4ennes, 13

0Decembe" 149;2* p& 99 =lic/* Irri"ation and ociet$ in 3edieval 7alencia, p& 143 al6Him%a"* 8a 14ninsule ib4ri9ue au mo$en-+"e, e#& an# t"ans& E& LG(i6$"o(enUal 0Lei#en. E& & 7"ill* 14<2* p& 1:

an# No"man Smith* 3an and :ater2 6 0istor$ of 0$dro-&echnolo"$ 0Ne) o"/. Sc"ibne"'s* 149:2* p&

;;& On the pl!n#e"ing of b!il#ing stones b% noma#s* see ibn Phal#n* &he 3u9addimah2 ;n

Introduction to 0istor$, e#& an# t"ans& F"an, Rosenthal* (ols& 0Ne) o"/. $antheon* 14:<2* I. 5&

:& al6+)a"#* 8es statuts "ouvernementaux, t"ans& E& Fagnan 0Algie"s. A#olphe o!"#an* 141:2* p&<;&

3& On the place of Cent"al Asia an# the -focalit%- of the Islamic )o"l# in the p"ocess of technological

#iff!sion* see oseph Nee#ham* -Cent"al Asia an# the Histo"% of Science an# Technolog%*- ournal ofthe .o$al Central 6sian ociet$, 3 01442* 1:61: an# idem, cience and Civilisation in China* (ol&

I 0Camb"i#ge. Camb"i#ge >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 143:2* especiall% p& ;;5& On Islam as an -inte"me#iate-

societ%* see S& D& =oitein* tudies in Islamic 0istor$ and Institutions 0Lei#en. E& & 7"ill* 14332* pp& :46

35& On the c!lt!"al "ole of $e"sia* see +a!"ice Lomba"# #s1aces et r4seaux du haut mo$en +"e, p& 3o*an# idem, 8'Islam dans sa 1remi<re"randeur 0$a"is. Flamma"ion* 14912* p& 15:&

9& Nee#ham* -Cent"al Asia&- Fo" a s!mma"% of the nat!"e of #iff!sion f"om a geog"aphical pe"specti(e*

see $ete" =o!l#* 1atial =iiffusion, Commission on College =eog"aph% of the Association of Ame"ican=eog"aphe"s Reso!"ce $ape" No& 08ashington* D&C&* 14342 fo" an anth"opological app"oach* see* fo"e@ample* =eo"ge +& Foste"* Culture and Con9uest 0Chicago. K!a#"angle* 14352* pp& 156;5&

<& Fe"nan# 7"a!#el* &he 3editerranean and the 3editerranean :orld in the 6"e of Phili1 II, t"ans&

Sin Re%nol#s* ; (ols& 0Ne) o"/. Ha"pe" an# Ro)* 149;61492* I. ;<;&

4& iete Partidas, I&3&: =on,alo +enGn#e, $i#al* 8os caminos en la historia de #s1aña 0+a#"i#.E#iciones C!lt!"a Hispnica* 14:12* p& :9 0on the sestaferia, F"i#a%* co"(Ge in Ast!"ias2&

15& Albe"t C& Leighton* &rans1ort and Communication in #arl$ 3edieval #uro1e 0Ne)ton Abbot.

Da(i# an# Cha"les* 149;2* p& :9&

11& acinto 7osch Vil* 0istoria de 6>barrac?n $ su sierra, +a"tin Almag"o* e#& Vol& 11* 6>barrac?nmusulmana 0Te"!el. Instit!to #e Est!#ios T!"olenses* 14:42* p& ;1 0see also ibid%, p& * on the"eplacement of "oa#s b% "i(e"s as a"te"ies of comm!nication )he"e no Roman "oa#s s!"(i(e#2 +an!el

=on,le, =a"cia* alamanca2 8a re1oblaci@n $ la ciudad en la baia edad media 0Salamanca. Cent"o #e

Est!#ios Salmantinos* 1492* p& :< fo" Roman "oa#s an# b"i#ges in a "!"al (alle% nea" LeMn* see!stiniano Ro#"ig!e, Fe"nn#e,* #l monasterio de 6rd@n 0LeMn. Conse?o S!pe"io" #e In(estigaciones

Cientificas* 1432* p& 199 on the !se of Roman "oa#s b% both +!slims an# Ch"istians* see Snche,6

Albo"no,* #stam1as de la vida en 8e@n hace mil años, "# e#& 0+a#"i#. Espasa6Calpe* 142* p& 155 n&

<< p& 15 n& &



1;& Lomba"#* #s1aces et r4seaux du haut mo$en +"e* p%<1 osG Angel =a"cia #e Co"t,a"* #l dominio

del monasterio de an 3illAn de la Co"olla (si"los B a BIII) 0Salamanca. >ni(e"si#a# #e Salamanca*

14342* pp& 1:161:;&

1& =& +enGn#e, $i#al* 8os caminos en la historia de #s1aña, p& 1. -/a""o pe" !e loc!m !e si(itamb!la"e* si non ab!e"it /e""e"a #i"ecta* licentiam #am!s pe"gat pe" #efesas pe" te""as labo"atas* pe"

(ineas* et limites f"ange"e pe" (ia #isc!""ente a# /a""o (el a# e!s et m!las ca"gatas amb!la"e&-

1& Richa"# 8& 7!lliet* &he Camel and the :heel 0Camb"i#ge* +ass&. Ha"(a"# >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 149:2*

p& 115& 7!lliet ma/es no "efe"ence to climatic change b!t if* as seems to ha(e been the case especiall%in No"th Af"ica* the climate )as becoming mo"e a"i# f"om the thi"# th"o!gh the se(enth cent!"%* s!ch a

shift )o!l# ha(e "einfo"ce# the competiti(e e#ge of the camel o(e" the ca"t in t"anspo"t&

1:& Snche,6Albo"no,* =es1oblaci@n $ re1oblaci@n del valle del =uero 07!enos Ai"es.Instit!to #e

Histo"ia #e EspaJa* 14332* p& 1:1 n& :9 7!lliet* &he Camel andthe :heel, pp& ;;46;5&

13& S& D& =oitein* 6 3editerranean ociet$, ; (ols& to #ate 07e"/ele%. >ni(e"sit% of Califo"nia $"ess*14396 2* I. ;9:6;93&

19& On st"!ct!"al feat!"es of me#ie(al comm!nications* see Lomba"#* #s1aces et "Gsea!@ #! ha!t

mo%en ge* p$& :5 7"a!#el* 3editerranean* I. :9* 35* 3& On specific t"a(eling times* see =&+enGn#e, $i#al* 8os caminos en la historia de #s1aña, p& : E& LG(i6$"o(enal* #s1aña musulmanahasta la caida del califato de C@rdoba% Instituciones $ vida social e intelectual, t"ans& Emilio =a"cia

=Mme, 0(ol& : of 0istoria de #s1aña #i"ecte# b% Ramon +enGn#e, $i#al2 0+a#"i#. Espasa6

Calpe*14:92* p& 1<4&

1<& =& +enGn#e, $i#al* Los caminos en la histo"ia #e EspaJa* p$& 3 0citing Poema de mio Cid, (e"ses1<613542 L!is V,!e, #e $a"ga* osG +& Laca""a an# !an >"a Ri!* 8as 1er-e"rinaciones a

antia"o de Com1ostela, (ols& 0+a#"i#. Conse?o S!pe"io" #e In(estigaciones Cientificas* 14<642* I.

31& The iss!e of the pe"meabilit% of the f"ontie" is also #isc!sse# in Chapte" ;* section 3* belo)&

14& On the coo"#ination of lan# an# sea t"a(el* see =oitein* tudies in Islamic 0istor$, p& 5 idem, 3editerranean ociet$, I. ;936;99* 19& On the accele"ation of pace #!"ing s!mme"* see 7"a!#el*

3editerranean, I. ;:3&

;5& =oitein* tudies in Islamic 0istor$* pp& 51 also* idem, 3editerranean ociet$, I. ;9:&

;1& =oitein* 3editerranean ociet$, I. 5;* 1<* 51 idem, 8etters of 3edievalewish &raders

0$"inceton. $"inceton >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 1492* p& :: n& 19 +ahm# 'Ali +a//* #nsa$o sobre lasa1ortaciones orientales en la #s1aña musulmana $ su influencia en la formaci@n de la cultura

his1ano-Arabe 0+a#"i#. Instit!to #e Est!#ios Islmicos* 143<2* p& ;&

;;& =oitein* tudies in Islamic 0istor$, p& ;44 3editerranean ociet$* I. * 35* 34* ;9:* &

;& See Lomba"#* #s1aces et r4seaux du haut mo$en +"e, p& 14&

;& E& A& Thompson* &he oths in 1ain 0O@fo"#. Cla"en#on $"ess* 14342* especiall% pp& ;136;19&;:& Cla!#io Snche,6Albo"no,* -RepoblaciMn #el "eino ast!"leonGs& $"oceso* #inmica % p"o%ecciones*- Cuadernos de 0istoria de #s1aña, :6: 014912* 53 n& 19&

;3& Li(e"mo"e * ri"ins of 1ain and Portu"al, p& ;1&

;9& A b"ief s!mma"% of )hat little is /no)n of Visigothic econom% is fo!n# in aime Vicens Vi(es* 6n

#conomic 0istor$ of 1ain 0$"inceton. $"inceton >ni(e"sit% $"ess* 14342* pp& <64;&

;<& Ignacio OlagQe* 8a revoluci@n islAmica en occidente 07a"celona. =!a#a""ama* 1492* pp& 9611;*;;6;<;& One in#e@ of a"i#it% in No"th Af"ica is the e@tension of 9anat (fo""ara) s%stems in T!nisia



f"om the se(enth th"o!gh ninth cent!"ies see la"De, .evoluci@n islAmica, p& 41* an# aime Oli(e"

Asin* 0istoria del nombre E3adridE 0+a#"i#. Conse?o S!pe"io" #e In(estigaciones Cientificas* 14:42*

pp& :4639&

;4& Leopol#o To""es 7albs* Ciudades his1ano-musulmanas, Hen"i Te""asse* e#&* ; (ols& 0+a#"i#.+iniste"io #e As!ntos E@te"io"es* n&#&2* I. ;9 n& <* ;6&

5& +an!el Dia, % Dia,* -+etales % mine"ia en la Gpoca (isigMtica* a t"a(Gs #e Isi#o"o #e Se(illa*- in

8a mineria his1ana e iberoaniericana, 9 (ols& 0LeMn. Cate#"a #e San Isi#o"o* 14952* I. ;316;9&

1& osG +a"ia Laca""a* -$ano"ama #e la histo"ia !"bana en la penins!la ibG"ica #es#e el siglo V al *-

in #studios de alta edad media es1añola 0Valencia. An!ba"* 14912* p& :; =lic/* Irri"ation and ociet$in 3edieval 7alencia, p& 14:&

;& Antonio >bieto A"teta* Ciclos econ@micos en la edad media es1añola 0Valencia. An!ba"* 14342* pp&

146;5 Dia, % Dia,* -+etales % mine"ia*- 1assim% On Isi#o"e gene"all%* see 8illiam D& Sha"pe* -Isi#o"e

of Se(ille*- =ictionar$ of cientific io"ra1h$ 0he"eafte" cite# =2* 1 (ols& to #ate 0Ne) o"/.Sc"ibne"'s* 14952 9. ;96;<&

& To%nbee* tud$ of 0istor$, III. ; & N& Hillga"th* -Visigothic Spain an# Ea"l%Ch"istian I"elan#*-

Proceedin"s of the .o$al Irish 6cadem$, Section C* 3; 0143;2*195&& See the f!ll acco!nt of the "ecei(e# (ie) b% Cla!#io Snche,6Albo"no,* r?"enes de la naci@n

es1añola% #l reino de 6sturias, (ols& 0O(ie#o. Instit!to #e Est!#ios Ast!"ianos* 149;6149:2* I. 3364;* 16:<&

:& R& Do,%* .echerches sur I'histoire et la littirature des Arabes d'#s1a"ne1endant le 3o$en 6"e, ;

(ols& 0Lei#en. E& & 7"ill* 1<<12* I. especiall% 36< an# la"De, .evoluci@n islAmica en occidente, p&

;; 0in(asion of Chal#eans )ith ho"ses* f"om 0abbakuk) an# 0th"ee an# a half %ea"s of #!"ation ofcon!est* f"om =aniel 2&

3& On Co!nt !lian* see Li(e"mo"e* ri"ins of 1ain and Portu"al * p& ;<1& Acco"#ing to Vall(G*

-Alg!nos p"oblemas #e la in(asiMn m!s!lmana*- p& 3:* !lian )as also a =oth* the go(e"no" of C#i,&

Snche,6Albo"no,* hol#ing to the gene"all% accepte# (ie)* follo)s ibn Phal#n in s!pposing !lian toha(e been a Ch"istian 7e"be"* a fidelis of 8iti,a an# emi" of the =ma"a t"ibe -F"ente a !nas pginas

e""Mneas sob"e la con!ista #e EspaJa po" los m!sm!lmanes*- Cuadernos de 0istoria de #s1aña, 46

:5 014342* 53659 n& & On Ta"f* see Vall(G* -Alg!nos p"oblemas*- p& 3: tarfa in A"abic means point* !tmost point 0an ob(io!s all!sion to its location on the st"aits of =ib"alta"2& On T"i* ibid%, p&

:3& OlagQe* R evoluci@n islAmica en occidente, pp& ;96;9:* belie(es T"i to ha(e been a =oth*

go(e"no" 0in name at least2 of Tingitania& Fo" fancif!l (ie)s of T"i an# !lian as e)s* see "efe"encesin No"man Roth* -The e)s an# the +!slim Con!est of Spain*- ewishocial tudies, < 014932* 13*

1<&

9& Vall(G* -Ag!nos p"oblemas #e la in(asiMn m!s!lmana*- p& 39& The basis fo" Vall(G's c"iti!e* that

the A"ab ch"onicle"s too/ place names of C#i, 7a% f"om classical so!"ces an# applie# them

mista/enl% to the 7a% of Algeci"as* is con(incing an# m!st be bette" ans)e"e# than b% Snche,6Albo"no,'s h%ste"ical "epl%* cite# in n&3* abo(e&

<& See OlagQe* .evoluci@n islAmica en occidente, pp& ;;6;:. 15*555 )a" ho"ses )o!l# ha(e cons!me#

55*555 lite"s of )ate" #ail%& If the n!mbe" is "easonabl% acc!"ate* it )o!l# ha(e ma#e sense to let theenem% a#(ance "athe" than attempt a "i#e to Se(ille in mi#6!l%&

4& The mate"ial on the c!"(e of con(e"sion comes f"om con(e"sations )ith Richa"# 8& 7!lliet an#

f"om his boo/ Conversion to Islam in the 3edieval Period2 6n #ssa$ in Guantitative 0istor$* )hich I

"ea# in man!sc"ipt )ith his gene"o!s pe"mission& Fo" his metho# of anal%sis* see his chapte"



-Con(e"sion to Islam an# the Eme"gence of a +!slim Societ% in I"an*- in A& Atmo"e an# N& Le(t,ion*

e#s&* Conversion to Islam2 6 Com1arative tud$ of Islami!ation 0in p"ess2& 7!lliet's con(e"sion c!"(es

a"e base# on statistical anal%sis of names of Islamic ?!"isp"!#ents compile# in biog"aphical #ictiona"ies*

o" taba9+t% He fi"st #e"i(es a -c!"(e of +!slim names*- base# on the ten#enc% of con(e"ts to Islam toa#opt fo" thei" chil#"en names "ea#il% i#entifiable as +!slim* #"a)n f"om a "est"icte# list of s!ch

names 0+!hamma#* Ahma#* 'Ali* al6Hasan* al6H!sain2& Res!lts f"om this sample can be chec/e#

against a smalle" sample of ancesto"s )ith non6+!slim* non6A"ab names 0e&g&* an An#al!si fa9ih of thetenth cent!"% )ith a g"an#fathe" o" g"eat6g"an#fathe" name# Lb 66 Lope2& This sample %iel#s a -c!"(e

of act!al con(e"sion*- an# the"e is a t)o6gene"ation offset 0abo!t se(ent%6fi(e %ea"s2 bet)een the t)o

c!"(es& Fig!"es 1 an# 9 sho) c!"(es of act!al con(e"sion& 7!lliet's sample fo" al6An#al!s is too smallto be statisticall% significant %et it co""espon#s p"ecisel% to c!"(es fo" othe" Islamic societies 0Fig!"e

92& In geog"aphical #iff!sion lite"at!"e* the logistic c!"(e is the no"mal c!"(e of inno(ation a#option

see =o!l#* 1atial =iffusion, pp& 146;1&

5& 3u9addimah, I. ;9&

1& .evoluci@n islAmica en occidente* pp& ;:16;:&

;& +a//* 61ortaciones orientales, p& : 0al6Samh's lette"2 an# 1 (baladi$$*n) (ete"ans )e"e also

calle# al-'arab al-a9dam*n -- -Ol# A"abs&-& Ibid%, pp& 195619;* listing fi(e p"o6'Abbsi# !p"isings bet)een 9:: an# 9<1&

& A& 7a"be"o an# +& Vigil* obre los or?"enes sociales de la recon9uista 07a"celona.A"iel* 1492* p&

<;&

:& Ibid &* p& < n& 9;. ut nolint esse .omani% Dia, % Dia,* -+etales % mine"ia*- p&;39* notes that Isi#o"eomitte# Cantab"ia f"om his acco!nt of mine"al "eso!"ces* pe"haps beca!se he #i# not consi#e" that

"egion pa"t of Hispania&

3& OlagQe* .evoluci@n islAmica en occidente* p& ;<3 Snche,6Albo"no,* =es1oblaci@n $ re1oblaci@n

del valle del =uero, pp& 1<561<&

9& Snche,6Albo"no,* =es1oblaci@n $ re1oblaci@n del valle del =uero, p& 1;:& Ibn al6K!ti%%amentions a ba""en ,one l%ing bet)een Ch"istian an# Islamic te""ito"% in the ninth cent!"% (ibid%, p& ;:12&

<& osG Angel =a"cia #e Co"t,a"* 8a 41oca medieval 0Histo"ia #e EspaJa Alfag!a"a* 112 0+a#"i#.

Alian,a* 1492* p& 15& Note that the con(e"sion of the 7as!es* once th"o)n into contact )ith an

int"!si(e Ch"istian pop!lation* )o!l# also follo) a logistic c!"(e&

4& Snche,6Albo"no,* =es1oblaci@n $ re1oblaci@n del valle del =uero, pp& : n& ;* ;1:&

:5& The social #%namics of this b"ea/#o)n an# "ealignment of fo"ces is #isc!sse# in Chapte" an# the

changing patte"n of political o"gani,ation in Chapte" 3&

:1& Lomba"#* L'Islam* p& ;5; =oitein* tudies in Islamic 0istor$, p& 15 an# idem, 3editerranean

ociet$, I. ;&:;& The s%mmet"% is note# b% !an Ve"ne"* 8os musulmanes es1añoles 07a"celona. Sa%ma* 14312* p&:4&

:& See the #isc!ssion of st%listic infl!ences in Chapte" 4& Fo" s!mma"ies of ele(enth6cent!"% changes*

see & +& Laca""a* -La "epoblaciMn #e las ci!#a#es en el camino #e Santiago. S! t"ascen#encia social*

c!lt!"al % econMmica*- in V,!e, #e $a"ga et al%, Pere"rinaciones a antia"o, I. 3: an# >bieto*Ciclos econ@micos, p& 1;&

:& =a"ca #e Co"t,a"* #1oca medieval, p& 1:4&

The Islamic and Christian Spain in The Early Middle Ages

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