The Infoline Dictionary of Basic Trainer Terms · The Infoline Dictionary of Basic Trainer Terms...

training & development

editorCat russo

The Infoline Dictionary of Basic Trainer TermsA Revised and Updated Edition

tips, tools, and intelligenCe for trainers

INFOlineIssue 1105May 2011

published by the ameriCan soCiety for training & development | infoline.astd.org

may 2011 l Vol. 28 l Issue 1105

eDITOR

Cat Russo

Cat Russo is president and founder of RussoRights, LLC. RussoRights specializes in assisting publishers to expand their revenue opportunities through subsidiary rights and licensing of content. Previously, Cat was with American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) for 13 years having held positions as Director, International Sales & Licensing, Director of ASTD Press, and in an early role, Product Manager/Editor of Infoline. Prior to ASTD, she held a variety of editorial positions with Time-Life Books, Inc. She holds a B.A. in History and is a qualified Human Performance Improvement consultant.

CONsuLTaNT

Kristin Husak

Kristin Husak holds an M.S. in Instructional Technology and has experience as an instructional designer, learning manager and consultant. She has been a part of the training industry for 13 years and has held positions with Dell, Deloitte and SkillSoft. Currently, Kristin is a Community Manager for Learning & Development and Organizational Effectiveness with ASTD.

associate editorAshley McDonald

editorial assistantStephanie Castellano

Production DesignKathleen Schaner

THe InfolIne DICTIONaRy OF BasIC TRaINeR TeRms

a-Z ................................................................................................................1

TRaINeR aBBReVIaTIONs ............................................................................3

asTD COmPeTeNCy mODeL ........................................................................5

WORLD CLass saLes COmPeTeNCy mODeL ..............................................9

HumaN PeRFORmaNCe ImPROVemeNT (HPI) mODeLs ........................…12

a TRaINeR By aNy OTHeR Name ..............................................................15

ORgaNIZaTIONs THaT suPPORT TRaININg ..............................................18

PeOPLe TRaINeRs KNOW ..........................................................................19

TeCH TeRms eVeRy TRaINeR NeeDs TO KNOW .......................................22

ReFeReNCes & ResOuRCes ......................................................................23

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training & development

the Infoline dictionary of basic trainer terms

Copyright © AStD111

E very profession has its lingo—and the training and development field is no

exception. In the style that is uniquely Infoline—short and to the point—this concise guide provides essential trainer’s terms, along with many of the need-to-know basics such as tech expressions and best reference books. This easy-to-use, quick reference is formatted in an alphabetical listing of terms, and alongside, you’ll find various sidebars with related content. If we’ve missed a term you feel needs to be included, please contact us at [email protected] and we’ll consider your suggestion for the next edition.

AAAR (After Action Review), first developed and used in the military, focuses on performance improvement, and allows individuals to reflect on their performance, identify weaknesses, and then determine how to improve their performance.

Accelerated Learning results in long-term retention by the learner. This is accomplished by honoring the different learning preferences of each individual learner and utilizing experiential learning exercises (such as role plays, mnemonics, props, music, and so forth).

Action Learning is a problem-solving process in which a group identifies a problem, asks questions to clarify the nature of the problem, considers possible solutions, and then decides on a course of action. This course of action is then tested within the work environment for validity and re-evaluated typically over a six-month period of time. This process enables learning on an organization-wide basis and allows for adaptation to a changing environment. Action learning was popularized by Kurt Lewin in the United States and by Reginald Revans in the United Kingdom.

Active Listening is a form of listening in which the listener differentiates between the cognitive and emotional content of the message. An active listener makes inferences based on feelings expressed by the speaker and communicates these to the speaker for verification.

Active Training is an approach to training that ensures that learners are actively involved in the process. Active training is based on the cooperative learning approach, in which participants learn from each other in pairs or small groups. Some examples of active training include group discussion, games, simulation, and role play.

ADDIE is an instructional systems design model. It is composed of five phases:

• Analysis is the process of gathering data to identify specific needs—the who, what, where, when, and why of the design process.

• Design is the planning stage.

• Development is the phase in which training materials and content are selected and developed based on learning objectives.

• Implementation occurs when the course is delivered, whether in person or electronically.

• Evaluation is the ongoing process of developing and improving instructional materials based on feedback received during and after implementation.

Adult Learning Theory is a term that encompasses the collective theories and principles of how adults learn and acquire knowledge. Popularized by Malcolm Knowles, adult learning theory provides the foundation that training and development professionals need to meet workplace learning needs. (See also Andragogy; Knowles, Malcolm.)


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Affective Learning is the acquisition of knowledge based on Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy in which he identified three learning domains: cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitude), and psychomotor (skills). This taxonomy or classification of the processes of thinking and learning provides the framework for the creation of instructional strategies, materials, and activities used to improve individual workplace learning and performance. Affective refers to the learners’ outlook or mindset.

Albrecht’s Change Response Cycle, developed by Karl Albrecht, consists of phases that describe an individual’s response to change: threat, problem, solution, and habit.

Analysis is the breaking up and examining of parts of a whole. In workplace learning and performance, analysis is the process of determining the following:

• Gap, which identifies the discrepancy between the desired and actual knowledge, skills, and performance, and specifies root causes.

• Job, which identifies learners’ workplace duties and responsibilities, and tasks done on a daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly basis.

• Needs is the process of collecting and synthesizing data to identify how training can help an organization reach its goals.

• Task is the process of identifying the specific steps that need to be taken to correctly perform a job function.

Andragogy (from the Greek meaning “adult learning”) is the adult learning theory popularized by Malcolm Knowles, based on five key principles that influence how adults learn: self-concept, prior experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation to learn. (See also Adult Learning Theory; Knowles, Malcolm.)

AOEs (Areas of Expertise) are the specific technical and professional skills and knowledge mastery areas for success in the WLP profession. The nine AOEs make up the middle tier of the ASTD Competency Model and are defined as designing learning, delivering training, improving human performance, measuring and evaluating, facilitating organizational change, managing the learning function, coaching, managing organizational knowledge, social learning, and career planning and talent management.

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) Theory is an approach to large-scale organizational change that involves the analysis of positive and successful (rather than negative or failing) operations. The AI four-D cycle (discovery, dream, design, destiny) includes identifying problems, analyzing causes, searching for solutions, and developing an action plan.

Assessment Center Method is a formal process of collecting data used in evaluating performance, which relies on feedback by a specially trained group of observers.

ASTD Competency Model provides a strategic roadmap for today’s workplace learning and performance (WLP) professional. The model, which is shaped like a pyramid, has three tiers: foundational competencies, areas of expertise (AOEs), and roles. The competency model is integral to the CPLP certification process. (See the sidebar, ASTD Competency Model.)

Asynchronous Learning is a form of learning in which interaction between instructors and students occurs intermittently with a time delay. Examples include self-paced courses taken via the Internet or CD-ROM, Q&A mentoring, online discussion groups, and email.

Authoring Tools are special software programs (including Macromedia Authorware) that allow a content expert to interact with the computer in everyday language to aid the development of computer-based training courseware.


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BBalanced Scorecard is a model for measuring effectiveness from four business perspectives—the customer perspective, the innovation and learning perspective, the internal business perspective, and the financial perspective.

Behavior is one’s response to an environment or stimulation—a measurable part of learning that describes what a participant is able to do following instruction or training. (See also Evaluation, Level 3.)

Behavioral Coaching assumes that human beings respond to stimuli, sustain behaviors that are pleasurable, and cease behaviors that produce pain. The role of the coach is to ensure the employee understands the performance that is expected, the rewards that will come from satisfactory achievement, and the penalties that will come with failure to achieve.

Benchmarking is the practice of measuring an organization, department, or process by its strengths and weaknesses against similar organizations, for the purpose of objectively defining and improving the work of trainers and HRD professionals.

Blended Learning describes the practice of using several training delivery mediums in one curriculum. It typically refers to the combination of classroom instruction and any type of training that includes self-directed use of online resources.

Bloom, Benjamin (Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning) developed the three learning outcomes based on three domains: cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills), and affective (attitude); these domains are sometimes referred to as KSAs.

CCareer Counseling is the direct application of career-development theories and approaches. It aids individuals in setting career and life goals,

preparing job-search materials, and interviewing. A career counselor can provide individual and group counseling sessions to enhance career skills and employability, as well as ongoing counseling to help individuals reflect on current and future career objectives.

Career Development is a planned process of interaction between an organization and an employee that allows the employee to grow within the organization.

Case Study is an example of an event or situation that can be used to model new processes, practices, and behaviors. Case studies frequently are used in training to illustrate preferred learner performance, or by training managers to emulate best practices.

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TRaINeR aBBReVIaTIONsThe trainer’s lexicon is full of abbreviations and acronyms. Listed below are some of the most frequently used.

ADDIE Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation

CPLP Certified Professional in Learning and Performance

EPSS Electronic Performance Support System

HPI Human Performance Improvement

HRD Human Resource Development

ISD Instructional Systems Development or Instructional Systems Design

LMS Learning Management System

MD Management Development

OD Organization Development

OJT On-the-Job Training

RFP Request for Proposal

ROI Return-on-Investment

SME Subject Matter Expert

WBT Web-Based Training

WLP Workplace Learning and Performance


4

Coaching is a process in which a more experienced person, or coach, provides a worker or workers with constructive advice and feedback with the goal of improving performance. (See also Mentoring, which focuses on career development and advancement.)

Cognitivism is a “tell” approach to learning, based on the theory that learning occurs through exposure to logically presented information, usually involving lecture. It can also include diagrams, videos, films, panels, class presentations, interviews with subject matter experts, readings, debates, and class studies.

Collaborative Learning is an instructional approach in which learners and instructors share the responsibility for learning, and work together to determine how the session should progress.

Community of Practice is a group of people who share a common interest in an area of competence and are willing to share the experiences of their practice.

Competency is an area of personal capability that enables one to perform. For example, competency can be knowledge, a skill, attitude, value, or other personal characteristic. Competency is necessary for the acceptable performance of a task or achievement of a goal.

Competency-Based Learning focuses on the learner, with heavy emphasis on individual learning plans. Features of competency-based learning are occupational analysis of competencies required for successful performance, validation of competencies, learner awareness of criteria and conditions for adequate or excellent performance, and planning for individual instruction and evaluation for each competency.

Compliance Training describes mandatory requirements for workplace regulatory training as required by law or professional governing standards. OSHA, HIPPA, and Sarbanes-Oxley are three examples of regulations that require compliance training.

CBT (computer-based training) is an umbrella term for the use of computers in both instruction and management of the teaching and learning process. CAI (computer-assisted instruction) and CMI (computer-managed instruction) are included under the heading of CBT.

Certification is the awarding of a credential acknowledging that an individual has demonstrated a minimum level of knowledge or competence, as defined by a professional standards organization. Professional certification can be used as a screening tool and as verification of an individual’s skills and knowledge.

Change Agent is any person or group responsible for initiating or implementing organizational change. It is also a person who understands organizational and personal change dynamics and seeks to affect a different condition in an organization.

Change Management is the process of guiding people affected by change from awareness through engagement to commitment to the change.

Chaos and Complexity Theory is a scientific theory that is applied to OD in an attempt to find order in the organizational environment. Chaos is the study of how simple systems can generate complicated behavior, while complexity is the study of how complicated systems generate simple behavior.

Cloud Computing is a model for enabling shared network access of computing resources. It is a concept still in the early stages of development, and its definition and potential effects are still evolving. It is the driver of an important shift in information technology, one that will affect everyone who uses computing and telecommunications technology.

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asTD COmPeTeNCy mODeLBelow is an image of the ASTD Competency Model, made up of three tiers. The foundational competencies (the bottom tier) underlie the successful completion of many tasks that trainers perform. The 12 competencies are grouped into three clusters: interpersonal, business/management, and personal. The areas of expertise (the middle tier), which is comprised of nine competencies, are knowledge and skills required for success in the field. The roles (the top tier) are broad areas of responsibility that require a certain combination of competencies and expertise to perform effectively.

Conditions of Learning is Robert Gagné’s theory, which states that the following nine steps of instruction will ensure learning occurs:

1. Gain the learners’ attention.2. Share the objectives of the session.3. Ask learners to recall prior learning.4. Deliver content.5. Use methods to enhance understanding (for

example, case studies or graphs).6. Provide an opportunity to practice.7. Provide feedback.8. Assess performance.9. Provide job aids or references to ensure

transfer of skills to the job.

Conflict Management Theory shapes processes designed to resolve disagreement between two or more individuals. Two strategies in line with the conflict management theory are settlement-driven and relationship-focused. Both assume that the individuals involved in the conflict are the people best positioned to resolve the situation. If an agreement cannot be reached, an outside party, or mediator, may be called in to facilitate a resolution.

Corporate University is a learning organization with a governance system that aligns all learning with the corporate or agency mission, strategy, and goals. The governance system typically includes a governing board consisting of the CEO and other senior executives, as well as a chief learning officer (CLO) who has overall responsibility for managing the organization’s investment in learning. CEOs of best-practice learning organizations leverage their corporate university to achieve performance goals, drive cultural transformation, reform and integrate training departments, and establish and sustain competitive advantage through learning.

Courseware is any type of instructional or educational course delivered via a software program or over the Internet.

CPLP™ (Certified Professional in Learning and Performance) is the acronym for the Workplace Learning and Performance credential offered by ASTD’s Certification Institute. (See also, Certification.)

CPM (Critical Path Method), used in project management, is a method of tracking project elements with the longest duration—or number of calendar days—to complete in order for organizations to calculate total project time. CPM was invited by the DuPont Corporation. (See diagram.)

Criterion Reference is an objective evaluation that focuses on assessing, analyzing, and reporting what learners have achieved based on the combination of performance standards and program objectives.

Critical Incident is an event, occurrence, or action that is critically important to an outcome. Critical incidents are those that make the difference between success and failure in performing a job. In designing learning, critical incidents are often selected as the basis of learning activities. In customer research and in quality analysis, it is usually an event that critically influences the customer’s perception of quality.

Crowdsourcing is a term referring to the ability of many to accomplish what has been traditionally accomplished by a smaller, more specialized group. The attraction of crowdsourcing is the idea that it calls to action people who are best able to solve problems, channel creativity, and do smart work.

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DData Collection refers to the collection of all facts, figures, statistics, and other information that are used for various types of analyses. Some examples of data-collection methods or tools are examinations of in-house and external written sources, questionnaires, interviews, and observation of trainees or jobholders.

DBMS (Database Management System) is software or a collection of software that enables users to access and manipulate data.

Delivery is any method of transferring content to learners, including instructor-led training, web-based training, CD-ROM, books, and more.

Design Matrix is a framework or skeleton for a course that enables course designers to visualize learning outcomes. The design matrix consists of four parts: duration, content or learning points, methods or activities, and materials or aids. It is used to identify and sequence content subtopics, estimate the amount of time devoted to each subtopic, consider the methods to communicate the content, and identify potential training materials and aids.

Development consists of learning activities that prepare a person for additional job responsibilities and enable him or her to gain knowledge or skills. It may also refer to the creation of training materials or courses. (See also, ADDIE.)

Discovery Learning is the process of teaching participants by having them actively engage in learning activities.

Distance Learning is an educational situation in which the instructor and students are separated by time, location, or both. Education or training courses are delivered to remote locations via synchronous or asynchronous instruction.

EE-Learning (Electronic Learning) is a term covering a wide set of applications and processes such as web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration.

Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) is a software program that provides just-in-time, on-demand information, guidance, examples, and step-by-step dialog boxes to improve job performance without the need for training or coaching by other people.

Emotional Intelligence is an “eighth intelligence” based on Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory. It suggests that the ability to accurately identify and understand one’s own emotional reactions and those of others is related to personal qualities such as self-confidence and motivation. The theory was developed by Daniel Goleman in the 1990s and popularized in his book, Emotional Intelligence.

Employee Development is the process of strengthening employees’ occupational skills in order to meet their career objectives and improve performance. Employee development incorporates informal and formal learning, including onboarding, “culturizing,” on-the-job coaching, targeted learning opportunities sponsored by the employer, and learning opportunities driven by the employee (tuition programs, information seeking, and networking).

Energizer is an activity designed to invigorate a group.

Enterprise-wide E-Learning is e-learning that is intended for all or most employees within a company. It is often part of a strategic change of direction with a very short time line, but is also used to support a core process such as sales.



Evaluation of training is a multi-level, systematic method for gathering information about the effectiveness and impact of training programs. Results of the measurements can be used to improve the offering, determine whether the learning objectives have been achieved, and assess the value of the training to the organization.

• Level 1: Reaction—This level of evaluation focuses on the reaction of participants to the training program. Although this is the lowest level of measurement, it remains an important dimension to assess in terms of participant satisfaction.

• Level 2: Learning—This level measures the participant’s acquired cognitive knowledge or behavioral skills after training has been delivered.

• Level 3: Behavior—This level focuses on the degree to which training participants are able to transfer their learning to their workplace behaviors.

• Level 4: Results—The last of Kirkpatrick’s levels moves beyond the individual participant to assess the impact of training on organization performance.

• ROI (Return on Investment)—This higher level of evaluation compares the monetary benefits of training programs with the program costs, usually presented as a percent or cost-benefit ratio. ROI is not part of the Kirkpatrick model.

Experiential Learning occurs when a learner participates in an activity, reviews the activity, identifies useful knowledge or skills that were gained, and transfers the result to the workplace.

FFacilitation refers to the trainer’s role in the learning process—helping learners acquire, retain, and apply knowledge and skills.

Feedback is advice or information given from one person to another about how useful or successful an event, process, or action is. Feedback is given to participants after training regarding their progress, which helps with retention and behavior.

Fish Bone Diagram (See Ishakawa Diagram.)

Force Field Analysis is a diagnostic tool developed by Kurt Lewin to assess favorable and unfavorable impacts when solving a problem.

Formative Evaluation begins with performance analysis—questioning whether the methods used are best for this effort, the appropriate people are involved, the appropriate data analysis tools are used, and so on.

Functional Context describes training that relates to actual job circumstances. It is based on the assumption that training is successful only when learners can carry out learned tasks at their actual workstations. For example, a learner may diagnose a mechanical problem and perform a series of repair steps in a logical, timely way during the training course; but he or she may struggle in the actual work environment if conditions are not correctly simulated during training. (See also Competency-Based Learning.)

GGagne, Robert was a pioneer in the field of instructional design. He is best known for popularizing the theory that there are nine instructional steps that help ensure learning occurs. (See also Conditions of Learning.)

Gantt Chart is a horizontal bar chart used in project management that graphically displays the time relationship of each step in managing a particular project. The Gantt chart is a valuable tool for planning, monitoring, and controlling projects.

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WORLD CLass saLes COmPeTeNCy mODeLAs with all competency models, the ASTD’s World Class Sales Competency Model builds on a tiered pyramid structure. Similar in nature to the ASTD Workplace Learning & Performance Competency Model, this one uses the same three layers to reflect roles, areas of expertise (AOEs), and foundational competencies. The World Class Sales Competency Model can help sales organizations and departments achieve world-class performance by:

• helping those responsible for sales training speak a common language, pursue the same goals, and realize the shared vision of sales excellence

• understanding what knowledge, skills, and abilities are required to drive sales results and build education, training, and coaching programs

• employing the professional selling competencies necessary for everyone involved in the sales process.

Implementing a program using these competencies will drive revenue and improve sales results.

© 2009 by the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD).

Gilbert’s Behavior Engineering Model was developed by Thomas F. Gilbert, a human performance technology expert. The model identifies six major factors that can either hinder or facilitate workplace performance, based on the environment (information, resources, and incentives/consequences) and individual performance (knowledge and skills, capacity, and motivation).

Goal refers to an end state or condition toward which human effort is directed.

Group Dynamics refers to the interaction of individuals working or learning together and includes communication, goal-setting, decision-making, providing leadership, and resolving conflict.

HHard Data consists of objective quantitative measures that can be stated in terms of frequency, percentage, proportion, or time.

Hard Skills are technical skills or skills that result in a tangible product. The term is more frequently used in the manufacturing and production environment. An example is the skill to produce widgets that conform to the exact size and weight requirements on a manufacturing line. (See also Soft Skills Training.)

Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) is a method of personality testing developed by W.E. (Ned) Herrmann that classifies learners according to their tendency to think in one of four different modes based on brain function: left brain, cerebral; left brain, limbic; right brain, limbic; right brain, cerebral. (See also Learning Style.)

HPI (Human Performance Improvement) is a results-based, systematic process used to identify performance problems, analyze root causes, select and design actions, manage interventions in the workplace, measure results, and continuously improve performance within an organization. It is based on the open systems theory, or the view that any organization is a system that absorbs environmental inputs, uses them in transformational processes, and expels them as outputs. (See sidebar on HPI Models.)

HPT (Human Performance Technology) is a systems view of human performance that is used to analyze both a performance gap and a performance system. It is necessary to select and design cost-effective and efficient interventions that are strategically aligned to support organization goals and values. It is sometimes interchanged with HPI.

HRD (Human Resource Development) is the term coined by Leonard Nadler to describe the organized learning experiences of training, education, and development offered by employers within a specific time frame to improve employee performance or personal growth. Also, it is another name for the field and profession sometimes called training or training and development.

Human Capital is a term used to describe the collective knowledge, skills, competencies, and value of the people in an organization.

Humanistic Psychology is a school or thought that encourages attention to the individual. (See also Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.)

IIcebreakers are activities conducted at the beginning of training programs that introduce participants to one another and may introduce content, to help participants ease into the program.

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IDPs (Individual Development Plans) are plans for improvement in a current job or job advancement. These plans may or may not be tied to a performance appraisal system; however, a good plan usually is integrated with a performance appraisal.

ILT (Instructor-Led Training) usually refers to traditional classroom training, in which an instructor teaches a course to a room of learners. The term is used synonymously with on-site training and classroom training.

Informal Learning refers to anything that is not easily recognizable as formal training and performance support (such as organized classes, workshops, individualized instruction, job aids, and just-in-time, on-the-job learning). It may be individualized to meet specific needs, is personal and limited in scope, and usually occurs in small chunks.

Information Mapping is a method for communicating information in a structured way. It provides an organized approach for presenting new information, ideas, and relationships between information.

Instructional Designer is an individual who applies a systematic methodology based on instructional theory to create learning content.

Instructional Systems Development (ISD) is a systems approach to analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating any instructional experience. It is based on the belief that training is most effective when it gives learners a clear expectation of what they must be able to do as a result of training and how their performance will be evaluated (sometimes also referred to as instructional systems design). (See ADDIE.)

Instrument is a Human Resource Development (HRD) device such as an assessment, checklist, inventory, questionnaire, survey, or test used to gather information.

Integration involves combining hardware, software (and, in e-learning, content) components together to work as an interoperable system. The process of integration may also include front-end planning and strategy.

Intellectual Property is an idea, invention, formula, literary work, presentation, or other knowledge asset owned by an organization or individual. Intellectual property can be protected by copyrights, patents, trademarks, or service marks.

Intervention is another name for a solution or set of solutions, usually to address performance gaps.

IPO (Input/Process/Output) refers to systems used to transform data and information. Examples include technological innovations such as voice and handwriting recognition systems and computer touch pads.

Ishakawa Diagram is a process-improvement tool that graphically depicts a cause-and-effect relationship that may be negatively affecting quality of an internal process, product, or service. (See diagram below.)

JJob Aids provide guidance or assistance, either audio or visual, to the performer about when to carry out tasks and steps, thereby reducing the amount of necessary recall and minimizing error. Usually tasks that are performed with relatively low frequency, are highly complex, are likely to change in the future, or have a high probability of error are good candidates for job aids.



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HumaN PeRFORmaNCe ImPROVemeNT (HPI) mODeLs• Harless and Elliott’s Front-End Analysis Model

includes three forms of approach: business, performance, and cause. Follows a systematic process for analyzing performance, beginning with project alignment, and proceeds through diagnosing existing performance or new performance planning.

• ASTD HPI Model (see chart below) shows the performance gap and each phase of the HPI process and its purpose. The phases are business analysis, performance analysis, cause analysis, intervention selection, intervention implementation, evaluation of results, and change management.

• Mager and Pipe’s Human Performance Model is a situation-specific model that begins with identifying a specific problem and follows a structured flowchart. This model involves determining the importance of problem and the stakes involved in either solving the problem or ignoring it. If the problem is deemed important, the next step is to determine whether a skill deficiency is involved.

• Rummler’s Nine Performance Variable Model is a systems view using a three-dimensional approach. Organizational effectiveness is determined by examining goals, design, and management on the organizational, process, and job/performer levels.

• Weisbord’s Six-Box Organization Model is a total systems approach that examines how organizations and rapidly changing socio-technical environments influence each other simultaneously. It views tasks and process through six lenses: purpose, structure, relationships, rewards, helpful mechanisms, and leadership.

• Zemke and Kramlinger’s FTO Model is a semi-open systems approach, comprised of six factors or categories of variables that have been found to have an effect on performance: performer, objectives, expectations, rewards/punishment, feedback, and support.

© 2000 by the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD).

ASTD HPI Model



KSA is an abbreviation that has two definitions: 1) knowledge (or cognitive), skills (or psychomotor), and attitude (or affective) are the three objective domains of learning defined by Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy in the 1950s; 2) knowledge, skills, and ability are commonly referred to as KSAs, and are used by federal and private hiring agencies to determine the attributes or qualities that an employee possesses for a particular job.

LLCMS (Learning Content Management System) combines the most essential pieces of the learning puzzle—namely, courses and learning materials. LCMSs package content for print, CD-ROM, or electronic publication, and most are capable of importing prepackaged content from other learning content development tools, such as Microsoft Word and Macromedia Dreamweaver.

Leadership Development focuses on learning events such as mentoring, training, self-study, and job rotations to prepare employees with the skills required to lead an organization.

Learning is the process of gaining knowledge, understanding, or skill by study, instruction, or experience.

Learning Community is a network of constituent groups or sub-communities who represent multiple functions, levels, and geographies. The community and its supporting network draw upon the diverse perspectives of members to encourage creativity, generate better decisions, and improve program and project implementation.

Learning Object is a reusable, media-independent collection of information used as a modular building block for e-learning content. Learning objects are most effective when organized by a metadata classification system and stored in a data repository such as an LCMS.

Job Analysis identifies all workplace duties and responsibilities and tasks performed on a daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly basis that make up a single job function or role. (See also Analysis.)

Just-in-Time Training provides learning when it is actually needed for practical application on the job.

KKirkpatrick, Donald is considered the father of training evaluation, which he first postulated in the 1950s. He created the four levels of evaluation: reaction, behavior, results, and business impact. (See also Evaluation.)

Knowledge Management is the explicit and systematic management of intellectual capital and organization knowledge, as well as the associated processes of creating, gathering, organizing, disseminating, leveraging, and using intellectual capital for the purposes of improving an organization and individuals within the organization.

Knowledge Mapping is a process that connects information, education expertise, and practical application of knowledge.

Knowles, Malcolm is considered the father of the Adult Learning Theory. He defined six assumptions about adult learning and published The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, in 1973. (See also Adult Learning Theory.)

Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory, developed by David Kolb, is an inventory of four learning styles, or modes (concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation) and individuals’ orientation to them. Kolb categorizes learners as convergers, divergers, assimilators, or accommodators.

Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Process is a popularized process for organization change and development.

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Learning Organization is an organization that focuses on continuous process improvement through employee learning, allowing for both organization and individual growth. A systems model for learning organizations has been popularized by the work of Peter Senge in The Fifth Discipline.

Learning Style describes an individual’s approach to learning, which is shaped by the way he or she behaves, feels, and processes information. (See also Hermann Brain Dominance Instrument; Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory; and VAK Model.)

Likert Scale is a linear scale used in data collection to rate statements and attitudes. For example, respondents receive a definition for each rating for the scale, which usually range from 1 to 10, such as “a rating of 10 indicates a response of ‘to a very high extent.’”

LMS (Learning Management System) consists of software that automates the administration of training. The LMS registers users, tracks courses in a catalog, records data from learners, and provides reports to management. An LMS typically is designed to handle courses by multiple publishers and providers.

MM-Learning (Mobile Learning) is learning that takes place via wireless devices such as cell phones, smart phones, tablets, or laptop computers.

Mager, Robert contributed to HPT and developed behavioral learning objectives with three key elements: what the worker must do, the conditions under which the work must be done, and the standard or criterion that is considered acceptable performance.

Management Development is a planned learning process that may include mentoring, training, college courses, and job rotations to prepare employees with the skills required to manage the

day-to-day work of an organization. This process enables employees to execute the strategies of the organization. Usually, there are defined competencies for managers such as knowledge and application of management theory and processes, finance and accounting, interpersonal skills, problem solving skills, leadership, and communication.

Mashup is a web development term for a webpage or application that integrates data from two or more sources to create a new service. In a business context, mashups are typically visually rich interfaces that portray information from external or internal databases. Mashups have had a crucial role in the rise of Web 2.0 technologies.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs refers to the theory of Abraham Maslow and was introduced in 1954 in his book Motivation and Personality. Maslow contended that people have complex needs that they strive to fulfill, and that change and evolve over time. He categorized these needs as physiological (food, drink, sex, and sleep), safety/security, social/belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization, with basic needs having to be satisfied before an individual can focus on growth.

Mastery Learning is a principle of evaluating learning based on mastery of material according to a predetermined criterion. It is also called criterion-referenced instruction (CRI) or performance-based instruction. This is in contrast to norm-referenced learning, in which the learner is compared to other learners instead of to a fixed standard.

Measures of Central Tendency are numeric calculations used to find meaning in statistical data from an evaluation:

• Mean is the average of a group of numbers.

• Median is the middle of a distribution: half the scores are above the median, and half are below.

• Mode is the most frequently occurring value in a group of numbers.



Mentoring is the career-development practice of using a more experienced individual tutor or group to share wisdom and expertise with a protégé over a specific period of time. There are three common types of mentoring: one-on-one, group, or virtual.

Metrics are numerical values that are used as the basis for measuring productivity, proficiency, performance, and worth.

Mind Map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central keyword or idea. It is used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing. It is a record of information that uses branching lines to relate connections of topics to one another in idea association. (See diagram below.)

Model is a representation of an idea, object, process, or phenomenon.

Modules (sometimes called lessons) are the smallest unit of learning and provide content and practice to meet predefined learning objectives. Learning modules contain objectives, knowledge content to enable the learner to complete the task, task content, practice activities to help reach the objective or objectives, and an assessment mechanism to determine whether the objectives were reached.

Motivation Theory is based on the idea that by creating the right environment for people to work in, they will be motivated to grow and become connected to that environment. This theory is important to coaching.

a TRaINeR By aNy OTHeR NameBelow is a list of just some of the titles that are found within the training field.

• Career development manager

• Chief learning officer (CLO)

• Competency expert

• Conflict manager

• Continuous learning coach

• Corporate trainer

• Courseware designer

• Curriculum development specialist

• Educational program manager

• Employee development specialist

• Executive coach

• Facilitator

• HRD specialist

• Instructional designer

• Instructional technologist

• Instructor

• Knowledge manager

• Leadership trainer

• Learning and development specialist

• Lecturer

• Manager of strategic initiatives

• Media designer

• Organization development specialist

• Performance analyst

• Performance consultant

• Performance technologist

• Performance improvement technologist

• Specialist

• Technical trainer

• Training director

• Training leader

• Training manager

• Workforce diversity director

• Workplace learning and performance (WLP) professional

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Multisensory Learning engages the learner and increases retention. Audio and video can often convey feelings and subtle contexts of learning more effectively than other tools.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) consists of categories that identify 16 types of personalities based on extraversion or introversion, intuiting or sensing, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving. It is used in career development and team building.

NNetiquette is a term for the rules of conduct for Internet users.

Neurolinguistic Programming is a style of communication and behavior change management that is based on observations and analyses of unconscious physical behaviors that identify patterns of thought and feeling.

Newsgroup is an online discussion hosted on the Usenet network. It is also sometimes called a forum.

Nominal Data are numbers or variables used to classify a system, as in digits in a telephone number or numbers on a football player’s jersey.

Nominal Group Technique is a team decision-making process that includes silent idea generation, round-robin reporting of ideas, discussion for clarification, and ranking of solution importance. A limit is imposed on face-to-face interaction in order to prevent premature evaluation and minimize interpersonal conflict and pressure to conform.

Norm-Referenced Tests are often used in evaluation, comparing individuals or groups to the norm, or average trainee performance, rather than rating them according to program objectives.

OObjective is a target or purpose that, when combined with other objectives, leads to a goal. The following are some examples of particular types of learning-related objectives:

• Behavioral objectives specify new behaviors that an individual should adopt after training.

• Affective objectives are learning objectives specifying the acquisition of particular attitudes, values, or feelings.

• Learning objectives are clear, measurable statements of behavior that a learner should demonstrate after training.

Observation occurs when participants are told to witness an event and be prepared to share their reflections, reactions, data, or insights. This also is a methodology for data collection.

OD (Organization Development) is the process of developing an organization’s ability to achieve its business goals. OD utilizes planned interventions to develop the systems, structures, and processes within the organization to improve effectiveness.

OJT (On-the-Job Training), one of the oldest forms of training, is a delivery system that dispenses training to employees as they need it. OJT also includes unstructured learning, which occurs when one employee teaches another spontaneously, with no planning or method. Because of its nature, important steps may be forgotten or skipped, and there may be little quality control or documentation.

Open System Theory, also known as "living" or "general" systems theory, is based on the idea that things influence each other, or that groups of people (in an organization) learn from one another.

Organizational Culture is the unspoken pattern of values that guide the behavior of the people in an organization, including attitudes and practices that can be difficult to change.



Qualitative Data is information that can be difficult to express in measures or numbers.

RRFP (Request for Proposal) is a document produced by a company seeking goods or services and distributed to prospective suppliers. Suppliers then submit proposals that include bids based on the criteria specified within the RFP.

RID (Rapid Instructional Design) is a collection of strategies for quickly producing instructional packages, which enable a group of learners to achieve a set of specific instructional objectives.

ROI (Return-on-Investment) is a ratio of the benefit or profit received from a given investment to the cost of the investment itself. It constitutes Level 5 evaluation, accountability for training programs.

Role Play is an activity in which participants act out roles, attitudes, or behaviors to practice skills or apply what they have learned. Frequently an observer provides feedback to the participants.

Root Cause Analysis is used to identify factors contributing to a performance gap.

Round Robin is a process for sharing one idea from every person in a group or team.

SScenario Planning, adapted from military intelligence, is an analysis and planning method used by organizations to make flexible long-term plans.

SDL (Self-Directed Learning) is individualized, or self-paced learning that occurs through programs that use a variety of delivery media, ranging from print products to web-based systems. It also can refer to less formal types of learning such as team learning, knowledge management systems, and self-development programs.

Outsourcing Training uses resources or products external to an organization to meet an organization’s learning requirements.

PPedagogy is an informal philosophy of teaching that focuses on what the instructor does rather than what participants learn. Usually refers to teaching children.

Performance-Based Instruction is comprised of learning activities designed to provide the knowledge and skills required to perform specific tasks on the job. These are determined in a task analysis and expressed as learning objectives. Often includes performance-based evaluation.

Performance Consulting Specialists provide clear and deliberate methods of linking performance needs and goals with organizational needs and goals.

Performance Intervention is a solution or set of solutions and techniques that address a performance gap.

PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) Chart is a diagramming technique that enables project managers to estimate a range of task durations.

Process Improvement is the application of a specific method to reduce time, increase quality, reduce cost, decrease cycle time, eliminate rework, or change some other negative aspect of a product or service in order to meet customer requirements.

Project Management is the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling of resources for a finite period of time to complete specific goals and objectives.

QQualitative Analysis involves looking at participants’ opinions, behaviors, and attributes; this type of analysis is often descriptive.

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Simulation is a broad genre of experiences, including games for entertainment and immersive learning simulations for formal learning programs. Simulations use simulation elements to model and present situations; portraying actions and demonstrating how the actions affect relevant systems, and how those systems produce feedback and results. The simulation elements are mixed with game elements to make it engaging, and pedagogical elements (including coaching) to make it effective. It organizes linear content into tasks and levels to create incrementally challenging practice environments.

Six-Sigma Methodology is a process-improvement strategy and measure of quality that strives for perfection. Six-Sigma is a disciplined, data-driven methodology for eliminating defects (driving toward six standard deviations between the mean and the nearest specification limit) in a process. The fundamental objective of the Six-Sigma methodology is the implementation of a measurement-based strategy that focuses on process improvement and variation reduction through the application of projects.

SME (Subject Matter Expert) is an individual who is recognized as having proficient knowledge and skills in a particular topic or subject area.

Smile Sheet is a nickname for the class training evaluation forms used in Level 1 evaluations.

Social Learning occurs naturally when two or more people interact. Organizations are now beginning to use social media tools to enhance social learning and knowledge-sharing, resulting in more informed, effective workplace collaborations. (See Social Media.)

Social Media are web-based and mobile technologies that turn communication into interactive dialogue.

ORgaNIZaTIONs THaT suPPORT TRaININg• AITD: Australian Institute of Training and Development. West

Chastwood, New South Wales, Australia. www.aitd.com.au

• ASTD: American Society for Training & Development. Alexandria, Virginia, US. www.astd.org

• CCHRA: Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. www.chrpcanada.com

• CIPD: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. London, UK. www.cipd.co.uk

• CSTD: Canadian Society for Training and Development. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. www.cstd.ca

• IBSTPI: International Board of Standards for Training, Performance, and Instruction. Batavia, Illinois, US. www.ibstpi.org

• ICF: International Coach Foundation. Lexington, Kentucky, US. www.coachfederation.org

• IFTDO: International Federation of Training and Development Organizations. Geneva, Switzerland. www.iftdo.org

• ISPI: International Society for Performance Improvement. Silver Spring, Maryland, US. www.ispi.org

• NVO2: Dutch Association of HRD Professionals. Apeldoorn, Netherlands. www.nvvo.nl

• OD Institute: Organization Development Institute. Chesterland, Ohio, US. http://odinstitute.org

• ODN: Organization Development Network. South Orange, New Jersey, US. www.odnetwork.org

• SHRM: Society for Human Resource Management. Alexandria, Virginia, US. www.shrm.org

• WFPMA: World Federation of Personnel Management Associations. Alexandria, Virginia, US. www.wfpma.com



PeOPLe TRaINeRs KNOWBelow is a list of some commonly referenced names—people whose ideas, models, and theories have helped define the field of workplace learning and performance.

• Argyris, Chris: A leading researcher and theorist on behavioral science applications and OD; he devised the Double Loop Learning concept that looks at organizational functions and why problems and successes occur.

• Blanchard, Ken: A prominent speaker and author in the field of management; his books include The One Minute Manager series.

• Block, Peter: Consulting expert whose book, Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used, was recognized in 2004 by the Organization Development Network as the most influential book for OD professionals for the last 40 years.

• Bloom, Benjamin: Developed the three learning outcomes—the Taxonomy of Learning—based on three domains: cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills), and affective (attitude), referred to by trainers as KSAs.

• Gagne, Robert: A pioneer in the field of instructional design. He developed nine instructional events that help ensure learning occurs.

• Gardener, Howard: Designed Multiple Intelligence Theory, an accelerated learning theory that states there is no single way in which everyone thinks and learns. Gardner devised a list of eight intelligences: verbal-linguistic, logical mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic, which in different combinations, make up a person’s learning style.

• Herrmann, Ned: Developed the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument, a method that classifies learners by their preferences for thinking in four different modes based on brain function.

• Kirkpatrick, Donald J.: Created four levels of evaluation: reaction, learning, behavior, and results.

• Knowles, Malcolm: Considered the father of Adult Learning Theory, Knowles defined six assumptions about adult learning and published The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species in 1973.

• Kolb, David: Developed the Learning Style Inventory, which identifies a person’s learning style according to quadrants between pairs of modes.

• Mager, Robert: Developed the Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) methodology for training design and delivery methods; authored Preparing Instructional Objectives.

• Masie, Elliot: An advisor, trainer, speaker, and president of the Masie Center, a think tank devoted to studying the connection of learning and technology.

• Maslow, Abraham: Introduced the Hierarchy of Needs in 1954 in his book Motivation and Personality. Maslow contended that people have complex needs that they strive to fulfill, and that change and evolve over time.

• Phillips, Jack: A well-known evaluation expert who has developed a fifth level of evaluation: return-on-investment (ROI) in training programs.

• Pike, Bob: President of Creative Training Techniques International. Holds CTT workshops, and wrote The Creative Training Techniques Handbook.

• Robinson, Dana and James: Authors and recognized leaders in the WLP and technology fields who received the Distinguished Contribution Award for Workplace Learning and Performance by CSTD (Canadian Society for Training and Development).

• Rummler, Geary: A management consultant who wrote Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space in the Organization Chart.

• Senge, Peter: Wrote The Fifth Discipline, which highlights the concept of the learning organization and systems thinking.

• Wheatley, Margaret: Consultant, speaker, and author in the field of organizational leadership.

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Synchronous Training occurs when the trainer and the trainee interact in real time. It often refers to electronic or web-based training. (See also Asynchronous Training.)

Systems Thinking is a conceptual framework that encompasses the whole, making patterns (and ways to change them) more understandable.

TTacit Knowledge is a type of knowledge gained by personal experience.

Teach Back is a technique in which participants are given a portion of content that they introduce to the rest of the participants in a classroom training setting.

Team Building is an intervention used to improve a group’s effectiveness.

Theory X is the traditional way of looking at the workforce, an approach that assumes that people would rather play than work.

Theory Y postulates that most people will work to achieve goals to which they are committed, especially if rewards result from the achievement of those goals. It also assumes that most people can learn to accept—and even seek—responsibility.

360-Degree Assessment is a performance assessment process where feedback on an individual’s performance is gathered from a variety of resources, including co-workers, clients, internal and external customers, supervisors, and the individual being assessed.

Trainer is a person who helps individuals improve performance by teaching, instructing, or facilitating learning.

Training Objective is a statement of what the instructor hopes to accomplish during the training session.

Social Networking uses software to build online communities of people who share interests and activities, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others. Most services are primarily web-based and provide various ways for users to interact, such as chat, messaging, email, video, file sharing, blogging, and discussion groups.

Soft Skills Training refers to the type of training that does not have a tangible product result. Typically, this type of training encompasses skills training in the areas of communication and presentation, leadership and management, human resources, sales and marketing, professional development, project and time management, customer service, team building, administration, accounting and finance, purchasing, and personal development. (See also Hard Skills.)

Storytelling is one method used during training. While storytelling, a facilitator or trainer will explain key lessons or themes from his or her own experience or those of others, and then relate the experience to the topic at hand.

Strategic Planning is the process that allows an organization to identify its aspirations and future challenges, clarify and gain consensus around a business strategy, communicate the strategy throughout the organization, align departments and personal goals with the overarching organizational strategy, and identify and align strategic initiatives. Often combined with long-term (five-to-ten year) planning initiatives, the process typically involves a SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis.

Succession Planning is the process of identifying key positions, candidates, and employees to meet the challenges that an organization faces during change, short-term, and long-term timeframes.

SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats) is an analysis tool used in strategic planning to establish environmental factors affecting an organization. (See Strategic Planning.)



White paper is a short report based on a particular topic of concern to an organization.

Wiki is a collection of web pages designed to allow anyone who accesses it to contribute to or modify content, using a simplified markup language. Wikis are often used to create collaborative websites and to power community websites.

Wizard is a mini-application that prompts a user through the steps of a particular computer-based action. The user provides necessary information as he or she proceeds through the wizard’s screens, while the wizard completes the actual steps behind the scenes.

Workplace Learning and Performance (WLP) encompasses the professions of training, performance improvement, learning, development, and workplace education. It is often colloquially referred to as training or training and development.

WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get): Pronounced “wizzy wig,” a WYSIWYG program allows designers to see text and graphics onscreen exactly as they will appear when printed out or published online, rather than in programming code.

Transfer of Learning describes the process of learning delivery and retention, and implementation back on the job. It also includes transfer of training.

VVAK Model is a model of the way that individuals learn and retain information. Some people learn primarily through one style, others through a combination of three: visual (learners need pictures, diagrams, and other visuals), audio (learners need to hear information), and kinesthetic (learners prefer hands-on learning).

WWants-Based Approach is a customer approach that focuses primarily on satisfying the client’s needs.

WBT (Web-Based Training) delivers educational content via a web browser over the public Internet, a private intranet, or an extranet. Web-based training often provides links to other learning resources such as references, email, bulletin boards, and discussion groups. WBT also may include a facilitator who can provide course guidelines, manage discussion boards, deliver lectures, and so forth. When used with a facilitator, WBT offers some advantages of instructor-led training while also retaining the advantages of computer-based training.

Weisbord’s Six-Box Model is a total systems approach that examines how organizations and rapidly changing socio-technical environments influence each other simultaneously. It views tasks and process through six lenses: purpose, structure, relationships, rewards, helpful mechanisms, and leadership.

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TeCH TeRms eVeRy TRaINeR NeeDs TO KNOW• CBT (Computer-Based Training) encompasses the use

of computers in both instruction and management of the teaching and learning process. CAI (computer-assisted instruction) and CMI (computer-managed instruction) also are included under the term CBT.

• CMS (Content Management System) is a centralized software application or set of applications that facilitate and streamline the process of designing, testing, approving, and posting e-learning content, usually on webpages.

• Courseware is any type of instructional or educational course delivered via a software program or over the Internet.

• DBMS (Database Management System) is software or a collection of software that enables users to access and manipulate data.

• E-Learning (Electronic Learning) is a term covering a wide set of applications and processes such as web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. Delivery of content may be via the Internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio- and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, or CD-ROM.

• EPSS (Electronic Performance Support Systems) is a computer application that is linked directly to another application to train or guide workers through completing a task in the target application. More generally, it is a computer or other device that gives workers information or resources to help them accomplish a task or achieve performance requirements. These systems deliver information on the job, just in time, and with minimal staff support.

• IT Training is a combination of desktop training, information systems and technical training. Includes training in areas such as system infrastructure software, application software, and application development tools.

• LCMS (Learning Content Management System) is a software application (or set of applications) that manages the creation, storage, use, and reuse of learning content. LCMSs often store content in granular forms such as learning objects.

• Learning Portal is any website that offers learners or organizations access to learning and training resources from multiple sources.

• LMS (Learning Management System) consists of software that automates the administration of training. The LMS registers users, tracks courses in a catalog, records data from learners, and provides reports to management. An LMS typically is designed to handle courses by multiple publishers and providers.

• WBT (Web-Based Training) is the delivery of educational content via the Internet, a private intranet, or an extranet.

• Webinar (Web + Seminar) is a small online learning event in which a presenter and audience members communicate via text or audio chat about concepts that also can be illustrated by online slides and/or an electronic whiteboard. Webinars often are archived for on-demand access.

• Whiteboard is an electronic version of a dry-erase board that enables learners in a virtual classroom to view what an instructor, presenter, or fellow learner writes or draws. It is also called a smartboard or electronic whiteboard.

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Here are the references that were used in the compilation of terms and definitions.

ASTD Infoline series. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 1984–2005.

The ASTD Learning System. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2006.

Biech, Elaine. Training for Dummies. India-napolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons, 2005.

Biech, Elaine. The ASTD Handbook for Workplace Learning Professionals. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2008.

Carliner, Saul. Designing E-Learning. Alex-andria, VA: ASTD Press, 2002.

———. Training Design Basics. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2003.

Craig, Robert L. Training and Development Handbook. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 1987.

Knowles, Malcolm, et al. The Adult Learner, 6th edition. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005.

Learning Circuits E-Learning Glossary. www.learningcircuits.org/glossary.html

Miles, David H. The 30-Second Encyclope-dia of Learning and Performance. New York: AMACOM, 2003.

Nilson, Carolyn. How to Start a Training Program. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 1999.

Piskurich, George. ASTD Handbook of Training Design and Delivery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Phillips, Patricia Pulliam. ASTD Handbook for Measuring & Evaluating Training. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2010.

———. Trainer Basics. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2003.

Reynolds, Angus. The Trainer’s Dictionary. Amherst, MA: HRD Press, 1993.

Russell, Jeffrey and Linda Russell. Strate-gic Planning Training. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2005.

Sanders, Ethan S., and Sivasailam “Thiagi” Thiagarajan. Performance Interven-tion Maps, 2nd edition. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2005.

Stolovitch, Harold D., and Erica J. Keeps. Telling Ain’t Training. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press, 2002.

ReFeReNCes & ResOuRCes


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