1

THE INTERREGNUM – BETWEEN REIGNS

The Interregnum was a series of experiments to try and replace the monarchy with a new

form of government. It tried and failed.

The focus for our study is to examine the problems, achievements and failure of each

experiment, leading to an overall answer on why the republic failed

Three Phases of the Interregnum:

The Rump 1649-1653

Barebones Parliament 1653

The Protectorate 1653-1658

This will ultimately lead is to the restoration of the monarchy

2

THE RUMP 1649-1653

INTRODUCTION

After the Kings execution Ireton had intended to dissolve parliament and call new elections. He was persuaded that this would only produce a Royalist majority and agreed to purge Parliament instead

By default the government became the butt end of parliament or the Rump. Exercised traditional role of parliaments, but it also took over most of the executive powers of monarchs. It

elected annually a Council of State of 41 members to carry out these powers but regularly interfered.

March 1649 the monarchy and House of Lords were abolished and in May England declared a Commonwealth - a state governed by its people without a king

clear that some form of religious toleration would have to be established - expectation of „godly reformation’ in government and society - but beyond this little defined

PART ONE: What difficulties stood in the way of reform?

The Mps who were to carry out this Godly reformation found themselves beset by conflicting pressures

On one hand the army, radicals and other idealists demanded wholesale reform. Council of Officers and their supporters favoured reform of Church as well as significant measure of religious freedom, simplification of the laws, and greater social justice, such as the end of imprisonment for debt.

The Baptist Church favoured the end of the national church and the reliance of all ministers on voluntary contributions

The Independents favoured retention of a reformed national Church with the payment of ministers by some means other than tithes

The more radical sects demanded complete religious freedom

Most Mps aware of need for control and restoration of authority if confidence to be restored - especially among governing class in localities

There were complaints of social unrest, the behaviour of radicals and the breakdown of parish administration led to county petitions demanding the restoration of order and the established Church.

Obstacles in way of reform - law reform difficult and complex. The Rump was responsible for planning and debating of legislation and maintenance of Govt - a huge workload

To add to burdens the army leaders wanted progress made in constitutional reforms, to lay the foundations for permanent new structure

PART TWO: THE REVOLUTION AND ITS ENEMIES

Who opposed the new regime in 1649? How effectively were these enemies dealt with?

Execution greeted with shock and horror in both Britain and Europe. In Scotland Charles II was immediately proclaimed King, while the Irish rebels were still in arms and claimed allegiance to the king.

First move came from the levellers. At time of the purge they had been side tracked by Ireton into discussions for a new Agreement

of the people.

Mid December negotiations failed over extent of religious toleration to be established

The Levellers were left isolated and irrelevant while the army executed the king and placed the Rump in power (70 members)

The Leveller Challenge The Levellers immediately launched a bitter attack on Cromwell and Ireton. They again sought to use the army as a power base, encouraging the rank and file to petition against martial law - By March 1649 this had become an attempt to incite a mutiny in army and motivated Cromwell to act. The Rump ordered arrest of the leaders who were imprisoned in the Tower

Oath of Engagement:

Jan 1650 all males over 18

years of age were to take an

oath of engagement, promising

obedience to ‘the

commonwealth’

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In response they sought to exploit discontent amongst the regiments over arrears in pay and prospect of service in Ireland, by calling for the restoration of the Agitators and the General Council April - minor mutiny over pay in London led to execution of Robert Lockyer and large demonstration at his funeral May - Brief mutiny at Salisbury among some of men bound for Ireland and more serious outbreak at Oxford. At same time prisoners in the Tower were putting the finishing touches to the third Agreement of the People 14 May - Cromwell and Fairfax caught up with main body of mutineers at Burford and taking them by surprise during the night, captured over three hundred. By the time the agreement saw the light of day, the movement that had created it was broken October - Lilburne tried for treason but acquitted - exiled on orders of the Rump and when he sought to return he was arrested - from 1654 imprisoned in Jersey where he converted to the Quaker faith The Leveller threat ceased to be significant by the end of 1649 Renewal of censorship by Rump while never completely successful did much to curtail their impact and the imprisonment of the leaders destroyed party organisation. After 1649 there were demands for radical reforms from within the army and a radical threat to the existing hierarchy was posed by new religious groups such as the Ranters, Diggers and Quakers.

The Royalist Threat Oliver Cromwell and War The main problem for the new government was the threat of Royalist invasion from Ireland or Scotland. News of the execution had united Irish Anglicans and Catholics and enhanced the possibility of invasion by Charles II with foreign help. The defeat of the Levellers allowed Cromwell to land in Ireland in July - brutally stormed Drogheda, to the north of London and slaughtered the garrison for their refusal to surrender. Many civilians died in the process. Followed by similar attack on Wexford. Effective - by the spring of 1650 he was able to return to Britain and counter the Scottish threat Returning to Britain in Spring 1650, Cromwell was dispatched to Scotland in order to counter threat of invasion from north. Scotland still possessed formidable army under leadership of David Leslie, which they now placed at disposal of Charles II. Cromwell faced a difficult task and after months of frustration the English army was trapped in Dunbar, deprived of

supplies and weakened by disease. A combination of impatience on part of Scots and daring counter-assault by Cromwell led to his stunning victory on 3 Sept 1650 When Charles turned to the west of Scot and raised new forces for an attack on Eng itself, Cromwell moved to cut him off, and with superior numbers destroyed the Royalist army at Worcester on 3 Sept 1651. Royalist sentiment

Eight years of war, high taxes, and the dislocation of trade had been followed by bad harvests in 1649 - economy in desperate straits, and distress was

widespread

To maintain an army on top of this was a burden on regime and taxpayer. Secondly, the army‟s interference in politics was widely resented. Thirdly, the army was associated with radical groups and ideas that appeared to threaten stability at every level.

While older „Puritan‟ radicals such as the Baptists and Independents accepted the authority of the Bible as a restraint on individual freedom, a newer generation of radicals had repudiated even that. The execution of a reigning monarch suggested that anything was possible and while millenarian groups confidently awaited

What happened to the

governing class?

Gentry who might be hostile were

excluded from commissions of

peace but many of traditional

governing class withdrew from

active part in govt

Had to rely on new men, lesser

gentry

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Christ‟s return to rule in person, others argued that He had already returned in the human heart and mind to justify complete individual freedom. Expression of this freedom varied:

The Ranters repudiated conventional morality, declaring that since God made all things, all that was natural was part of God and sin existed only in the mind.

The Diggers claimed communal use of the land, since the earth was made by God for all humanity to share.

The fears generated by such radical ideas served

to enhance the image of monarchy as the guarantee of order and the normal process of law.

Charles‟ courage and dignity in death had begun to restore respect for him, and for the monarchy that he represented.

Royalist propaganda was already capitalising on this - Eikon Basilike in 1649, went through thirty-six editions in a year.

While sentiment and nostalgia increased its appeal, the attraction of monarchy was also based on political ideology and experience. - made new orders task even harder

It was going to take time for the new regime to win support.

PART THREE: THE FAILURE OF THE RUMP

Why was the Rump increasingly unpopular?

The measures the Rump took reveals the conservative and authoritarian character of the regime, and explains its popularity as well as growing dissatisfaction of the army

Blasphemy and Adultery Acts of 1650 increased repression and launched an attack on the radical sects

measures were taken to improve the supply of good preaching ministers but no move was made to replace tithes or find a less oppressive means of supporting the ministry

Measures of economic regulation, especially the Navigation Acts, were passed to encourage the development of trade

A successful war against the Dutch helped build up the navy and encourage expansion of overseas trade

In long run these measures helped lay foundations for economic growth, but at the time they seemed to merely be furthering the interests of the merchants who were establishing growing interest in Parliament

The Hales Commission established to consider law reform in 1651 but its report was set aside in Feb 1653

Progress with electoral reform and the new constitutional measures was very slow, nudged only by frequent prompting of army and Cromwell

Why did Cromwell dissolve the Rump by force in 1653?

Suggestions by the members of the House to plan for recruitment of new members, which would protect seats of existing Mps - arrangements for Ireland and Scotland to be represented - indicated to the army that the Rump was merely seeking its own interests.

As the prospects for reform dwindled so the irritation of the army rose

By the end of 1653 the Council of Officers were pressing Cromwell to take action

Navigation Acts

Oct 1651 which declared that all

imports to England had to be in

English ships or in the ships of the

country where the imported goods

originated.

The act drove out Dutch middlemen

from England’s trade to West Africa

and the New World, to the immense

benefit of English merchants

Caused war with Netherlands, which

England won because of powerful

navy

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On 20 April 1653 he entered the Commons with a military escort, delivered a tirade of criticism at the astonished members and ordered them to leave

He later justified his action by claiming they were planning to maintain themselves in power indefinitely

The final decision by Cromwell seems to have been sparked by the apparent consideration of the Rump to pass an Act of Dissolution. The subsequent election would produce a large number of conservative Mps. Cromwell wanted some measures of electoral reform built in and a Council of State which would include Mps and army officers - would govern in the interval and supervise new elections. BUT, if parliament was dissolved the army would have no say and face the probability of an even more hostile parliament in the future, which meant no reform.

Why did Cromwell replace the Rump with a nominated Assembly?

What was the alternative to the Rump - Cromwell turned to his officers for advice

John Lambert suggested a small executive council, and army Council of State, which would take over the King‟s functions alongside new parliaments

From the fifth monarchist Colonel Thomas Harrison came the suggestion of an Assembly of Saints, called from the best part of the nation, to plan a govt fit to welcome the returning Christ! Cromwell chose the latter.

The nominated assembly was nicknamed the Barebones Parliament

The Fifth Monarchists Believed in an extreme form of the more widespread millenarian idea, that the world was dominated by great struggle between God and the devil, the forces of good and evil. It would end with the final triumph of good and the return of Christ to rule on earth in person for a thousand years. Fifth monarchists argued that there were four great earthly monarchies which would be followed by the fifth monarchy, the rule of Christ. The Fifth monarchists argued that it was the duty of the „saints‟ to tear down earthly government and prepare the way for Christ‟s return.

6

THE BAREBONES PARLIAMENT 1653

The Barebones parliament was a nominated assembly, chosen by the army‟s Council of Officers. Influential in the Council of Officers with Cromwell was Thomas Harrison, who saw the new parliament as an assembly of the godly. Harrison used his influence to have Fifth Monarchists and their sympathisers chosen. One of them was „Praise God‟ Nicholas Barbon form whom the nickname „Barebones‟ came.

Cromwell did share some of Harrison‟s vision and believed, for a while, that such an assembly of the godly would rule the English, God‟s chosen people, in a way directed by God.

It became associated with low social origins, but over one third of the members were men of sufficient status to have been elected to any parliament and over two thirds had been JPs for more than three years. However often from the minor gentry rather than greater families, some had links with radicals and about twelve of 144 were Fifth Monarchists.

Began by declaring itself to be parliament with all parliamentary privileges

1) Who was the key leader apart from Cromwell? What influence did he have 2) Named after? 3) Nature of men on parliament?

What did it achieve? Religion • This Parliament has a largely undeserved reputation for religious fanaticism. • A small group within it was. The most important of these was the Fifth Monarchy Men. They believed should pave

the way for the Second Coming of Christ by removing all ungodly men from office and replacing them with Saints.

• The radicals co-ordinated their efforts in Parliament by meeting at the house of Arthur Squibt a radical member, to plan strategy. The traditional members were not used to organising themselves in Parliament, and sometimes did not appear for crucial votes, thus giving the radicals a free hand.

• In November and early December, they appeared to be making an all-out attack on the idea of any organised national Church structure or organisation.

• There were measures to abolish tithes without any thought of how the Church was to be financed, and the abolition of the right of laymen to appoint to livings. These were not only seen as tending towards dissolution of Church organisation but as an attack on property.

• At the same time there was an increase in the activities of the radical sects, and attacks on Cromwell who was seen by the religious visionaries as not supporting them. The army also came under attack with proposals that expenditure on it should be cut.

• In these circumstances the religious radicals had cut themselves off from support from anyone except themselves. Cromwell and many of the senior army officers, as well as moderates in the Parliament, were of the opinion that the Parliament had been hijacked by religious maniacs with no interest in settled government and the country was heading for chaos. Support for Fifth Monarchist ideas among the officers had waned, so Harrison was isolated in the Army Council. [Sharp]

1. Why did radicals often have a free hand 2. Measures to abolish tithes and abolition of right laymen to appoint to livings 3. How did actions of Barebones isolate them?

Reform of the Law • Attempts to codify the law failed both because there were no lawyer members and because of the vested interests of

the legal profession. • There was widespread resentment at the Court of Chancery, which charged high fees and heard cases so slowly that

some were still unresolved after thirty years. However, Parliament was unable to carry out its intention of abolishing it because it could find no way to settle the cases which were still before it.

• There were some improvements to the criminal law: - the death penalty was abolished for first-time horse stealers and pickpockets.

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- Those who refused to plead guilty or not guilty were no longer pressed to death. [Some accused refused to plead and were gradually crushed by adding weights to a table on top of them until they either pleaded or died. Property of those pressed to death was inherited by their heirs rather than forfeited to the Crown as happened when felons were hanged.]

- Women who murdered their husbands were to be hanged rather than burned to death. - Civil marriage was introduced even regulations concerning the conditions under which lunatics were kept. • Debtors' law was reformed by seizing the property of fraudulent debtors and releasing genuine bankrupts. On the

other hand, a proposal to permit a wronged husband or wife to sue for divorce on grounds of adultery was defeated.

Reform of law

Couldn’t abolish court of chancery because could find no way to settle cases

Death penalty abolished for first time thieves

Those who refuse to not plead not put to death

Women who murdered husbands hanged rather than burned

Regulations concerning housing of lunatics Foreign Policy The Barebones Parliament had been even more anxious than the Rump to continue the war against the Dutch. They regarded the Dutch as Protestants who had become corrupted by wealth and had strayed from 'true religion'. Cromwell, however, saw it differently.

Why did it fail?

On the issues of tithes the Assembly began to tread on dangerous ground, since and attack on tithes was seen by many as an attack on property itself

This strengthened the unease of moderate members who were concerned by the growing clamour of the Fifth Monarchists for the introduction of biblical laws, and by changes taking place in local government

Summer of 1652 saw a series of purges in commissions of peace (JPs) that removed members of the gentry and replaced them with yeomen and shopkeepers

When radicals succeeded on 10 Dec in pushing through a vote against tithes, the moderates decided to act.

12 Dec they met early in the absence of the radicals who were holding a prayer meeting, and voted to dissolve themselves, handing power back to Cromwell

Conclusions

There is no doubt about Cromwell‟s disappointment regarding the Barebones Parliament, but he was pragmatic enough to recognise failure

The failure arose from the same difficulty regarding the Rump - the difficulty of balancing the desire for reform and the need for stability

Where the Rump moved too slowly, the radicals of the nominated assembly moved to fast.

He therefore turned to Lamberts alternative, an executive council to rule with the help of parliament

Cromwell and Lambert now sought to restore the principle of mixed government in the hope of achieving a blend of reform and stability

On 16 Dec 1653 the Commonwealth was ended when Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector, to rule with the help of a Council of State and parliaments elected every three years on a reformed franchise

8

THE PROTECTORATE 1654-7

The Nature of the New Government

Cromwell’s aims in his own words, were the ‘healing and settling’ of the nation. While he employed civilian

advisers and sought to bring back the established gentry into govt, he also listened to the advice of soldiers and

pursued his vision of reform

In creating space for conservatives and monarchists, he was seeking to broaden the base of support and provide

stability rather than abandoning his cause

THE PROTECTORATE PART ONE – 1653-55

The Establishment of the Protectorate – The Instrument of Government

The fall of the Barebones parliament left England without a constitution or government. Major General John

Lambert drew up a written constitution known as the Instrument of

Government.

On 16 December 1653 Cromwell accepted the Instrument of Government and

became Lord Protector

Main provisions:

o Lord Protector Head of State

o Lord Protector in control of army with the consent of parliament

o A Council was named, with a system of replacing councillors in

which Parliament had a part

o Every male over 21 with either land or goods worth 200 pounds

should vote

o A yearly revenue was established to support a standing army of 30

000 plus a navy

o There was to be religious toleration for all except Anglicans and

Catholics

o There would be a permanent yearly sum of 200 000 pounds to

support the Protectors government

The Instrument and the establishment of the Protectorate can be seen as move

towards a more settled ‘conservative’ regime.

The reality of army power remained behind the scenes, however, and the success of the constitution depended on

the Lord Protector being able to balance civilian and military interests

The progress of reform

The months before the calling of first protectorate parliament offered the best opportunity for reform and

Cromwell, with the Council of State, issued ordinances (instructions that became law)

Cromwell appointed Matthew Hale as a judge and followed this up with a Chancery ordinance that simplified

procedures and reduced fees

The ‘engagement’ was withdrawn in the hope that more of the gentry would feel they could support the new

regime if they did not have to swear oaths against their consciences

To improve the standard of religious ministers, a board of commissioners, The Triers, was set up.

County Committees of Ejectors were set up to remove incompetent schoolteachers

How did Cromwell reform the Church?

First priority was the Church

Many parishes continued to carry out their duties according to their own preferences. Result was a wide variation

of services and ceremonies. Cromwell’s approach was to encourage such efforts and allow variation within a

framework of acceptable doctrine

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In March a committee of Triers established with responsibility of examining the qualities and beliefs of the parish

clergy, confirming the livings of those who were acceptable and appointing new ministers to vacant parishes.

Committee sought ministers who were educated and capable of preaching and who accepted the fundamentals of

Christianity. In August a Committee of Ejectors was added whose function was to remove the inadequate - based

on quality not denominational preferences

What Cromwell sought to establish was a broad, flexible and tolerant church, which would contribute to the godly

reformation through education and upholding moral standards. Allowed freedom to those who wished to meet in

voluntary gatherings outside the establishment, provided doctrine not blasphemous - the dangerous category

included both Catholics and Arminians, while the blasphemy laws curtailed the activities of some of the wilder

sects

An example of how Cromwell sympathized with those who followed their conscience was the case of the Quaker,

James Nayler in 1656. Nayler re-enacted Christ’s entry into Jerusalem at the gates of Bristol and was accused of

blasphemy - some MPs called for his execution. Cromwell intervened and probably saved Nayler’s life, although

he couldn’t prevent parliament’s order being carried out whereby Nayler was flogged, bored through the tongue as

a blasphemer and committed to prison

The radical sects exercised their right to worship outside the Church, which many Conservatives saw as a threat to

order and hierarchy. The 1650s saw the Baptist and Congregationalist Churches take shape.

By 1654 there was little sign of Ranter and Digger activity, but they had been replaced by a new more dynamic

threat, the Quakers. Their eccentric manners and challenge to authority, their attacks on clerical privilege and

social injustice, and above all their success in attracting converts seemed to threaten further revolution

While Cromwell might take pride in his godly reformation, the majority of the population and especially in the

gentry saw it as seriously undermining authority in Church and state

The Quaker movement

Founded in the north between 1650 and 52 when George Fox began a series of journeys to preach the doctrine of

salvation through the inner light. Set out to convert the world to an understanding of the light within, the voice of God

in the human heart, which was the only

authority needed in religion. Nicknamed

Quakers because of their ecstatic trembling

and passionate celebration of God’s mercy,

they entered the Churches and harangued

ministers for their greed in taking payment

for preaching, and refused to acknowledge

their ‘betters’ by removing their hats and

addressing them as ‘sir’. Not only did they

demand the abolition of tithes and complete

religious toleration, they condemned the

wealthy and powerful to their faces, for their

oppressions and lack of concern for the poor.

Most worrying for those in authority, the

Quaker’s message held a wide popular

appeal and their mission was spectacularly

successful

What divisions brought about the failure of

the Instrument of Government?

In August 1654 the first Protectorate

Parliament was called to ratify the new

constitution, instead MPs attacked the

very authority which summoned them and set out to alter the constitution.

MPs such as Haselrig and Thomas Scot, who had been members of the Rump and had never forgiven Cromwell for

dissolution, led the attack. They were able to hold up business and deny govt ratification and financial support

September Cromwell responded by excluding MPs who refused to sign a ‘recognition’ of the constitution - 100

withdrew

Those who remained voted against a new tax system and a reduction of the army to 30000.

10

By 1655, it was clear Cromwell would get no help from this assembly and he dissolved it

THE PROTECTORATE PART TWO – THE MAJOR GENERALS 1655-57

The failure of parliament to ratify constitution threatened legality of regime. Throughout spring and early summer

govts right to collect taxes challenged in courts, driving Cromwell to replace five judges

The May case of George Cony, a merchant who refused to pay customs duties, provoked Cromwell to imprison

Cony and his entire legal counsel without trial

His reaction helps explain why regime survived crisis. Whatever concern for legality, Cromwell was quite capable

of decisive action and with army at his back he had no intention of surrendering control

In 1655 he reduced the monthly assessment (tax), cut soldiers pay and brought army numbers down to 40000 men.

Penruddock’s Rising, March 1655

The dissolution of the parliament triggered Republican and Royalist protests,

the most threatening of which was Penruddock’s rising in Wiltshire.

Two significant points need to be grasped:

o First, these protests failed pathetically. Penruddock could only

muster 400 followers who paraded through the streets of Salisbury

before they were scattered by Lambert’s troops. Penruddock and

a handful of his lieutenants were executed. Cromwell’s efficient

and well informed head of security, John Thurloe, ensured that

further Royalist attempts were snuffed out before they happened.

o Secondly, Cromwell and his Council overreacted to the threats

posed by the symptoms of defiance, the reason for the Major

Generals

The Major Generals

To ensure security he divided country into eleven districts

and established a new local militia in each, to be raised and

controlled by a Major-General who would also supervise

local govt. A Decimation Tax would finance their work - 10

% levy on Royalist estates.

The Major Generals had a formidable list of instructions and

powers. They were to:

Set up a reliable militia

Enforce the Poor Law

Be guardians of public morality; closing brothels

and gambling dens

Keep known Royalists under supervision

Suppress unlawful assemblies

Make sure the local JPs carried out their duties

effectively

Collect the Decimation tax

The Major Generals differed greatly in their social origins

although generally not of greater gentry

Methods of control could be somewhat arbitrary - in West

Country, Major General Desborough took bonds for good

behaviour from over 5000 suspected dissidents. Many

borough corporations were purged of suspected ‘Royalists’

and in Hythe, Kent, Major General Kelsey surrounded the town hall with troops in order to ensure that his orders

were carried out

Several of the Major Generals took their job very seriously and did their best in bringing about a godly society. To

this end drinking places were closed, gambling suppressed, maypoles were cut down and a ban was even attempted

on the celebration of festivals such as Christmas

Many provided careful and conscientious admin - marked increase in levying and expenditure of poor rate

11

Cromwell mulls over his decision

Portrayed by royalist propaganda as military dictatorship manned by social inferiors and killjoys

Regime deeply unpopular with gentry who resented their loss of control over local govt and the restrictions

imposed on them. Did more to alienate the traditional gentry from the Protectorate than any other move.

THE PROTECTORATE PART THREE – KING CROMWELL?

The Second Protectorate Parliament Sept 1656 – Feb 1658

From the outset this parliament was determined to be rid of the Major Generals

The army did not seem to realise its unpopularity

Over 100 members were excluded from the first session of the Parliament, as being opponents of the Instrument

and the Protectorate

Members voted against a bill to maintain the decimation tax, effectively ending the rule of the Major Generals

It was the Conservatives in Parliament, now in the majority, who came up with the obvious move towards the old

and known constitutional ways – they offered Cromwell the crown

Why did parliament offer Cromwell the crown in

1657?

Cromwell would retain control of armed forces,

but would operate within a recognised framework

of law and custom acceptable to nation

If Cromwell’s position could be given

constitutional validity, it might yet offer a real

prospect of stable govt and lasting reconciliation

The trigger to action came in Jan 1657 when the

discovery of a plot to assassinate Cromwell led by

the Leveller Miles Sindercombe, highlighted the

lack of any accepted successor

Monarchy would solve the problem, since

Cromwell had two healthy sons

Feb 1657, the London Alderman, Sir Christopher

Packe introduced the motion in parliament to the

effect that Cromwell would be offered the crown,

with a restored House of Lords

Debated for weeks and finally offered to the

Protector in March, as the Humble Petition and

Advice.

Some royalists were enthusiastic others dismayed

Why did Cromwell refuse the Crown?

Cromwell agonised for a month. One side of his

nature had always wanted the old constitution

Kingship was the known traditional form of govt. Gentry who were not fanatical Royalists would probably accept

King Oliver.

There were strong reasons both personal and political behind his refusal.

The army had elements in it that would never accept kingship again. Cromwell would have faced an army

revolt.

Personally, Cromwell had been the prime mover behind the execution of the King so it would be an act of

total hypocrisy to accept the crown.

Cromwell seemed to have decided that kingship was a form of govt which God, by granting him all his

victories had ‘witnessed against’. It was a corrupt form of govt.

Finally in May 1657 he rejected the title, but accepted a revised petition in which the title was changed to Lord

Protector for life, with the right to nominate a successor. He was crowned with many of the trappings of royalty in

June 1657

The Revised Humble Petition and Advice 1657

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The Protector could name his successor

There was to be an ‘upper house’ of 40

Officers of State and Councillors to be approved by parliament

Parliament to meet every two years

The Second Session

In the second session of the Parliament, some of the Commonwealth’s men, such as Heselrige, were readmitted.

They immediately attacked the Humble Petition.

Parliament broke up into factions with Heselrige and his supporters trying to force a vote to bring down the

Protectorate and restore the Rump.

The vote was due to be held 4 February 1658 but Cromwell decided to act, dissolving parliament

The Last Months

Cromwell weakened over that year and finally died on 3 September. He had chosen his eldest son Richard as the

next Lord Protector

Why did the Protectorate fail? Was its failure inevitable?

Fatal weakness of Interregnum regimes - the need to serve two political masters. The propertied classes throughout

country craved stability and order, and the army demanded religious freedom and some measure of reform. No

ruler could survive for long without the support of both, but what pleased one would inevitably alienate the other

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MORAL REFORM

The godly pressed Cromwell to hasten moral reform, and were encouraged by his apparent support

of their programme in 1653 and 1655 - 56. Part of an unusually detailed scheme of moral reform,

by the lawyer William Sheppard follows:

[A) Grievance. . . that there is no law against lascivious gestures, wanton and filthy dalliance and

familiarity, whorish attire, strange fashions, such as are naked breasts, bare shoulders, powdering,

spotting, painting the face, curling and shearing of the hair, excess of apparel in servants and mean

people.

It is offered to consideration:

1. That the justices of the peace at their Quarter-Sessions may bind [offenders] to the good

behaviour. 2. That for a whorish attire, something of note be written upon the door of her house to

her disgrace, there to continue till she wear sober attire.

It is objected, that there is no certain and clear law to punish profane jesting, fiddling, rhyming,

piping, juggling, fortune-telling, tumbling, dancing upon the rope, vaunting, ballad-singing, sword

playing, or playing of prizes, ape-carrying, puppet-playing, bear-baiting, bull-baiting, horse-racing,

cock-fighting, carding, dicing and other gaming, especially the spending of much time and the

adventuring of great sums of money herein.

[William Sheppard, England's Balme, (London, 1657), pp. 162-163. In T. Barnard, The English

Republic 1649 - 1660, (London, 1982), pp.88-891]

Source A

Source B

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The Instrument of Government

The government of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the dominions

thereunto belonging.

I. That the supreme legislative authority of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland,

and the dominions thereunto belonging, shall be and reside in one person, and the people assembled

in Parliament: the style of which person shall be the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of

England, Scotland, and Ireland.

II. That the exercise of the chief magistracy and the administration of the government over the said

countries and dominions, and the people thereof, shall be in the Lord Protector, assisted with a

council, the number whereof shall not exceed twenty-one, nor be less than thirteen.

III. That all writs, processes, commissions, patents, grants, and other things, which now run in the

name and style of the keepers of the liberty of England by authority of Parliament, shall run in the

name and style of the Lord Protector, from whom, for the future, shall be derived all magistracy and

honours in these three nations; and have the power of pardons (except in case of murders and

treason) and benefit of all forfeitures for the public use; and shall govern the said countries and

dominions in all things by the advice of the council, and according to these presents and the laws.

IV. That the Lord Protector, the Parliament sitting, shall dispose and order the militia and forces,

both by sea and land, for the peace and good of the three nations, by consent of Parliament; and that

the Lord Protector, with the advice and consent of the major part of the council, shall dispose and

order the militia for the ends aforesaid in the intervals of Parliament.

V. That the Lord Protector, by the advice aforesaid, shall direct in all things concerning the keeping

and holding of a good correspondency with foreign kings, princes, and states; and also, with the

consent of the major part of the council, have the power of war and peace.

VI. That the laws shall not be altered, suspended, abrogated, or repealed, nor any new law made,

nor any tax, charge, or imposition laid upon the people, but by common consent in Parliament, save

only as is expressed in the thirtieth article.

VII. That there shall be a Parliament summoned to meet at Westminster upon the third day of

September, 1654, and that successively a Parliament shall be summoned once in every third year, to

be accounted from the dissolution of the present Parliament.

VIII. That neither the Parliament to be next summoned, nor any successive Parliaments, shall,

during the time of five months, to be accounted from the day of their first meeting, be adjourned,

prorogued, or dissolved, without their own consent.

IX. That as well the next as all other successive Parliaments shall be summoned and elected in

manner hereafter expressed; that is to say, the persons to be chosen within England, Wales, the Isles

of Jersey, Guernsey, and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, to sit and serve in Parliament, shall be,

and not exceed, the number of four hundred. The persons to be chosen within Scotland, to sit and

serve in Parliament, shall be, and not exceed, the number of thirty; and the persons to be chosen to

sit in Parliament for Ireland shall be, and not exceed, the number of thirty.

Source C

15

RESOURCE D

CROMWELL AND THE LAW

"The government ... hath desired to reform the laws ... And for that end it hath called together

persons ... of as great ability and as great interest as are in these nations, to consider how the laws

might be made plain and short, and less chargeable to the people ... Those things are in preparation,

and bills prepared, which in due time ... will be tendered to you. In the meantime there hath been

care taken to put the administration of the laws into the hands of just men, men of the most known

integrity and ability."

(Cromwell to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654)

"These Major-Generals have been to your peace and for your preservation ... which, we say, was

necessity! ... If you would make laws against the things that God may please to dispose, laws to

meet with everything that may happen, you make a law in the face of God, and you tell God you

will meet with all His dispensations, and you will stay things whether He will or no! But if you

make laws of good government, that men may know how to obey and do for government, you may

make laws of frailty and weakness; ay, and yet good laws to be observed. But if nothing should ever

be done but what is according to law, the throat of the nation may be cut while we send for someone

to make a law!" (Cromwell to the Second Protectorate Parliament, 17 September 1656)

"[Cromwell'sl little finger is thicker than the King's loins, as will appear by ... his imprisoning men

contrary to law, at his own will and pleasure; yea, many of the Commonwealth's best friends, and

have kept them in prison many months together without seeing the face of any accuser or any

coming to trial at law ... that are forced to drink of the same cup of his will and pleasure: so that we

may say, the King chastised us with whips, but Cromwell chastises us with scorpions."

(Anonymous, 1656)

[D. L. Smith, Oliver Cromwell: politics and religion in the English Revolution, 1640-1658,

(Cambridge, 1991), pp.76-77 and 801

Answer the following questions:

1. What were 'These Major-Generals"?

2. How does Cromwell's argument in the second passage undermine his

argument in the first?

3. How can his argument in the second passage be defended?

4. Explain the phrase, He King chastised us with whips, but Cromwell chastises

us with scorpions".

16

The Protectorate – Key Points Setting up the Protectorate

The Instrument of Government

Early reform (John Nayler)

The Quakers

The end of parliament The Rule of the Major Generals

Penruddocks Rising

The Major Generals King Cromwell

The Second Protectorate Parliament

The Humble Petition and Advice

Activities The Protectorate Part One

1. Read Source C on the Instrument of Government. Read the appropriate section from the

notes and link each article with the correct provision on the Instrument of Government 2. What attitude did Cromwell have to the church? 3. What were the roles of the Committee of Triers and Committee of Ejectors? 4. Who was James Nayler and what happened to him? 5. What sort of dangers did the Quaker movement present for those in authority? 6. Read Source A. What further reform did the „Godly‟ want?

Part Two - The Major Generals

7. Why did Cromwell introduce the Major Generals? 8. Examine Source B. What is the message of the picture? 9. Read about the Major Generals, then read Source D and complete

the activities underneath 10. What group in particular did the Major Generals alienate? Why?

Part Three – King Cromwell

11. Read the last section on Cromwell and the crown. Answer the questions on both sources at the back of your handout.

Focus Questions:

What was the

Protectorate?

Why did it fail?

17

INTERREGNUM SUMMARY Successes of the Interregnum

Survived 11 years in a hostile environment

Prevented further Civil War and ended conflict in Scotland and Ireland. A more radical govt. would probably have provoked further war

United Great Britain under centralised rule

More effective and realistic taxation

Won wars against Netherlands and Spain. Gained respect as a military and naval power

Expanded empire overseas

Helped overseas trade by breaking Dutch monopoly in the Baltic

Gained acceptance from most people

Paved the way for peaceful Restoration

Restoration on the terms of the people Failures of the Interregnum

Collapsed after 1658

Did not carry out the Second Reformation wanted by Godly Protestants

Reforms were unpopular amongst the people

Limited social reform

Little reform of the law

Depended on a large army. Authority never fully “civilianised”

Few people welcomed the interregnum govt

More successful in achieving conservative goals rather than revolutionary ones Did the Interregnum matter?

Significant in both positive achievements and in memory of what had happened

Established and reinforced English predominance in British Isles. Ireland and Scotland to have little control over own destinies for centuries to come

England emerged as major world force – took steps towards establishing commercial supremacy and development of British empire

England could put a large and efficient army in the field and fund it through taxation

Maintained peace after 1651. Contributed to a partial reconciliation between former royalists and parliamentarians – made a peaceful restoration possible

Religious toleration. Created fear of religious radicalism

Resulted in a permanent fear of civil war – would never happen again

Reaction against social radicalism strengthened the class system

Kings never forgot they had a joint in their neck