THE INFLUENCE OF WAGES AND NONWAGE

AMENITIES ON THE LABOUR MARKET FOR HIGH

SCHOOL TEACHERS IN NEW SOUTH WALES

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the

degree

Doctor of Philosophy

from

University of Wollongong

by

Anthony R. Stokes, MEc (Soc. Sc.)(Hons), BA, Dip.Ed.

Department of Economics

2005

CERTIFICATION I, Anthony R. Stokes, declare that this thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Economics, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Anthony R. Stokes ___________________ 2005

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would especially like to thank my principal supervisor, Professor Don Lewis, for seven

and a half years of guidance, perseverance and support. I would also like to thank my co-

supervisor, Dr Frank Neri, for his approach as ‘devils advocate’. I think it kept us

questioning the issues being investigated.

I have to thank the NSW Department of Education, various Catholic Education Offices,

school principals and teachers who supported and participated in this project. In addition, I

would like to thank the universities, lecturers and students who assisted in the surveys of

university students.

Thank you also to my colleagues and students for your interest in and support of the project

and the motivation you provided to keep going.

Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support and encouragement both in this

thesis and through out my lifetime.

ABSTRACT

This thesis focuses on the teacher labour market in NSW and examines the effects of the

current wage fixation system and labour market conditions on the quantity and quality of

teachers in NSW high schools. Allowing for the budget constraints facing the NSW

Government and other employer groups, this thesis explores alternative ways to increase

teacher utility and thus incentives to work as teachers through improvements in nonwage

amenities. This thesis uses hedonic wage theory to examine how workers will try to

maximise their utility based on their individual preferences for wage and nonwage

amenities and applies this framework to the high school teacher labour market in NSW.

The thesis suggests ways of improving the level of teacher satisfaction (utility) in NSW

high schools with the aim of improving teacher retention rates and attracting more high

quality university graduates to the teaching profession. These policy recommendations

are designed to alleviate the shortages of teachers that already exist in some disciplines

and locations. In addition, the shortage of teachers is likely to grow unless remedial

actions are taken. The promotion of greater job satisfaction among teachers may not only

help to alleviate this shortage but can also lead to increased teacher effectiveness, which

ultimately affects student achievement.

Table of Contents

Certification Acknowledgements Abstract Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures

Chapter Page

Introduction i An Overview of the Argument iii Thesis Outline vii

1 An Introduction to the Labour Market for Teachers

1

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 A Competitive Teacher Labour Market 6 1.3 What Factors Determine the Level of Job Satisfaction among

American Teachers? 15

1.4 Conclusion 32

2 Labour Market Theories

35

2.1 The Market for Labour 35 2.2 Hedonic Wage Theory 47 2.2.1 Nonwage Amenities in the Teacher Labour Market 49 2.2.2 The Role of Isoprofit Curves 55 2.3 Conclusion 60

3 The Demand for High School Teacher in New South Wales

63

3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 The Employers of Teachers in NSW High Schools 65 3.3 Determinants of Demand for Teachers in NSW High Schools 67 3.4 What are the Trends in the Demand for High School Teachers in

NSW? 80

3.4.1 Age Retirement 82

3.4.2 Resignations 84 3.4.3 Redundancy 87 3.4.4 Contract Expired (and Not Renewed) 87 3.4.5 Going on Extended Leave of at Least One Term Duration 87 3.4.6 Other 88 3.5 Conclusion 90

4 The Supply of High School Teachers in New South Wales

92

4.1 The Factors Influencing the Overall Supply of Teachers in NSW High Schools

92

4.1.1 New Graduates 92 4.1.2 Teachers Returning from Leave 100 4.1.3 Former Teachers Returning to Teaching 101 4.1.4 The Pool of Trained Teachers who are not Employed Full-

time as Teachers 102

4.1.5 Teachers who have Moved into NSW from another State or from Overseas

106

4.2 Factors Influencing the Supply of Teachers in Specialisation Classifications

110

4.3 Factors Influencing Supply by Geographic Location 113 4.4 The International Supply of Teachers 121 4.5 Projections of Teacher Supply in NSW 125 4.6 Conclusion

135

5 Models of Teacher Labour Supply

137

5.1 Introduction 137 5.2 Teacher Supply Projection Models 138 5.3 A Model of Teacher Labour Supply in a Particular Geographic or

Socio-economic Area 139

5.4 The Effect of Gender on Teacher Labour Supply Models 144 5.5 A Dynamic Model of High School Teacher Labour Supply 145 5.6 A Model of High School Teacher Labour Supply for a Particular

Location in NSW 145

5.6.1 A Description of the Sample 152 5.6.2 The Model Estimated 154 5.7 Gender Models of High School Teacher Labour Supply for a

Particular Location in NSW 158

5.8 A Time Series Study of Changes in the Relative Wages of Male and Female Teachers in NSW High Schools 1976-2002

164

5.9 Male Teachers and Relative Wages 167

5.10 The Private Rate of Return of Teachers 169 5.11 Teacher Salary Relativities: A Benchmarking Approach 170 5.12 Conclusion

176

6 A Survey of Teachers in NSW High Schools on the Influence of Salaries and Nonwage Amenities in Determining Job Satisfaction

177

6.1 Introduction 177 6.2 Methodology of the Study 178 6.3 A Description of the Sample 181 6.4 How Important were Wages to the Teachers? 184 6.5 What Determines Job Satisfaction for High School Teachers in

NSW? 193

6.6 How Does Job Satisfaction Vary with the Different Characteristics of High School Teachers?

195

6.6.1 Hypothesis Testing by Gender 195 6.6.2 Hypothesis Testing by Age 202 6.6.3 Hypothesis Testing by School System 205 6.6.4 Hypothesis Testing by Level of Academic Qualifications 212 6.6.5 Hypothesis Testing by Location of the School 216 6.7 What is the Level of Job Satisfaction among High School

Teachers in NSW? 222

6.8 How Does the Level of Job Satisfaction Vary with the Characteristics of Teachers in NSW High Schools?

225

6.8.1 Hypothesis Testing by Gender 225 6.8.2 Hypothesis Testing by School System 230 6.8.3 Hypothesis Testing by Age of Teachers 242 6.8.4 Hypothesis Testing by Level of Academic Qualifications 251 6.8.5 Hypothesis Testing by Location of the School 253 6.9 A Weighted Satisfaction Score for High School Teachers in NSW 260 6.10 A Regression Model of Teacher Satisfaction 269 6.11 Conclusion

273

7 What Factors Influence the Decisions of University Students to Become Teachers?

275

7.1 Introduction 275 7.2 Surveys of University Students 275 7.3 Methodology of the Study 276 7.4 A Description of the Sample 279 7.5 A Regression Model of the Factors Influencing University 282

Students’ Intentions to Teach 7.6 How Would Higher Teacher Salaries Affect Students’ Career

Choices? 286

7.7 What Factors Influence the Career Choices of University Students?

288

7.8 Factors Influencing the Career Choices of University Students Regarding Teaching

291

7.9 How Did the Students Rate Employment Conditions in NSW High Schools?

299

7.10 How Do University Students’ Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions Vary Depending on their Intention to Teach?

302

7.11 Do University Students’ Attitudes to Pursuing a Teaching Career Vary between Genders?

308

7.12 Do University Students’ Attitudes to Pursuing a Teaching Career Vary across Discipline Areas?

311

7.13 How Did Certain Extrinsic Factors Influence the Students’ Decisions to Pursue a Career in Teaching?

313

7.14 Conclusion

321

8 Conclusions and Policy Implications of the Study

324

8.1 Conclusions of the Study 324 8.2 Policy Implications 338 8.2.1 National Issues 339 8.2.2 State Issues 344 8.2.3 System Issues 353 8.2.4 Individual School Issues 359 8.3 Conclusion

361

List of References

363

Appendix A 373 Appendix B 381 Appendix C 385

List of Tables Table Page 1.1 The Factors Underlying the Differences in Salaries of Public and

Private School Teachers, by Private School Type

8

1.2 Salaries of Teachers with Selected Undergraduate Majors, as a Percentage Difference from General Elementary Majors, 1990-91

11

1.3 Salaries of Teachers by Highest Degree Earned, as a Percentage Difference from Teachers with Bachelor's Degrees, 1990-91

12

1.4 Percentage Effect of Teacher Attitudes and Perceptions on Salaries, by Sector, 1990-91

14

1.5 Percentage of High School Teachers across Levels of Satisfaction, by School Sector and Teacher Compensation Factors, 1993-94

16

1.6 Percentages of High School Teachers across Levels of Satisfaction, by School Sector, Selected Attitudes, and Perceptions of Workplace Conditions, 1993-94

18

1.7 Percentage of High School Teachers who Agree with the Following Statements, by School Sector, 1993-94

31

3.1 Median Salaries and Level of Full-time Employment of Initial Education Graduates, by State and Territory, 2002

64

3.2 Percentages of Teachers in New South Wales High Schools, by Category of School

66

3.3 Sources of Income per Student in Schools in NSW, by System, 2000

71

3.4 Highest Formal Qualifications of Teachers in Australia, by School System 2001

78

3.5 Separations (Other than through Leave of Absence) from the Government Permanent Teaching Workforce in Australian High Schools, as a Percentage of that Workforce, 1996 and 1999

82

4.1 Projections of Total Completions from Secondary Teacher Training Courses in NSW, 1999 to 2003

98

4.2 Year 12 Completion Rates by Locality and Gender, Australia, 1994-1998 (%)

116

4.3 Percentage of Lower Secondary Teaching Staff 50 Years and Over, and Percentage of Women Among Lower Secondary Teaching Staff, 1992 and 1999

123

4.4 Projections of High School Teachers in NSW, 2000-2005

132

5.1 Descriptive Statistics across Regions of NSW, High School Teacher Model (1)

153

5.2 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Model (1)

156

5.3 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Model (1a)

157

5.4 High School Teacher Model (1a) Summary

157

5.5 Summary Table of the Teacher Models

160

5.6 Measurements of the Private Rate of Return to Higher Education

170

5.7 Measurements of the Private Rate of Return to Teaching (%) 170

6.1 Gender Distribution of Teachers’ Surveyed and Actual Percentages in NSW High Schools

182

6.2 Age Distribution of Teachers Surveyed and Estimated Percentages in NSW Schools

183

6.3 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Teaching Experience

183

6.4 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on the Location of the School

183

6.5 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on the School System and Actual Percentages in NSW High Schools

184

6.6 Teachers’ Supplementary Income

185

6.7 Source of Supplementary Income

185

6.8 Annual Additional Income

185

6.9 Income Supplementation of Teachers, Based on Gender

188

6.10 Other Income Sources, Based on Gender

188

6.11 Annual Additional Income, Based on Gender

189

6.12 Teachers’ Attitudes to their Salaries

190

6.13 Relative Salaries and Job Choice

191

6.14 The Importance of the Level of Salary in Changing School Systems

193

6.15 The Importance of Factors in Measuring Teacher Satisfaction

196

6.16 Gender and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

198

6.17 Gender and Support from Administration

198

6.18 Gender and Low Level of Stress

199

6.19 Gender and Number of Holidays

200

6.20 Support of Student’ Parents

201

6.21 Age and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

203

6.22 Age and the Possibility of Promotion

204

6.23 School Systems and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

206

6.24 School System and Number of Holidays

207

6.25 School System and Hours of Work

208

6.26 School System and the Attitude of Students

210

6.27 School System and the Attitude of the General Public

211

6.28 Level of Academic Qualifications and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

213

6.29 Level of Academic Qualifications and the Possibility of Promotion

214

6.30 Level of Academic Qualifications and Support of Your Family

216

6.31 Location of School and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

218

6.32 Location and Attitude of Peers

219

6.33 Location and Attitude of Students

221

6.34 Levels of Teacher Satisfaction

224

6.35 Gender and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

227

6.36 Gender and the Satisfaction of Student Achievement

227

6.37 Gender and the Possibility of Promotion

229

6.38 Gender and a Low Level of Stress

230

6.39 School System and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

231

6.40 School System and Level of Salary

233

6.41 School System and Support from Administration

234

6.42 School System and the Attitude of Students

235

6.43 School System and the Satisfaction of Student Achievement

237

6.44 School System and the Support of Students’ Parents

238

6.45 School System and Attitude of the General Public

240

6.46 School System and the Possibility of Promotion

241

6.47 Age and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

243

6.48 Age and Low Level of Stress

244

6.49 Age and the Possibility of Promotion

246

6.50 Age and Support from Administration

247

6.51 Age and Attitude of Peers

248

6.52 Age and Attitude of the General Public

250

6.53 Level of Academic Qualifications and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

252

6.54 Qualifications and the Possibility of Promotion

252

6.55 Location of School and Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

254

6.56 Location of the School and the Support from Administration

255

6.57 Location of the School and the Support from the Students’ Parents

257

6.58 Location of the School and the Attitude of the Students

259

6.59 Descriptive Statistics for Weighted Satisfaction Scores by Categories

262

6.60 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Satisfaction Model (1a) 271

6.61 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Satisfaction Model (1b) 272

7.1 Year of Study at University

279

7.2 Gender of Students

279

7.3 Age Distribution of Students

279

7.4 University Admission Index

280

7.5 Residential Distribution

280

7.6 Field of Study

281

7.7 Type of School Attended

282

7.8 Student Intentions about Pursuing a Teaching Career

282

7.9 Coefficients of the University Students’ Intentions to Teach (1a) 285

7.10 Coefficients of the University Students’ Intentions to Teach (1b) 286

7.11 Student Intentions towards Pursuing a Teaching Career and Teachers’ Salaries

287

7.12 The Importance of Factors in Students’ Decisions to Pursue Particular Careers

290

7.13 Factors Influencing Career Choice and Intention to Teach Summary Table

291

7.14 Attitude of the General Public in Career Choice and Intention to Teach Summary Table

292

7.15 Desire to Help Others in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

294

7.16 Level of Salary in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

295

7.17 Number of Holidays in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

297

7.18 Interest in the Work in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

298

7.19 University Student Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions

301

7.20 University Student Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions and Intention to Teach Summary Table

302

7.21 Level of Salary and Intention to Teach

303

7.22 Number of Holidays and Intention to Teach

305

7.23 Hours of Work and Intention to Teach

306

7.24 Attitude of the General Public and Intention to Teach

307

7.25 Gender and Intention to Teach

308

7.26 Gender and Intention to Teach Related to Salary Increase

310

7.27 Field of Study and Intention to Teach

312

7.28 The Attitude of Teachers and Intention to Teach

315

7.29 The Attitude of Parents and Intention to Teach

316

7.30 Experience of School and Intention to Teach

318

B.1 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Highest Qualification

382

B.2 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Education Qualifications

382

B.3 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Area of Academic Qualification

382

B.4 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Salary

383

B.5 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Place of Residence

383

B.6 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Non-English Speaking Background of Students

383

B.7 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on their Main Teaching Field

384

B.8 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Main Classes Taught 384

List of Figures Figure Page 2.1 Shortages in the Labour Market for Teachers 37

2.2 Surplus in The Labour Market for Teachers 38

2.3 Hours of work for a salaried worker when work and leisure are perfect substitutes

40

2.4 The efficiency wage model 44

2.5 An indifference map for wages and nonwage amenities 49

2.6 A group of isoprofit curves for an employer 56

2.7 Matching Employee and Employers 58

3.1 Discrimination in the teacher labour market 76

3.2 An indifference map for wages and nonwage amenities 79

3.3 Number of teaching staff in NSW high schools, 1984-2002 80

3.4 Age of school teachers in Australia, 1991 and 2001 83

3.5 School teachers by years of experience in all NSW Catholic high schools, 1992-2002

84

4.1 Total commencements of and completions from secondary teacher training courses in New South Wales, 1988 to 1999

97

4.2 Commencements of postgraduate and undergraduate secondary teacher training courses in NSW, 1989 to 1999

97

4.3 Annual net migration flow of school teachers in Australia from 1995-96 to 1999-2000

108

4.4 Annual net residents flow of school teachers in Australia from 1995-96 to 1999-2000

109

5.1 Relative wages of teachers and the quantity of teachers per student across regions

147

5.2 Relative wages of teachers and the quantity of teachers per student in equilibrium and in disequilibrium

148

5.3 Location of high school teachers in SLAs in NSW, based on their distance from major cities (klms)

150

5.4 The labour market for qualified and unqualified teachers 163

5.5 The relative average weekly earnings of male and female teachers in Australia 1976-2002

165

5.6 The ratio of males to female teachers in high schools in NSW 1977–2003

166

i

Introduction

The labour market is the market for the factor of production labour. It is made up of those

who have a demand for labour, employers and those who supply the labour, workers. The

labour market differs from other markets in that the item being exchanged is embodied in a

human being (Ginzberg 1976). The purchaser of the labour and the supplier of the labour

have a personal relationship between each other. The workers, as human beings will have

personal preferences in regard to the conditions that they work under. Thus the labour

market is not only dependent on wages and on-costs, but non-financial factors that are

largely absent from product markets. These factors include the safety and quality of the

work environment, the hours of work, opportunities for promotion, the status and public

perception of the job and the attitude of management and fellow employees. The

importance of these factors varies with the individual preferences of workers. Decisions of

firms, regarding whom to employ, are determined by a complex array of considerations,

involving not only monetary returns but also non-pecuniary advantages and disadvantages

associated with the job or workers.

The high school teacher labour market in NSW is comprised of three major employer

groups. The main employer of teachers in NSW high schools is the NSW Government,

through the NSW Department of Education and Training (DET). The Government is also

partly responsible for the funding of Catholic and independent schools in NSW. The

Government is faced with limitations on their ability to fund education. Their ability to

fund teachers’ wages is constrained by their budgets and the political repercussions of

ii

increases in taxation or cuts in the Government’s expenditure in other areas to fund teacher

wage increases. This has a major influence on the operation of the teacher labour market in

NSW. The limited funding and the monopsonist employer position of the NSW

Government has led to a situation of market disequilibrium, with wage levels insufficient to

attract teachers at least in some discipline areas and locations. The free operation of market

forces would lead to wages rising and falling in response to changes in demand and supply.

This does not occur in the Australian teacher labour market at this time.

This thesis focuses on the teacher labour market in NSW and examines the effects of the

current wage fixation system and labour market conditions on the quantity and quality of

teachers in NSW high schools. Allowing for the budget constraints facing the NSW

Government, and other employer groups, this thesis explores alternative ways to increase

teacher utility and thus incentives to work as teachers through improvements in nonwage

amenities. Hedonic wage theory suggests that workers will try to maximise their utility

based on their individual preferences for wage and nonwage amenities. In occupations

where nonwage amenities are greater there is a tendency to find lower wages, and in

occupations with negative nonwage amenities, wages will tend to be higher. Thus it can be

expected that there are two ways of increasing utility and the likelihood of people becoming

teachers and remaining in teaching, i.e. improved wages and/or improved nonwage

amenities.

The thesis will suggest ways of improving the level of teacher satisfaction in NSW high

schools with the aim of improving teacher retention rates and attracting more high quality

iii

university graduates to the teaching profession to alleviate shortages of teachers, existing in

some disciplines and locations now and in the future. The promotion of greater job

satisfaction among teachers can also lead to increased teacher effectiveness, which

ultimately affects student achievement.

An Overview of the Argument

Research in the USA (National Center for Education Statistics 1996, 1997), where there is a

relatively flexible labour market for teachers, shows that employee compensation reflects,

at least in part, the forces of demand and supply. The effect on wages of particular teacher

characteristics, such as qualifications and experience, reflect a combination of the perceived

value of the attribute to the employer and the availability of that attribute in the market. In

teaching areas where there were perceived shortages or competition from the private non-

school sector, there tended to be higher wages, as theory would suggest in a flexible labour

market.

The studies (National Center for Education Statistics 1996, 1997) showed that teacher

compensation was not the most important factor in determining where teachers were

employed. Teachers in public schools earned up to 119 percent more than those in private

schools. Teachers in private schools were willing to accept lower wages because of the

perceived better conditions in terms of their overall level of job satisfaction. The 1997

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) study found that student behaviour and

school atmosphere, administrative support and leadership, and teacher control over working

conditions were the most important factors in determining teacher job satisfaction in both

iv

private and public high schools. These characteristics were all more prominent in the

private school sector rather than the public school sector and acted as a trade-off for the

higher wages on offer in the public sector. Private high school teachers were willing to

accept much lower wages in return for these characteristics. In turn public high school

teachers received higher wage rates to teach in schools that were perceived as having less

of these favourable characteristics. Overall it was shown that teacher compensation

showed little relationship to the level of job satisfaction of teachers.

Research in this area is extremely limited in Australia. Webster et al. (2004) consider that

“there appears to be no analytic studies of labour market motivations of teachers (in

Australia).” This thesis will provide the basis for an understanding of the labour market

motivations of teachers and those who could become teachers. It will also consider policies

that could act to improve the motivation to teach and improve educational outcomes in high

schools in NSW.

Australia does not have as flexible a teacher labour market as the USA. The majority of

teachers in NSW are employed in public schools. They are all paid the same salary based

on the Crown Employees (Teachers in Schools and TAFE and Related Employees) Salaries

and Conditions Award. The NSW Department of Education and Training (DET) allocate

teachers to schools. There is not the flexibility to offer different salaries in different

schools to attract teachers. Salary incremental progression is based on a 13-step scale, with

progression based on years of teaching service not productivity. The next largest teacher

employer group in NSW, the Catholic systemic schools, have salary scales generally the

v

same as those applying to public school teachers. The final employer group the

independent schools have similar scales to the other two systems or in some cases slightly

higher. The higher level of salaries is designed to attract the better teachers to the

independent schools that charge higher fees for tuition.

This thesis aims to explore the importance of factors that influence teachers and potential

future teachers to work as teachers. It will consider the wage/nonwage amenity trade-off

and attempt to develop a model of teacher labour supply for NSW high schools using

conventional labour market models that have proved useful in the USA and other flexible

labour markets. Regression analysis is used in the model to apply 2001 census data

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003c) in order to estimate a supply function.

The thesis finds, however, that these models provide little usefulness when applied to the

NSW high school teacher labour market because of the monopsonistic control the DET has

over teacher salaries and the allocation of teachers to public schools in NSW. The similar

nature of teacher salary scales for most teachers in NSW also proves to be a limiting factor

in measuring the determinants of a teacher supply function.

An alternative approach to quantify the factors that influence the supply of teachers is to

develop and use surveys of teachers in NSW high schools and potential teachers (surveys of

university students in NSW). The empirical approach in this case is based upon a

conceptual analysis of hedonic wage theory (Antos and Rosen 1975, Chambers 1981a,

1981b). The conceptual framework builds on the notion that employees care about the

vi

quality of their work environment as well as monetary rewards associated with particular

employment alternatives. As a result workers will seek to attain the greatest possible

personal satisfaction by selecting a job with the appropriate combination of monetary and

non-monetary rewards. The non-monetary rewards can include factors such as the quality

of their work environment and the overall level of job satisfaction. In a free market,

employers and employees will have different sets of factors that determine the demand for

different types of labour and the supply of labour under different conditions. In theory, the

employer will be more willing to employ labour with those characteristics that they value

most. This in turn means that those workers will generally receive higher remuneration

compared to the less desired workers. The employee on the other hand would be willing to

trade-off wages in exchange for better working conditions and satisfaction or utility.

The thesis proposes that wages are just one of a number of factors that influence decisions

about employment in the teaching field. The nonwage amenities such as satisfaction from

student achievement, interest in the subject taught and the attitude of peers can be more

important to teachers than the wages they receive in determining their individual utility.

The thesis will explore this through an analysis of the results of the surveys. Consideration

will also be given to assessing differences in teacher satisfaction based on differences in

teacher and school characteristics.

The thesis supports the proposition by Webster et al. (2004: 2) that the “entrenched

inflexibilities in the payments system have contributed towards chronic shortages of

qualified teachers in specialised teacher labour markets and poor incentives for excellent

teachers to remain in teaching.” The conclusions of this are that the inflexibility of the

vii

teacher labour market in NSW is a problem and does contribute to a shortage of teachers in

some discipline and geographical areas and a lowering in the quality of education being

provided to the students. It recommends greater flexibility in the labour market but also

greater consideration from educational authorities of the nonwage amenities that affect

teacher satisfaction and the employment decisions of teachers. Educational authorities

facing budgetary constraints may be able to achieve better teacher and educational

outcomes by developing policies to improve nonwage amenities for teachers.

Thesis Outline

Chapter 1 examines the general nature of labour markets and how the structure of teacher

labour markets differs between countries. The conceptual basis of the thesis, hedonic wage

theory, is introduced and, in terms of this, the effect of changes in wages and working

conditions (nonwage amenities) on teacher satisfaction in the US labour market are

explored. The chapter also considers the basic differences between the relatively free

market structure of the US teacher market and the less flexible institutionally limited nature

of the high school teacher labour market in NSW.

Chapter 2 begins by looking at traditional labour market theories and the limitations of

these theories as a result of the monopsonistic nature of the teacher labour market in NSW.

Hedonic wage theory is explained in terms of workers who aim to maximise their utility

from wage income, and other benefits and to minimise their disutility from unpleasant

working conditions. The hedonic wage theory is then considered in light of the results

viii

reported in Chapter 1 dealing with the behaviour of teachers in the labour market in the

USA and studies of teacher satisfaction previously carried out on the teacher labour market

in New South Wales.

Chapter 3 considers the factors that determine the demand for high school teachers in

NSW. It begins by discussing the role and significance of the three main employer groups,

classified by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) as:

• Government;

• Non-Government Catholic; and

• Non-Government Independent.

The Thesis then considers the factors determining the quantity of teachers that will be

demanded at a particular point in time and trends in the demand. Teachers returning to the

classroom who were employed in schools the previous year meet most of the annual

demand for teachers. Each year, however, some new teachers need to be employed due to

some teachers leaving and due to changes in a number of other factors. The demand for

these additional teachers in NSW high schools is a function of:

• the number of teachers leaving the workforce (permanently or on leave); and

• the ‘growth demand for teachers’ (MCEETYA 2001).

The number of teachers leaving the workforce depends on:

• the number of teachers retiring;

• the number of teachers going on leave; and

ix

• the number of teachers quitting for various reasons, including going into other areas

of teaching, excluding NSW high schools.

The growth demand for teachers depends on changes in:

• the size of the school age population;

• participation rates at various ages and especially the retention rate to Year 12;

• the level of government and private funding of schools, and teacher and ancillary

costs; and

• policies regarding class sizes and curricula (which can affect class sizes).

These issues are discussed, along with the significance of the aging teacher workforce

generating an increasing demand for additional new teachers over time.

Chapter 4 examines the supply of teachers in NSW high schools. This chapter focuses on

the sources of additional (or new) teachers to cover separations and any net increase in

demand for teachers. The principal sources of new teachers discussed include:

• new graduates;

• teachers returning from leave;

• former teachers returning to teaching;

• the pool of trained teachers who are not employed full-time as teachers; and

• teachers who have moved into NSW from another state or from overseas.

x

This chapter also considers projections of high school teacher labour supply for NSW and

issues involving the use of projections in education planning.

Chapter 5 develops models of teacher labour supply for NSW high schools. The models

are designed to measure the significance of variables that will affect the supply of high

school teachers in particular locations in NSW. Models of high school teacher labour

supply are developed not only for all high school teachers in NSW but also gender specific

models. The literature shows that males and females have different behaviours in the

labour market, so gender specific models are developed to enable a better understanding of

the supply of teachers and to develop policies that can achieve better labour market

outcomes.

Chapter 5 considers the effect of changes in relative wages on the teacher labour supply.

Trends in the proportion of male teachers to female teachers in NSW high schools are

explored and their relationship to trends in relative wages for male and female teachers,

measured in terms of the percentages of average weekly earnings are examined. Labour

market theory suggests that lower relative wages for one group would tend to reduce the

proportion of that group in the labour supply. The private rate of return for teachers is

compared to other areas of graduate employment and the effect of differences in wages

between occupations based on job descriptions is also considered through a benchmarking

process.

xi

Chapter 6 identifies the main factors and the relative importance of these factors in

influencing the overall job satisfaction of teachers in NSW high schools. The results are

based on a survey of 269 high school teachers throughout NSW. The literature suggests

that improved job satisfaction will increase teacher retention rates, encourage more

university graduates to enter teaching and lead to increased teacher effectiveness, which

ultimately should lead to an improvement in student achievement. The chapter considers

how the level of teacher satisfaction varies across different characteristics of teachers and

schools such as:

• gender;

• age;

• school system;

• level of academic qualifications; and

• location of the school.

The results of this chapter provide an insight into the areas that are most important in

improving the level of satisfaction amongst teachers and as a result may suggest areas for

policy implementation to improve teacher and education outcomes.

Chapter 7 examines the factors that influence university students (potential future teachers)

in deciding whether to become teachers and to enter the high school teacher labour market

in NSW. As university students are the main source of new teachers it is important to

know the factors that influence their decisions to become or not to become teachers.

xii

Improving the utility of wage and nonwage amenities associated with teaching is likely to

increase the proportion of university students who pursue teaching as a career.

The results are based on a survey of 201 first year students and 209 third/final year students

throughout NSW. There are a number of issues that are considered. First, what can be

done to increase the overall number of university graduates entering teaching? Second, are

there different factors that influence the decisions of male and female university graduates

to enter the teacher labour market? Third, what factors influence the decisions of students

to pursue careers in teaching compared to other careers? Finally what perceptions do

students have of a career as a teacher? The results of the surveys show the importance of

various factors in the students choosing a career and the students’ impressions of the

employment conditions for teachers in NSW high schools. The study also considers what

effect changes in teachers’ salaries would have on their likelihood to become teachers and

the effect of a range of increases in teacher salary scales on their decisions.

Chapter 8 summarises the conclusion of the study and develops policy implications from

these conclusions. The implications are considered on a number of levels, namely:

• national issues;

• state issues;

• system issues; and

• individual school issues.

xiii

They provide a blueprint for creating a more efficient high school teacher labour market;

for increasing levels of teacher satisfaction; and improving the quality of education

provided in NSW.

1

Chapter 1. An Introduction to the Labour Market for Teachers

1.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to examine the general nature of labour markets and to see

how teachers fit into this model. Firstly it is important to realise that labour markets differ

greatly from product markets in both structure and characteristics. Possibly the most

important distinguishing feature, as emphasised by Ginzberg (1976), is that the item being

exchanged is embodied in a human being. In product markets basic commodities are

owned and can be exchanged between buyer and seller. Neither party has any personal

interest in the product in terms of personal characteristics such as age, sex, religion, race, or

personality. The commodity, in turn, has no preference in regard to the price it is sold for

or to whom it is sold. Labour, while being a factor of production, is also a service. The

service depends on the person supplying it. The purchaser of the labour and the supplier of

the labour have a personal relationship between each other. The workers, as human beings

will have personal preferences in regard to the conditions that they work under. Thus the

labour market is not only dependent on wages and on-costs, but non-financial factors that

are largely absent from product markets. These factors include the safety and quality of the

work environment, the hours of work, opportunities for promotion, the status and public

perception of the job and the attitude of management and fellow employees. The

importance of these factors varies with the individual preferences of workers. Decisions of

firms, regarding whom to employ, are determined by a complex array of considerations,

involving not only monetary returns but also non-pecuniary advantages and disadvantages

associated with the job or workers.

2

Second, the labour market generally involves a long-term relationship. Most commodities

are bought and sold at a set point in time and the transaction is completed. The buyer is

trying to purchase the product at as low a price as possible and the seller is aiming to

maximise price and thus profits. Thus the individual buyers and sellers carrying out

transactions may vary from day to day. The labour relationship is an ongoing one.

Employers tend to prefer relatively stable work forces. There are considerable costs

incurred in hiring new employees and training them in a new work environment. Workers

in turn may wish to remain with employees for a lengthy period of time to achieve higher

wages with experience, promotion, and other fringe benefits including long service leave

and superannuation. The workers may also feel more secure in a familiar working and

social environment. A study by Topel and Ward (1992) found that a typical male worker

could expect to have 10 jobs between 18 and 65, two thirds of which are in the first 10

years of work life. Once the worker has found what they want they tend to stay there for a

period of time. A worker, who continually changes employment, may also be viewed by

prospective employers as being unreliable and unstable. The nature of the internal labour

market (Kaufman 2000, Norris 2000, McConnell 2003) also contributes to workers tending

to remain in a particular firm. The internal labour market refers to the situation where

competition to fill a vacancy in a firm is limited to workers already employed in the firm.

Workers moving to other firms may also have to reestablish themselves in the new firm and

may start at a lower level of salary or position. These factors influence the decision of a

worker to remain longer in a particular job.

3

One result of the long-term nature of the labour relationship is that it reduces the effect of

changes in the price level, i.e. wages, on the quantity of labour demanded and supplied.

The labour market, as a result, is less flexible and has less mobility of factors compared to

other markets. At least in the short-term, excess demand for labour over supply will not

always lead to increased wages and over supply will not lead to lower wage rates.

Institutions also play an important part in the limited mobility of labour and the flexibility

of wages, especially in a downward direction. Historically, the industrial relations system

in Australia (Norris 1999, Deery 2001) has been dominated by centralised wage fixing

institutions and a system of awards determining minimum wage levels. Even allowing for

the growth in enterprise bargaining and individual agreements in Australia in recent years,

which at least in theory are designed to increase flexibility in the labour market, wage

adjustments often reflect a government’s1 or an industrial court’s decision2. The nature of

general teacher training, of at least four years duration, reinforces the inflexibility of the

supply of labour for teachers. Thus prices in commodity markets will tend to adjust more

quickly than those in labour markets, especially in the downward direction. There is some

evidence, though, that short-term labour markets, such as day labourers, do have a greater

degree of flexibility, similar to that of commodity markets (Campbell 1997).

A third feature is that labour is arguably the most heterogenous of all products. Many

commodities are homogeneous and the decision to buy or sell is purely determined by

1 The NSW Government granted almost all public servants including, teachers, nurses and police a similar wage rise of 16 percent over a three to four year period in 2000. 2 In May 2002, 58 percent of workers in Australia were paid under awards or collective (enterprise) agreements. In the public sector, 88.6 percent of workers were covered by collective agreements. Less than 2 percent of workers were covered by registered individual agreements. The registered individual agreements also limit wage flexibility, as there is a no disadvantage test against the relevant award applied to them. This prevents reductions in money wages below the award (ABS Employee Earnings and Hours Cat. No.6306.0).

4

price. Other products, such as consumer goods, are similar and differentiated by forms of

non-price competition such as brands and packaging. No unit of labour is identical to any

other unit of labour. The productivity of the individual unit of labour can even change from

day to day. Individual workers differ as a result of factors such as age, gender, race,

physical and mental ability, education, experience and motivation to work and their

relationships with their employer and fellow employees. In reality, each worker is an

individual product that should have an individual demand and would have an individual

supply. This creates a very complex market. In situations where workers are offered

individual contracts based on an individual's performance then this is close to the market

functioning correctly. What often takes place though, even in the case of individual

contracts, is that workers are not offered contracts based on their individual characteristics

but on the demand and supply for the group. In teaching there tends to be an increase in the

heterogeneous nature of the workers, compared to say process workers, as their output

(educated pupils) is also human and individual. Studies in the USA and Australia (NCES

1996, Dinham 1995, Dinham and Scott 1996, 1997) have found that teacher job satisfaction

is influenced considerably by their relationship with their students. Teachers will often

have different levels of qualifications, experience, gender, reasons for being teachers,

motivating factors and commitment to their students. They also have different capabilities

of teaching. There is an important distinction between knowing how to teach and being

able to teach another group of heterogeneous humans. This also provides a major challenge

to the employer. They do not have perfect knowledge of the labour units they are

considering purchasing. The employer cannot gauge the individual worth of each unit of

labour. The price that is paid to each individual tends to be the relative value the employer

5

puts on the group of workers, as a whole, at that particular stage or level of work. In some

cases, the distinction is made that qualifications and experience should be rewarded, as the

workers with these attributes generally achieve better results with their students (see

Ferguson 1991, 1998, Goldhaber and Brewer 2000, Mayer, Mullens, and Moore 2000).

Teachers in NSW high schools are paid annual increments in salary with experience, up to

step 13. Teachers with higher qualifications also begin teaching on a higher salary step.

Two year trained teachers begin on step two, three year trained step three, four year trained

step five and five year trained step six (Crown Employees (Teachers in Schools and TAFE

and Related Employees) Salaries and Conditions Award 2000). The overall effect of the

heterogeneity of labour will be for some individuals to be overpaid for their worth, while

others will be underpaid. In a market like teaching, where individual differences can be

greater, this distinction may be even larger.

A final important feature of the labour market is that the composition of an individual

market can change. School teachers can move from school system to school system, from

state to state or even country to country. Teachers can also change from being school

teachers to become university lecturers, economists, computer programmers, researchers,

business managers, and a diverse range of other occupations. So workers can move from

one market to another in response to changes in wages, working conditions and individual

preferences. Generally the more skilled and qualified the worker the greater the

opportunity they would have to move from one labour market to another.

6

The empirical approach in this thesis is based upon a conceptual analysis of hedonic wage

theory (Antos and Rosen 1975, Chambers 1981a, 1981b). The conceptual framework

builds on the notion that employees care about the quality of their work environment as

well as monetary rewards associated with particular employment alternatives. As a result

workers will seek to attain the greatest possible personal satisfaction by selecting a job with

the appropriate combination of monetary and non-monetary rewards. The non-monetary

rewards can include factors such as the quality of their work environment and the overall

level of job satisfaction. The employers, on the other hand, care about the wage they pay

and the productive outcomes of the employees they employ. In a free market, employers

and employees will have different sets of factors that determine the demand for different

types of labour and the supply of labour under different conditions. In theory, the employer

will be more willing to employ labour with those characteristics that they value most. This

in turn means that those workers will generally receive higher remuneration compared to

the less desired workers. The employee on the other hand would be willing to trade-off

wages in exchange for better working conditions and satisfaction or utility.

1.2 A Competitive Teacher Labour Market

The teacher labour market in North America is considerably different from the labour

market that exists in Australia and specifically the NSW high school system. In the USA

and Canada there have been a number of attempts to look at the factors that determine the

number of teachers employed, the composition of the teacher labour market, (Mitchell

1983, Darling-Hammond 1990, Beaudin 1993) and the effect of changes in wage

7

relativities on teachers’ behaviour (NCES 1996, 1997). These studies relate more to a

competitive labour market where teachers are offered different wages in different schools.

The differences in wages vary between public and private schools, between types of private

schools, between school districts and between subjects taught, among other factors that will

be looked at later in this chapter. The studies show, however, that teachers do change

schools depending on the different wages, remunerations and conditions in schools. In

Australia, salaries in public schools are the same throughout a state. Even many Catholic

systemic schools3 have had very similar wage structures to the public schools. Often this

pattern has come about due to the heavy reliance on Federal and State Governments for

funding for teacher salaries and the institutional role of industrial tribunals in wage setting.

It is important to investigate the functioning of the teacher labour market in a relatively

flexible money wage environment in order to understand the factors that influence teachers'

decisions to teach in various environments and thus to gain an insight into the relative

importance of money wages to other factors in this labour market. The USA has a

relatively flexible teacher labour market structure where teachers can move between

schools and locations in response to differences in wages and conditions. In addition

education authorities in the USA, unlike most other countries, have the relevant statistical

data sources and research on the influence of both wage and non-wage factors on teacher

decision making. For example Zabalza (1979:201-2) considers that there are “limitations

on observations inherent in the institutional characteristics of British teacher markets.”

These are a result of the uniform salary scale under conditions of market disequilibrium. In

3 The structure of the school system in Australia is divided into three categories. They are Government (72.3 percent of students); Catholic (Systemic) 17.7 percent and Other Non-Government (Independent) 10 percent (ABS Schools Australia 2001 Cat. No. 4221.0).

8

the USA money wages are more responsive to market forces. A study by the National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) on Patterns of Teacher Compensation (1996) in the

USA showed that there was a considerable difference in earnings between teachers in

public and private schools. On average public school teachers earned between 25 and 119

percent more than private school teachers, depending upon the private subsector (Table

1.1).

Table 1.1 — The Factors Underlying the Differences in Salaries of Public and

Private School Teachers, by Private School Type

Absolute Difference Between Percent of Difference Between Average Average Public and Ratio of Public and Private School Teachers Private Private Public to Salaries Due to: School School Private Teachers Teachers Teachers Teacher School Structure of Total Private.School Type Salary Salaries Salaries Characteristics Char. the Models Conservative Christian $13538 $16171 2.19 15.79 0.38 83.80 100 Other religious unaffiliated 14938 14771 1.99 14.13 0.63 85.24 100 Catholic parochial 15826 13883 1.88 12.67 7.54 79.80 100 Other religious affiliated 17090 126l9 1.74 20.86 5.36 73.77 100 Catholic diocesan 17148 12561 1.73 11.07 10.98 77.95 100 Nonsectarian: special emph. pgm. 20427 9282 l.45 33.09 0.02 66.90 100 Nonsectarian: regular pgm. 22772 6937 1.30 13.94 -4.25 90.30 100 Nonsectarian spcciaI ed. pgm 23490 6219 1.27 49.95 10.64 39.41 100 Catholic private 23701 6008 1.25 1.80 33.74 64.46 100 Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Patterns of Teacher Compensation, 1996: 18.

Based on data from the 1990-91 Schools and Staffing Survey, the average public school

teacher earned an annual salary of $29,7094. Conservative Christian, Catholic parochial

and other religious unaffiliated schools paid the lowest wages, with Conservative Christian

schools paying an average wage of only $13,538 per annum. The study showed that only

16 percent of the difference in wages paid to teachers in Conservative Christian schools and

4 Note that all the wage rates relating to US schools are in US dollars.

9

public schools could be attributed to differences in teacher characteristics, such as

qualifications and experience. When comparing all school systems, between two and 50

percent of the public-private difference could be accounted for by differences in teacher

characteristics. In the Catholic private schools sector, where teachers earned 20 percent

less than in the public system, only two percent of the overall difference in salaries was

accounted for by differences in teacher characteristics.

Some of this difference involved structural rigidities that prevented the free flow of

teachers from one sector to another. The main difference was the minimum certification

requirements necessary for a teacher to be qualified for public school employment. The

study found that 33 percent of private school teachers had no certification compared to only

three percent of the public school teachers. After allowing for the differences in teacher

and school characteristics, the study found that there was evidence that the private school

system was a more desirable place to work and that teachers were willing to sacrifice wages

to remain in the private sector.

This result was reinforced by a further study of the National Center for Education Statistics

(1997), Job Satisfaction Among American Teachers. It showed that despite the wage

differences, 47.6 percent of private school teachers had a high level of job satisfaction

compared to only 32.0 percent for public school teachers. In addition, only 18.0 percent of

private school teachers had a low level of job satisfaction compared to 33.4 percent for

public school teachers (NCES 1997: 11-13).

10

The NCES study (1996) also examined the importance of experience in determining the

level of wages a teacher receives in the USA. It found that salary tends to increase with

experience for the first 12-15 years due to annual longevity salary increments. The school

systems reward teachers, at least up to a certain stage, for their acquisition and

accumulation of general knowledge of the teaching profession. This resulted in annual

salary increments of just over 2 percent in public schools and 1.6 percent in the private

sector. Another important factor was the number of years teaching in the present school.

This resulted in a reward for specific knowledge of an individual school and school system

and perhaps for loyalty. Years in a particular school added 0.9 percent to a teacher's salary

in the public system and 1.2 percent in the private system per annum.

In a competitive market, salary differentials can be an indicator of relative teacher shortages

in a field or subject area. The shortage would put upward pressure on the wage offered to

teachers in that field. The NCES study (1996) found that teachers who majored in certain

fields of study received above average wage levels (Table 1.2). In the public school sector

people with Education majors in Business, Physical Education5, Vocational Education and

Special Education received above average wages. For non-education majors, Business

received a wage more than 2 percent above the average, along with Mathematics, Music,

Performing Arts, and Social Science. The private sector did display some differences but

overall, Mathematics, Business, and Special Education received higher wages in both

sectors. The NCES study (1996: 38) noted that at that time, education policy makers in the

USA were concerned about increasing the importance of Mathematics and Science teaching

5 It should be noted that the wage advantage noted for Physical Education could at least in part be due to extra payments for coaching sporting teams.

11

and also the need to cater for those students with particular disabilities. It could also be

argued that teachers of Business and Vocational Studies courses could be in demand from

employers in non-school teaching occupations. The results do show that the USA teacher

labour market does respond, at least partially, to changes in demand and supply for

particular fields by altering the wage level.

Table 1.2 - Salaries of Teachers with Selected Undergraduate Majors, as a Percentage

Difference from General Elementary Majors, 1990-91

Variables Public Schools Private Schools

Education Majors Mathematics Education -0.54 2.58 Business Education 1.63 1.22 Physical Education 0.84 3.84 Special Education 4.92 -0.07 Vocational Education 3.02 * Non-education Majors Foreign Languages -0.95 5.60 Business 2.92 8.05 Mathematics 2.37 3.09 Music 4.03 -13.76 Natural Science 0.44 2.21 Performing Arts 2.60 * Social Science 2.17 -1.99 Other Miscellaneous 9.53 * * Not reported because of insufficient sample sizes.

Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Patterns of Teacher Compensation, 1996: 39.

In the US teacher labour market, higher education qualifications are translated into higher

salaries (Table 1.3). Teachers in both the private and public sector receive higher salaries

for higher qualifications. Public school teachers with a master’s degree earn 11 percent

12

higher salaries than teachers with a bachelor’s degree, while private school teachers receive

eight percent more. Teachers with doctorates earn 17.5 percent more than those with a

bachelor’s degree in the public school system and teachers in the private system receive

13.7 percent more. This provides an incentive for teachers to undergo additional and

ongoing education. One can expect that this would lead to a more qualified and capable

teaching profession (see Ferguson 1991, 1998, Goldhaber and Brewer 2000, Mayer,

Mullens, and Moore 2000). This is one area that differs considerably from that applying in

the NSW high school teacher labour market as teachers have a maximum pay scale6 (in

public and Catholic systemic schools) that all teachers can reach based on years of

experience, irrespective of academic qualifications. This tends to dicourage further study

and as a result will not encourage more qualified teachers in the teaching profession in

NSW high schools.

Table 1.3 - Salaries of Teachers by Highest Degree Earned, as a Percentage Difference

from Teachers with Bachelor's Degrees, 1990-91.

Variables Public Schools Private Schools

No degree 1.41 -13.58 Master's degree 11.31 8.20 Education specialist 13.88 14.82 Doctorate 17.55 13.71 Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Patterns of Teacher Compensation, 1996: 42.

An additional factor identified by the NCES study (1996) in evaluating teacher quality was

the amount of effort teachers put into their job. They considered that the amount of time

6 Step 13

13

teachers put in beyond normal school hours to provide additional services to students, such

as tutoring, coaching sports, or guiding an extra-curricula activity and the amount of

homework7 and the mentoring of less experienced teachers were factors that reflected this

effort. In the US school system this extra effort is rewarded by increased pay. The survey

showed that each additional hour per week is worth about 0.1 percent extra pay in the

public sector and 0.2 percent in the private sector (NCES 1996: 43-4). The survey also

found that the average teacher in both sectors spent more than 10 hours per week involved

in before and after school activities. This effort can be translated to a salary increase of one

percent for public school teachers and two percent for private school teachers. The

flexibility of the wage system to reward for extra effort in the USA does not apply in NSW

public high schools and in most Catholic systemic schools. The private (non-government)

school system (excluding the Catholic systemic schools) in NSW does have the flexibility

to reward teachers for this extra-curricula involvement. An analysis of the effects of

financial rewards for extra-curricula activity in NSW high schools will be made later in this

thesis.

Working conditions in a school also influence teachers' decisions to work there and as a

result the level of pay that is offered to teachers to attract them to that school. Hedonic

wage theory would predict that, all else being equal, teachers salaries would be higher in

schools with more challenging and more difficult work environments. In turn, schools with

relatively positive working conditions would be able to attract teachers with relatively

7 Setting a large amount of homework, in itself, is not necessarily a sign of greater effort nor would it necessarily lead to better student results. It is likely, however, that students who spend more time studying a subject will get better results, all other things being equal. It is also likely that a teacher who takes time to set and mark homework, provided they devote a comparable amount of time, in relation to their peers, preparing lessons, will be devoting more time to teaching and thus making a greater effort.

14

lower salary levels. The NCES study (1996: 47-5) considered the relative perception of

teachers in regard to a number of school characteristics. The study found that teachers in

both public and private schools, characterised by what was perceived as being higher levels

of student violence, lower levels of administrative support and larger class sizes were being

paid higher salaries (Table 1.4)8. Teachers in schools with perceived violent student

behaviour received 0.7 percent higher wages in public schools and 0.3 percent higher

wages in private schools. In schools with a perceived supportive environment, teachers

were prepared to sacrifice 0.9 percent of their wages in public schools and 0.4 percent in

private schools. Teachers with much larger classes were also compensated by 0.5 percent

higher wages in public schools and 1.0 percent higher wages in private schools.

Table 1.4 - Percentage Effect of Teacher Attitudes and Perceptions on Salaries, by

Sector, 1990-91

Percentage difference in salary associated with a one standard deviation increase in the level of the teacher's perceptions of:

Public school teacher

Private school teacher

Violent student behaviour 0.70 0.34

Support within the environment -0.93 -0.44

A 50% increase in class sizes 0.50 1.00

Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Patterns of Teacher Compensation, 1996: 48, 51.

This apparent trade-off between wages and particular working conditions will be discussed

further in the next chapter, which looks at the relationship between wages and utility, and

the hedonic wage model.

8 It is conjecturable, as to whether teachers are paid more for teaching larger classes or because of the high pay the classes need to be larger to compensate for the cost.

15

1.3 What Factors Determine the Level of Job Satisfaction among American Teachers?

A further study9, by the National Center for Education Statistics (1997), Job Satisfaction

Among American Teachers, looked at how workplace conditions, background

characteristics, and teacher compensation influenced the level of job satisfaction among

teachers. The NCES (1997) examined a number of measures of teacher compensation,

including salary, number of benefits, and supplemental income received both within and

outside of the school. Overall, it found that compensation showed little relation to job

satisfaction among teachers (Table 1.5). Looking at salary, the study found that 27.8

percent of public high school teachers earning less than $25,000 per annum had a high level

of job satisfaction. At the same time 27.1 percent of public high school teachers earning in

excess of $40,000 per annum had a high level of job satisfaction. When considering public

high school teachers earning less than $25,000 per annum, 39.4 percent had a low level of

job satisfaction. Out of the public high school teachers earning more than $40,000 per

annum, 37.3 percent had a low level of job satisfaction. There appears no strong link in the

study between higher salaries for public school teachers generating increased job

satisfaction. These results may not be as straight forward as they appear. From the results

shown in Table 1.3 regarding teacher qualifications and the incremental nature of teacher

salary scales with experience, it would be expected that the teachers earning the lowest

wages would be least qualified and least experienced. Considering this they may be

relatively satisfied with their salaries. Teachers earning over $40,000, generally being

more qualified and experienced, would likewise expect a higher relative salary. As a result

9 Data used in the study came from the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey, produced by the NCES.

16

of this it cannot be assumed that paying a teacher a higher relative salary would not

increase job satisfaction.

There was, however, a greater correlation between salaries and job satisfaction for private

high school teachers. The study found that 44.0 percent of private high school teachers

earning less than $25,000 per annum had a high level of job satisfaction. At the same time

47.3 percent of private high school teachers earning in excess of $40,000 per annum had a

high level of job satisfaction. In turn, considering private high school teachers earning less

than $25,000 per annum, 23.3 percent had a low level of job satisfaction. Out of the private

high school teachers earning more than $40,000 per annum, 20.4 percent had a low level of

job satisfaction.

Table 1.5 - Percentage of High School Teachers across Levels of Satisfaction, by

School Sector and Teacher Compensation Factors, 1993-94

Public PrivateHigh School Teachers High School Teachers

Characteristics Levels of Satisfaction Levels of SatisfactionHigh Medium Low High Medium Low

SalaryLess than $25,000 27.8 32.8 39.4 44.0 32.6 23.3$25,000 - $40,000 26.1 33.0 40.9 44.4 33.2 22.5Over $40,000 27.1 35.7 37.3 47.3 32.4 20.4BenefitsNone 23.2 32.4 44.4 40.9 32.0 27.21-3 types 25.0 33.1 41.9 42.3 32.0 25.74-6 types 28.9 34.5 36.6 46.5 33.2 20.37-8 types * * * 42.3 46.1 11.6Earn additional compensation through schoolYes 29.5 34.4 36.2 44.6 33.2 22.1No 22.5 33.0 44.5 44.2 32.4 23.4

* No teacher received seven or eight types of benefits in the public high school system.

Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Job Satisfaction Among American Teachers, 1997: 24.

17

When looking at the benefits teachers could receive, such as medical insurance, there was a

positive correlation between the level of job satisfaction and those receiving benefits. In

the public high school system, only 23.2 percent of teachers receiving no benefits were

highly satisfied compared to 28.9 percent receiving 4-6 types of benefits. In addition, 44.4

percent of those with no benefit had a low level of job satisfaction compared to 36.6

percent for those receiving 4-6 benefits. A similar pattern was found in private high

schools. In the private high school system, only 40.9 percent of teachers receiving no

benefits were highly satisfied compared to 46.5 percent receiving 4-6 types of benefits and

27.2 percent of those with no benefit had a low level of job satisfaction compared to only

20.3 percent for those receiving four to six benefits.

The ability to earn additional compensation through the school did increase the level of job

satisfaction, especially in the public school system. In public high school 29.5 percent of

teachers receiving additional compensation through the school had a high level of job

satisfaction compared to 22.5 percent for those who received no compensation. The

difference in the private school system was marginal, with 44.6 percent of the teachers

receiving additional compensation through the school having a high level of job satisfaction

compared to 44.2 percent for those who received no compensation.

Teachers' attitudes and perceptions of the workplace are also important factors influencing

the level of job satisfaction. While there are many factors that all sectors of high school

teachers consider important, there are some factors that differ in importance between the

public and private sectors (Table 1.6).

18

Table 1.6 Percentages of High School Teachers across Levels of Satisfaction, by

School Sector, Selected Attitudes, and Perceptions of Workplace Conditions, 1993-94

Public PrivateHigh School Teachers High School Teachers

Characteristics Levels of Satisfaction Levels of SatisfactionHigh Medium Low High Medium Low

Total 26.7 33.7 39.6 44.4 32.9 22.7

Administration is supportive and encouragingAgree 29.4 35.4 35.3 46.7 34.0 19.4Disagree 18.1 28.5 53.5 34.3 27.9 37.8

The level of student behaviour in the school interferes with teachingAgree 19.6 30.8 49.6 30.0 30.3 39.7Disagree 32.8 36.3 31 48.1 33.5 18.4

Teachers participate in making important school decisionsAgree 32.4 36.2 31.5 35.6 32.9 31.5Disagree 21.1 31.4 47.5 35.6 32.9 31.5

Parents support teachers' workAgree 33.4 36.2 30.4 47.8 33.7 18.5Disagree 21.7 31.9 46.4 32.8 30.0 37.2

Routine duties and paperwork interfere with teachingAgree 22.9 33.3 43.8 38.0 32.3 29.7Disagree 36.5 34.8 28.7 50.4 33.4 16.2

Staff members are recognised for a job well doneAgree 31.6 36.2 32.2 47.9 33.9 18.1Disagree 18.9 29.8 51.2 34.7 29.9 35.3

Principals frequently discuss instructional practices with teachersAgree 34.0 34.6 31.4 53.9 29.5 16.6Disagree 22.7 33.2 44.1 37.0 35.2 26.9

Necessary materials are availableAgree 28.9 34.9 36.2 44.7 33.5 21.8Disagree 20.7 30.6 48.7 42.6 29.1 28.3

There is a great deal of cooperative effort among the staffAgree 28.6 35.2 36.2 46.3 33.8 19.8Disagree 21.7 30.1 48.2 32.1 26.8 41.1

Student absenteeism is a problemAgree 24.3 33.3 42.3 33.6 33.7 32.8Disagree 32.2 34.6 33.1 48.2 32.6 19.3

19

Table 1.6 Percentage of High School Teachers across Levels of Satisfaction, by

School Sector, Selected Attitudes, and Perceptions of Workplace Conditions, 1993-94

(continued)

Public PrivateHigh School Teachers High School Teachers

Characteristics Levels of Satisfaction Levels of SatisfactionHigh Medium Low High Medium Low

Total 26.7 33.7 39.6 44.4 32.9 22.7

Student apathy is a problemAgree 23.2 33.1 43.7 33.7 32.3 34.0Disagree 38.3 36.0 25.7 51.4 33.2 15.4

Has a student from the school ever physically attacked you?Yes 21.6 29 49.4 62.0 19.3 18.7No 27.1 34.1 38.7 44.0 33.2 22.8

Teachers have complete control in the classroom*32.4 34.8 32.8 46.3 33.9 19.8

* Teachers were asked a series of questions about how much control they had in the classroom. They answered each question on a "5" point scale, with "0" meaning no control and "5" meaning complete control. The numbers reported here are the percentage of teachers whose average response to the questions was above "4". Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Job Satisfaction Among American Teachers, 1997: 26-31. The NCES found that the main factors that influenced the level of job satisfaction for high

school teachers in both sectors were:

• the level of support and encouragement from the administration;

• the level and effect of student misbehaviour in the school;

• parents' support of teachers' work;

• the level of interference in teaching of routine duties and paperwork;

• the recognition of staff for a job well done; and

• the principal frequently discussing instructional practices with teachers.

20

One factor that was not an important consideration was the threat of injury or physical

attack from a student. This could be related to the overall low incidence of threat of injury

and violence towards all teachers, which was noted in the study (NCES 1997: 25).

In public high schools, 29.4 percent of teachers who agree that the administration is

supportive have high levels of job satisfaction (Table 1.6). Only 18.1 percent of teachers

who disagree have high levels of job satisfaction. In turn, 53.5 percent of public high

school teachers, who do not feel that they are supported, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while 35.5 percent of those, who feel that they are supported, have a low level

of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in private high schools are similar, with 46.7

percent of teachers who agree that the administration is supportive having high levels of job

satisfaction and 34.3 percent of teachers who disagree having high levels of job

satisfaction. In addition, 37.8 percent of private high school teachers, who do not feel that

they are supported, have a low level of job satisfaction, while only 19.4 percent of those,

who feel that they are supported, have a low level of job satisfaction.

Teachers who think that student misbehaviour interferes with teaching have a lower level of

job satisfaction than those who do not think that it is a problem. In public high schools,

only 19.6 percent of teachers who agree that the level of student behaviour interferes with

teaching have high levels of job satisfaction. This compares to 32.8 percent of teachers,

who do not feel that student behaviour is a problem, having high levels of job satisfaction.

In turn, 31.0 percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that there is a problem,

have a low level of job satisfaction, while 49.6 percent of those, who feel that student

21

behaviour is a problem, have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in

private high schools are similar, with 48.1 percent of teachers who disagree that the level of

student behaviour interferes with teaching having high levels of job satisfaction. This

compares to 30.0 percent of teachers, who consider that there is a problem with student

behaviour in their school, having a high level of job satisfaction. In addition, only 18.4

percent of private high school teachers, who do not feel that student behaviour is a problem,

have a low level of job satisfaction, while 39.7 percent of those, who feel that it is a

problem, have a low level of job satisfaction.

Parents' supporting the work of the teachers was another important factor promoting the

level of job satisfaction among teachers in both public and private high schools. In public

high schools, 33.4 percent of teachers who agree that parents are supportive have high

levels of job satisfaction. Only 21.7 percent of teachers who disagree have high levels of

job satisfaction. In turn, 46.4 percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that

they are supported, have a low level of job satisfaction, while 30.4 percent of those, who

feel that they are supported, have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in

private high schools are similar, with 47.8 percent of teachers who agree that parents are

supportive having high levels of job satisfaction, while only 32.8 percent of teachers who

disagree have high levels of job satisfaction. In addition, 37.2 percent of private high

school teachers, who do not feel that they are supported, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while only 18.5 percent of those, who feel that they are supported, have a low

level of job satisfaction.

22

Teachers were generally frustrated by the way routine duties and paperwork interfered with

their teaching duties. This factor reduced job satisfaction in areas where it was perceived to

be a problem. In public high schools, only 22.9 percent of teachers, who agree that routine

duties and paperwork interfere with teaching, have high levels of job satisfaction. This

compares to 36.5 percent of teachers, who do not feel that routine duties and paperwork

interfere with teaching, having high levels of job satisfaction. In turn, 28.7 percent of

public high school teachers, who do not feel that this is a problem, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while 43.8 percent of those, who feel that routine duties and paperwork

interfere with teaching, have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in

private high schools follow a similar pattern, with 50.4 percent of teachers, who disagree

that routine duties and paperwork interfere with teaching, having high levels of job

satisfaction. This compares to 38.0 percent of teachers, who consider that there is a

problem with the level of routine duties and paperwork, having a high level of job

satisfaction. In addition, only 16.2 percent of private high school teachers, who do not feel

that routine duties and paperwork interfere with teaching, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while 29.7 percent of those, who feel that it is a problem, have a low level of

job satisfaction.

In the category of administrative support and leadership the NCES study (1997) found that

one item was strongly associated with the level of teacher satisfaction: 'Staff members are

recognised for a job well done'. Public high school teachers were especially sensitive to

this item. In public high schools, 31.6 percent of teachers, who agree that they are

recognised for a job well done, have high levels of job satisfaction. Only 18.9 percent of

23

teachers who disagree have high levels of job satisfaction. Those who did not believe that

they were recognised for a job well done were clustered in the low level of job satisfaction

category. Fifty one point two percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that

they are recognised for a job well done, had a low level of job satisfaction, while 32.2

percent of those, who feel that they are recognised for a job well done, had a low level of

job satisfaction. The results for teachers in private high schools are similar but the issue

does not tend to be as important as for public high school teachers, with 47.9 percent of

teachers, who agree that they are recognised for a job well done, having high levels of job

satisfaction, while 34.7 percent of teachers who disagree still have high levels of job

satisfaction. For private high school teachers with a low level of job satisfaction, 35.3

percent do not feel that they are recognised for a job well done, while only 18.1 percent feel

that they are recognised for a job well done.

The final factor that was important for both public and private high school teachers' levels

of job satisfaction was having an environment where the principal frequently discussed

instructional practices with teachers. In public high schools, 34.0 percent of teachers who

agree, that the principal frequently discusses instructional practices with them, have high

levels of job satisfaction. Only 22.7 percent of teachers who disagree have high levels of

job satisfaction. In turn, 44.1 percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that

the principal frequently discusses instructional practices with them, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while 31.4 percent of those, who feel that the principal frequently discusses

instructional practices with them, have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for

teachers in private high schools are similar, with 53.9 percent of teachers who consider that

24

the principal frequently discusses instructional practices with them having high levels of

job satisfaction, while only 37.9 percent of teachers who disagree have high levels of job

satisfaction. In addition, 26.9 percent of private high school teachers, who do not feel that

the principal frequently discusses instructional practices with them, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while only 16.6 percent of those who disagree have a low level of job

satisfaction.

The main areas where there were differences between the responses of public and private

high school teachers in regard to what influences their levels of job satisfaction (Table 1.6)

were:

• teachers' participation in making important school decisions;

• the level of cooperative effort among staff;

• the perception of student absenteeism being a problem;

• the effects of physical violence from students; and

• the level of control that teachers have in the classroom.

While teachers' participation in making important school decisions was of considerable

importance to public school teachers, it had no effect on the job satisfaction of private

school teachers. In public high schools, 32.4 percent of teachers, who agree that teachers

participate in making important school decisions, have high levels of job satisfaction. Only

21.1 percent of teachers, who disagree, have high levels of job satisfaction. In turn, 47.5

percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that they participate in decision-

making, have a low level of job satisfaction, while 31.5 percent of those, who feel that they

25

do participate, have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in private high

schools are quite different. The same proportion of teachers, with high levels of job

satisfaction, thinks it is important, as those who do not think it is important, 35.6 percent.

In addition, 31.5 percent of private high school teachers, who do not feel that they

participate in important decision making, have a low level of job satisfaction. The same

percentage of teachers, who feel that they do participate, have a low level of job

satisfaction. It appears private high school teachers are relatively unconcerned whether or

not they are involved in making important school decisions.

The level of cooperative effort among staff was another factor that had a different impact

on teacher job satisfaction in the different school sectors. Having a great deal of

cooperative effort among staff contributed much more to job satisfaction for private high

school teachers compared to public high school teachers. Forty six point three percent of

teachers in private high schools, who thought that there was a great deal of cooperative

effort among the staff, have high levels of job satisfaction, while only 32.1 percent of

teachers, who did not believe there was a great deal of cooperative effort, have high levels

of job satisfaction. In addition, 41.1 percent of private high school teachers, who do not

feel that there is a cooperative effort among staff, have a low level of job satisfaction, while

only 19.8 percent of those, who feel that they are supported, have a low level of job

satisfaction. In public high schools, 28.6 percent of teachers, who agree that there is a great

deal of cooperative effort among the staff, have high levels of job satisfaction, whereas 21.7

percent of teachers, who disagree, still have high levels of job satisfaction. Even though

48.2 percent of public high school teachers, who do not feel that there is a great deal of

26

cooperative effort, have a low level of job satisfaction, there are still 36.2 percent of those,

who feel that they are supported, with a low level of job satisfaction.

The level of student absenteeism was also seen to be a factor that worked to reduce job

satisfaction for teachers, who perceived it to be a problem in their school. The perception

of student absenteeism being a problem, also, had a bigger impact on the level of job

satisfaction in private high schools than in public high schools. In public high schools, 24.3

percent of teachers, who agree that student absenteeism is a problem, still have high levels

of job satisfaction. This compares to 32.2 percent of teachers, who do not feel that student

absenteeism is a problem, having high levels of job satisfaction. In turn, 33.1 percent of

public high school teachers, who do not feel that this is a problem, have a low level of job

satisfaction, while 42.3 percent of those, who feel that student absenteeism is a problem,

have a low level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in private high schools show a

wider distribution of effects on teacher satisfaction, with 48.1 percent of teachers, who

disagree that student absenteeism is a problem, having high levels of job satisfaction. This

compares to 33.6 percent of teachers, who consider that there is a problem with the level of

student absenteeism, having a high level of job satisfaction. In addition, only 19.3 percent

of private high school teachers, who do not feel that student absenteeism is a problem, have

a low level of job satisfaction, while 32.8 percent of those, who feel that it is a problem,

have a low level of job satisfaction.

The effects of physical violence from students would generally be considered as something

that would have a major impact on the level of job satisfaction. While this might be true at

27

an individual level, it is not seen as being a major issue overall in the level of job

satisfaction. There is quite a distinct difference between the responses by teachers in public

and private high schools in regard to this issue. In public high schools, 21.6 percent of

teachers, who concede that a student from the school has physically attacked them, still

have high levels of job satisfaction. This compares to 27.1 percent of teachers, who have

not had a student from the school physically attack them, having high levels of job

satisfaction. In turn, 49.4 percent of public high school teachers, who have been attacked,

have a low level of job satisfaction, while 38.7 percent of those, who report that a student

from the school has not physically attacked them, have a low level of job satisfaction. The

results for teachers in private high schools show an unexpected response on the effects of

student violence on teacher satisfaction, with 62 percent of teachers, who reported that a

student from the school has physically attacked them, having high levels of job satisfaction.

This compares to 44 percent of teachers, who have not been attacked, having a high level of

job satisfaction. In addition, only 18.7 percent of private high school teachers, who have

been attacked by a student from the school, have a low level of job satisfaction, while 22.8

percent of those, who have not been attacked, have a low level of job satisfaction. The

differences in the responses could be due to the level of students who have attacked

teachers in each system. The NCES study (Table1.7) shows that the rate of student attacks

on teachers is much higher in public high schools than private high schools. Eight percent

of public high school teachers have been attacked by a student from their school, while only

2.5 percent of teachers in private high schools have been attacked. In both cases, a higher

proportion of teachers with low levels of job satisfaction has been attacked. In the public

system, 5.5 percent of the most satisfied teachers have been attacked compared to 12.3

28

percent of the least satisfied teachers and in the private system, 3.5 percent of the most

satisfied teachers have been attacked compared to 4.4 percent of the least satisfied teachers.

It appears that as the level of student violence towards teachers increases so does the

adverse effect it has on the level of job satisfaction.

The final factor, that had different levels of effects on teacher satisfaction between school

sectors, was the level of control that teachers have in the classroom. A greater percentage

of private high school teachers felt that they had complete control in the classroom, 74.5

percent, compared to 55.3 percent in public high schools (Table1.7). In public high

schools, 32.4 percent of teachers, who felt that they had complete control in the classroom,

had high levels of job satisfaction, however 32.8 percent of teachers, who felt that they had

complete control in the classroom, had a low level of job satisfaction. The results for

teachers in private high schools show that it is a more important influence on teacher

satisfaction than for public high school teachers, with 46.3 percent of private high school

teachers, who felt that they had complete control in the classroom, having high levels of job

satisfaction. Only 19.8 percent of teachers, who had complete control in the classroom, had

a low level of job satisfaction.

One aspect of workplace conditions had very little effect on the job satisfaction of the high

school teachers in either sector in the survey. That aspect was whether necessary materials

were available. While it may be considered that the issue of whether necessary materials

were available to teachers would affect the level of job satisfaction, it was not an important

issue as 72.8 percent of teachers felt that necessary materials were available in public

29

schools and 85.8 percent in private schools (Table 1.7). There was still a small effect on

availability of materials increasing teacher job satisfaction. In public high schools, 28.9

percent of teachers, who agree that the necessary materials are available, have high levels

of job satisfaction. At the same time, 20.7 percent of teachers, who disagree, still have high

levels of job satisfaction. In addition, 48.7 percent of public high school teachers, who do

not feel that the necessary materials were available, had a low level of job satisfaction,

while 36.2 percent of those, who feel that the necessary materials were available, had a low

level of job satisfaction. The results for teachers in private high schools are similar but the

issue tends to have even less importance than for public high school teachers, with 44.7

percent of teachers, who agree that the necessary materials are available, having high levels

of job satisfaction, while 44.2 percent of teachers who disagree still have high levels of job

satisfaction. For private high school teachers with a low level of job satisfaction, 28.3

percent do not feel that the necessary materials are available, while 21.8 percent feel that

the necessary materials are available.

In examining why teachers in private school sector are willing to accept lower wages than

in the public sector (Table 1.1), it is important to consider the overall level of teacher

satisfaction with the working environment. Table 1.7 shows that teachers in private schools

consider that they have better conditions in every factor surveyed. This in turn helps to

explain their overall higher level of teacher satisfaction. The main differences in

characteristics between the two sectors relate to areas of student behaviour and parental

support. The percentage of teachers in state high schools, who consider that the level of

student misbehaviour interferes with teaching, is more than double that in the private high

30

schools, 46.1 percent compared to 20.1 percent. This is reinforced by much higher

concerns by public high school teachers over the problems of student apathy, 76.9 percent

compared to 39.3 percent, and absenteeism, 70.2 percent compared to 25.0 percent. The

threat of injury and the level of student physical attacks on teachers are also much higher in

the public school sector. Teachers in public high schools also believe that they have much

lower levels of parental support, 42.6 percent, compared to those in private schools, 77.5

percent. The view of hedonic wage theory would be that these factors would act to increase

the need for financial compensation in the public school sector in relation to the private

school sector. The results of the NCES studies in 1996 and 1997 tend to support this view.

The 1997 NCES study also looked at the relative importance of compensation, school, and

teacher background and workplace conditions in the overall satisfaction of teachers10 as a

whole (47-51). It found that student behaviour and school atmosphere were the most

important factors in determining the level of teacher satisfaction, at 12 percent.

Administrative support and leadership and teacher control over working conditions were

equally next in importance, at nine percent each, followed by school and teacher

background characteristics, at five percent. Teacher compensation only explained two

percent of the variation in teacher satisfaction.

10 This included elementary and high school teachers in both public and private schools.

31

Table 1.7 - Percentage of High School Teachers who Agree with the Following

Statements, by School Sector, 1993-94

Public PrivateCharacteristics Sector Sector

Administration is supportive and encouraging 76.3 82.0

The level of student behaviour in the school interferes with teaching 46.1 20.1

Teachers participate in making important school decisions 49.6 63.4

Parents support teachers' work 42.6 77.5

Routine duties and paperwork interfere with teaching 72.1 48.1

Staff members are recognised for a job well done 61.3 73.6

Principals frequently discuss instructional practices with teachers 35.4 40.7

Necessary materials are available 72.8 85.8

There is a great deal of cooperative effort among the staff 71.6 86.6

Student absenteeism is a problem 70.2 25.0

Student apathy is a problem 76.9 39.3

Has a student from the school ever physically attacked you? 8.0 2.5

A student from the school has ever threatened to injure you 32.2 10.7

Teachers have complete control in the classroom* 55.3 74.5

* Teachers were asked a series of questions about how much control they had in the classroom. They answered each question on a "5" point scale, with "0" meaning no control and "5" meaning complete control. The numbers reported here are the percentage of teachers whose average response to the questions was above "4". Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, Job Satisfaction Among American Teachers, 1997: 41-42.

32

1.4 Conclusion

The teacher labour market is a distinctive market. It has a variety of factors that determine

an employer's willingness to hire a particular teacher and also the willingness of the teacher

to accept employment in that particular school. These factors may vary between individual

employers and between individual employees. One reason that an understanding of this

relationship is important, as pointed out by the US National Center for Education Statistics,

is that "a high quality teaching staff is the cornerstone of a successful education

system...(and that)…attracting and retaining high quality teachers is, thus, a primary

necessity for education (1997:1)".

The studies (NCES 1996, 1997) in the USA, where there exists a relatively flexible labour

market for teachers, are important in determining the factors that are important in achieving

a qualified and satisfied teaching service. The greater satisfaction is arguably a source of

greater commitment and higher teacher retention rates. The New South Wales education

system does not have the same level of flexibility. It is possible that education authorities

in New South Wales, and indeed all of Australia, can learn from the findings that can be

made from the US studies. First, in the flexible market, employee compensation reflects, at

least in part, the forces of demand and supply. Employees offer a variety of personal

characteristics to employers, while the employers offer differing working places and

conditions of employment. Teacher salary scales in the public sector reflect the results of

collective bargaining agreements. The teacher scales in turn are based on the length of time

that teachers have spent in the school district and their academic qualifications. The

teachers, on the other hand, consider the characteristics of the school, their job assignment,

33

and the rates of pay being offered in determining their willingness to teach in a school,

district, or system. In the private school system in the USA, there is relatively little

collective bargaining involved in determining salaries. While there is generally not a

formal salary scale tied to length of service and qualifications, these are generally important

in determining the wages paid to teachers in the private sector and the wages that teachers

receive reflect the importance of these two characteristics.

The effect on wages of particular teacher characteristics, such as qualifications and

experience, reflect a combination of the perceived value of the attribute to the employer and

the availability of that attribute in the market. In teaching areas where there were perceived

shortages or competition from the private non-school sector, there tended to be higher

wages, as theory would suggest in a flexible labour market.

The second important result that came from the studies was that teacher compensation was

not the most important factor in determining where teachers were employed. Teachers in

public schools earned up to 119 percent more than those in private schools. When

differences in teacher characteristics were factored in this only explained between 2 percent

and 50 percent of the difference in compensation. Teachers in private schools were willing

to accept lower wages because of the perceived better conditions in terms of their overall

level of job satisfaction. The 1997 NCES study found that student behaviour and school

atmosphere, administrative support and leadership, and teacher control over working

conditions were the most important factors in determining teacher job satisfaction in both

private and public high schools. These characteristics were all more prominent in the

34

private school sector rather than the public school sector and acted as a trade-off for the

higher wages on offer in the public sector. Private high school teachers were willing to

accept much lower wages in return for these characteristics. In turn public high school

teachers received higher wage rates to teach in schools that were perceived as having less

of these favourable characteristics. Overall there was little relationship between teacher

compensation and the level of job satisfaction of teachers. It can be concluded that what is

more important in attracting and keeping good quality teachers is not the level of

compensation but rather creating a positive working environment, where teachers feel

important and are empowered to carry out the role of teaching and educating.

35

Chapter 2. Labour Market Theories

Traditional labour market theories (Kaufman 2000, Norris 2000, McConnell 2003) consider

that there are three broad forces operating to determine the price and allocation of labour.

These three forces are market forces, institutional forces, and sociological forces.

The market forces, that influence the determination of the price and allocation of labour, are

the demand and supply of labour. While there are non-economic factors that influence the

pricing and distribution of labour, most economists would consider that the interaction of

the demand and supply of labour is the most important determinant of labour market

outcomes.

2.1 The Market for Labour

The purchasers of labour are business firms and non-profit organizations, such as

governments, which compete for workers with various skills, experience, and

qualifications. The demand for labour is basically derived from the value of the goods and

services it produces. The standard model of labour demand in economics is the

neoclassical marginal productivity theory of demand (for an introduction see Kaufman

2000, Norris 2000, McConnell 1999). The greater the marginal productivity of a particular

type of labour, the higher the demand for that labour, and as a result the higher the relative

wage rate. However, as Zabalza (1979) points out, there are several reasons why such an

analysis is inadequate. First, the marginal productivity theory of wages would have to be

applied differently to the teacher labour market as it is difficult, if not almost impossible, to

36

measure the productivity of teachers. Second, the dominance of the public sector makes the

education department a near monopsonistic buyer of teachers’ labour. In such an

environment the quantity of labour demanded at a particular wage rate is strongly

influenced by the policy makers in the education department and the government. Zabalza

(1979: 17) states that “the allocation of resources will have already been made on the basis

of political considerations, and the number of teachers demanded will then constitute a

datum of the problem rather than something subject to economic analysis.” As a result the

number of teachers that will be demanded will really be determined by the amount of

money that education authorities are willing to spend on employing teachers at the existing

teacher wage rates. In addition policy makers determine desired pupil-teacher ratios and

staffing formulas for the schools. As a result, the three independent variables in the analysis

of demand for teachers (Zabalza 1979) become:

• the number of pupils to be educated and the desired pupil teacher ratio,

• the amount of money education authorities are willing to spend on teacher salaries,

and

• the average level of salaries per teacher.

Figure 2.111 demonstrates such a market. Average wages (W) are on the vertical axis and

the number of teachers (S) on the horizontal axis. SS is a linear representation of the supply

function. The vertical line D shows the demand for teachers based on a given desired pupil-

teacher ratio. The curve BB represents the demand relationship given a particular financial

budget constraint. Each of the BB curves in Figure 2.1 represents different ways of

spending the budget. 11 Figure 2.1 is based on Zabalza 1979 and Sloan 1990.

37

B1

B0

B0 B1

S

D

B0

B1

W1 W2 W3

Figure 2.1: Shortages in the labour market for teachers

S0 S1 S2

If the budget constraint is B0B0 and the average wage is W3, the quantity of teachers willing

to work will be S0. This quantity will not use up all of the budget and will create a teacher

shortage as quantity demanded is S2 and the quantity supplied at wage, W3, is only S0. If the

wage rate is increased to W2, and the allocated budget is exhausted, there will be an

increase in the quantity supplied of teachers to S1 but a teacher shortage would still exist,

the gap S1S2. Only by increasing the budget constraint to B1B1 and increasing the wage rate

to W1 will the quantity demanded and quantity supplied of teachers be in equilibrium.

In this market situation it is also possible that wages will be set in excess of market

equilibrium. In Figure 2.2, the wage rate is fixed at W4. At this wage rate, S4 qualified

people would like to work as teachers. Education authorities would like to employ S3

Average Wage Rate

Quantity of Teachers

38

B0

B0

S

D

B0

W4

Quantity of Teachers

teachers to meet the desired pupil-teacher ratio. However, given the budget constraint B0B0,

only S1 teachers would be employed leading to a gap of S1S4 unemployed teachers. If

wages were flexible and given the budget constraint, S2 teachers would be employed but

now there would actually be a shortage of teachers, the gap S2S3. The implications of this

model will be discussed in terms of the impact this has on both the quantity and quality of

teachers in the NSW teacher labour market in Chapter 5.

Figure 2.2: Surplus in the labour market for teachers

S1 S2 S3 S4

.

Average Wage Rate

39

According to neo-classical theory, the supply of labour is determined by the number of

people willing to work in a particular field of employment and by the number of hours each

person will supply at a particular wage rate. One of the assumptions of the neo-classical

labour theory is that individuals have the freedom to choose their hours to be worked per

week. This assumption is unrealistic in the teacher labour market. A full-time high school

teacher has a set minimum number of hours that he or she must work. This is generally

measured as 20 hours of face to face teaching plus other duties that would require a teacher

to be in a school a minimum of between 35-40 hours a week depending on the school12. In

addition any extra time put in is generally unpaid in NSW state high schools and most

Catholic systemic schools. Some independent schools do pay allowances for extra-

curricula activities, such as sports coaching, and dramatic or musical performances13. This

introduces another area where traditional wage theory falls down. The theory would

suggest that if the teacher were only being paid for a 35-hour week, there would be no

incentive to work longer hours. While this is probably the case for some teachers, many

teachers work in excess of the 35 hours a week for no additional payment. Other teachers

will still receive the same wage but do the minimum amount of work necessary to keep

their job, which will be somewhere between the minimum of 20 hours and the normal

expectation of between 30 and 35 hours. This can partly be explained through the

indifference curves of many salaried employees in terms of the satisfaction that they

achieve in their jobs. If workers enjoy their jobs, then work is no longer a source of

12 The average hours of paid work for school teachers in Australia was 36 hours per week, in May 2000 (ABS, Employee Earnings and Hours, Australia Cat. No 6306.0). 13 In May 2000 only 1.8 percent of education employees in Australia were paid overtime, by far the lowest of any industrial sector. The proportion of full-time adult non-managerial employees paid overtime was 23.0 percent in Australia overall (ABS, Employee Earnings and Hours, Australia Cat. No 6306.0).

40

disutility (at least to some degree) that a worker must be offered extra money to perform,

but is rather an activity willingly taken on that gives the worker satisfaction. This view is

supported by work done by Mabry (1969) and Lutz and Lax (1979) on salaried and

professional workers and by evidence on the teacher labour market in the United States in

Chapter 1 of this thesis and from the National Center for Education Statistics (1997), Job

Satisfaction Among American Teachers. Consider Figure 2.3, if the individual is paid a

salary, the budget constraint changes from a linear relationship to become ABC. The

salary, Ys, is paid if the individual works for a minimum of 168 - L1 hours of work. In

other words, they are limited to L1 hours of leisure. Any amount to the right of L1 is not

sufficient for the employer and the person will earn zero income. The person can work any

amount to the left of L1 but it would mean a loss of leisure but no increase in income.

Figure 2.3: Hours of work for a salaried worker when work and leisure are perfect

substitutes

B

I N C O M E

LEISURE (Hours per Week) L2 L3 L1

C

Ys A

I2 I1

41

Based on neo-classical theory, the worker should only work the minimum number of hours,

168 - L1, to earn the salary and no more. The distinctive feature of indifference curve, I1,

is that it has a horizontal section up to L2. This implies that work is no longer a source of

disutility. The worker considers work and leisure to be perfect substitutes and will be

willing to work additional hours until leisure is only L2. The individual will work

additional hours without any additional compensation.

In Figure 2.3 the individual with indifference curve I1 will exchange their leisure for work

and work up to 168 - L2 hours for no extra payment. To the left of L2 the indifference curve

rises again. In this area leisure gives the worker greater satisfaction than any additional

work, so the maximum hours the individual will willingly work is 168 - L2. In the case of

indifference curve I1 there is no unique tangency point, rather a series of tangency points

occur between the hours L1 and L2. The equilibrium hours of work cannot be determined.

They can be as many as 168–L2 or as few as 168–L1.

If the worker had such a positive attitude to work that it was more desirable than leisure, at

least over a small range of hours, then the individual’s indifference curve could take a U

shape. If the individual’s indifference curve was a U shape, I2, it would be possible to

achieve a unique equilibrium number of working hours for an individual worker, i.e. 168 -

L3 in this case, in Figure 2.3. When the number of hours of leisure exceeds L3 the worker is

getting greater utility from working more hours than consuming leisure. When the level of

leisure is less than L3, the worker gains greater utility from the leisure than work. The

worker is working a longer number of hours than the minimum required by the employer

42

(168–L1). This would also imply that if the worker’s satisfaction with their job declined,

that the worker would work fewer hours above the minimum level and the time spent on

leisure would increase. Alternatively increased job satisfaction would lead to increased

levels of unpaid work. This is a significant finding as it demonstrates that if teacher job

satisfaction increases then at least some teachers will be willing to work longer unpaid

hours. This is supported by the empirical evidence on the teacher labour market in the

United States in Chapter 1 of this thesis and from the National Center for Education

Statistics (1997), Job Satisfaction Among American Teachers. It could also be considered

that increased job satisfaction could be traded off at least to some degree as an alternative to

a wage rise. Alternatively it could be seen that a loss of job satisfaction would require

larger wage rises to achieve the same level of worker commitment.

A second explanation, for salaried professionals working more than the minimum hours

required for their salary, rests on a more economic argument that distinguishes between the

reward structures of wage and salaried employees. It is not greater job satisfaction that

leads to more unpaid work but rather financial rewards they hope to receive in the future in

terms of future pay rises and promotion. This is a possible explanation for many salaried

workers but perhaps is limited in the teaching profession. Teachers in NSW high schools

have automatic pay increases based on years of service up to step 13. After this level,

further increases are allowances for extra administration as year or subject coordinators,

deputy principals or as principals. The numbers of these positions in each school are

limited and most teachers do not go past the final incremental stage of payment.

43

A third explanation relates to the lack of job security. Downsizing of business firms

especially since the beginning of the 1990s has led to a loss of full-time employment and a

growing casualisation of the workforce in Australia. Littler et al. (1997) point out that the

job losses due to downsizing were mainly in the area of white-collar and managerial

positions, unlike previous periods when it tended to be blue-collar workers. Many salaried

employees will try and make a good impression in the hope that they will not be retrenched.

They will work longer hours for no pay in order to safeguard future income earnings. In

Australia in 1980, 14.7 percent of employees worked more than 49 hours a week. By 1999

this figure had increased to 20.6 percent of employees (ABS, The Labour Force). Again

this tends not to be a valid argument when looking at the teaching profession. Job security

in teaching is quite high once a teacher has passed an initial probationary period usually of

12 months. Therefore, it is unlikely that teachers do extra hours to safeguard their job

security. Teachers who work the minimum hours are still quite secure in their employment

especially in state high schools, where there is little scope for retrenching a teacher from

their employment. A teacher may be moved to another school to meet changes in staffing

but the possibility of retrenchment is very low. Therefore it seems most likely that teachers

in public schools who decide to work longer hours than the minimum do so based on job

satisfaction rather than any of the other reasons put forward.

In independent schools there is a greater use of fixed term contracts, so in this area there is

more incentive to work longer hours to preserve job security but wages are also generally

higher, so any additional hours of work may be expected in order to safeguard their

employment at a higher wage level. In some independent schools, as distinct from Catholic

44

systemic schools, where wages are closely linked to the public school teachers’ wages, the

wage level is higher than the equilibrium level. This can be linked to the efficiency wage

model. The increase in the wage is designed to increase worker efficiency and labour

demand (McConnell 2003). Consider Figure 2.4, independent schools have a higher

demand D2 and are willing to increase the wage from W1 to W2. The schools will still

employ Q1 teachers but at the wage rate W2 the available supply would be Q2, as a result

there is a level of permanent unemployment, the gap Q1Q2. The effect of the higher wage

and the pool of unemployed workers is two fold. First, the possibility of losing a high paid

job and becoming part of the unemployed group works as a mechanism to encourage full

effort from employees. Second, it acts as a disincentive to quit this job. The opportunity

cost of leaving a job in an independent school and seeking employment in a Catholic

systemic school or a public school is greater, as the wage they would receive in the

alternative job is lower at W1.

Figure 2.4: The Efficiency Wage Model

Wage (W) D1 D2 S

Q1 Q2 Quantity of Labour

W2

W1

45

The empirical evidence of teachers in the USA demonstrated that there is a trade-off

between wages and job satisfaction. Higher job satisfaction of teachers in private schools

in the USA (Table 1.6) compensated them sufficiently to be willing to receive lower

payments compared to public school teachers (Table 1.1).

An important consideration in determining the market for teachers in New South Wales

high schools is the power of the major employer groups. The New South Wales

Department of Education and Training (DET) is by far the major employer of teachers in

New South Wales high schools. DET employs more than 70% of teachers in New South

Wales high schools. This effectively gives DET major influence as an employer of

teachers in New South Wales. DET’s role can most accurately be examined as that of a

monopsonist. A monopsonist is a market situation where there is only one buyer of a

product, in this case high school teachers in New South Wales. The various Catholic

Education Offices (CEOs) are the second largest purchaser of high school teacher labour in

New South Wales. The CEOs model their wage policies closely on that of DET. This is

done for a number of reasons not the least of which is to ensure continued State

Government funding of salaries. The other non-government schools are largely a loose

group of independent employers who tend to follow DET’s wage policies but with extra

allowances to attract better staff and for some co-curricula and extra-curricular activities.

This is aimed at enhancing the quality of the schooling and the reputation of the school.

These are both important in attracting students, whose parents are paying considerable

more for the schooling than in a public school.

46

Another important consideration in labour market theory is occupational wage differentials

and involves the theory of compensating wage differentials. As we saw in the teacher

labour market in the USA, jobs and working conditions are heterogeneous not

homogeneous. Heterogeneous employment situations have different skill and experience

requirements, have differing nonwage attributes, and may have wage structures that vary in

their approach to paying efficiency wages to increase productivity. Employers also vary

depending on areas such as firm and market size, union status and power, and

discrimination. In the high school teacher labour market in NSW, the State Government is

the dominant employer. The various Catholic Education Offices are the next most

important and the remaining group tend to be individual schools employing staff. The

wage determined by the State Government in enterprise agreements with the NSW

Teachers Federation becomes the benchmark for wages in the state. As discussed earlier

changes in the wage levels may be more based on Education Department budgets14 and

political party policies rather than marginal productivity theory. This is reflected in a

variety of major wage agreement made by the NSW State Government from 1999 to 2000.

Various sections of the public service including nurses, teachers, and the police force all

received on average a 16 percent pay increase over a period of approximately three years.

There appeared to be no flexibility in the process and no scope for looking at the individual

circumstances in each of the differing public service labour markets.

14 The problem of education funding is further highlighted by the decline in education expenditure in the NSW Government Budget from 28.4 percent of total expenditure in 1989-90 to 22.0 percent in 2001-2002 (Budget Papers No.2).

47

2.2 Hedonic Wage Theory

An important theoretical approach when considering the teacher labour market is hedonic

wage theory. Hedonic wage theory is based on the belief that workers try to maximise the

happiness or satisfaction that they get from a particular job i.e. their utility15. Individuals

try to maximize their utility from their work. This occurs by maximizing the utility from

wage income, and other benefits and minimizing the disutility from unpleasant working

conditions such as injury. According to hedonic wage theory workers will want to

maximize their net utility and are willing to trade-off something that gives utility in

exchange for something that will reduce the level of disutility. For example a worker may

trade-off higher wages in exchange for greater job satisfaction. On the other hand a worker

may trade-off lower levels of job satisfaction in exchange for higher wages. This situation

is reflected in the teacher labour market in the USA in Tables 1.1 and 1.6. Public school

teachers have a lower level of job satisfaction than private school teachers but this is

compensated for by higher wage levels. A common example of an application of the

hedonic model is the trade-off workers accept between higher wages and the risk of injury

(Kaufman 2000, Ehrenberg and Smith 2000, McConnell 2003). For example Xiangdong

Wei (1999) applied hedonic wage theory to examine the workers' demand function for job

safety using British General Household Survey data. The estimation showed that there was

a significant wage compensation for job risk in the United Kingdom.

15 The analysis of hedonic wage theory is based on the work of Sherwin Rosen (1974).

48

The model that will be used here will consider the relationship between wages and

nonwage factors that affect the utility of the workers in the labour market. McConnell et al.

(2003) see this as the trade-off between a ‘good’ factor, (the wage) and a ‘bad’ factor

(probability of an injury). If the probability of injury is quite low, then this becomes a

‘good’ factor. The theory can therefore be presented in terms of a trade-off between wages

and nonwage amenities. These nonwage amenities can be favourable or unfavourable.

Favourable job attributes could include high job security, flexible working hours, and close

proximity to work. Unfavourable nonwage amenities could include a greater risk of injury,

higher levels of stress and an unpleasant working environment. Favourable nonwage

amenities, like wages, will increase utility for the worker. This can be demonstrated in

Figure 2.5. The wage rate is measured on the vertical axis and the net value of nonwage

amenities on the horizontal axis. The more positive the nonwage amenities the greater the

utility will be at a relatively lower wage level. Each indifference curve in Figure 2.5 shows

various combinations of wage rates and nonwage amenites that yield a specific level of

utility. Each successive curve upward to the right reflects a higher level of total utility for

the individual.

The steeper, that the indifference curves are, the more adverse the individual is to

unfavourable nonwage amenities. The steeper the indifference curve the greater the

substitution rate of higher wages will be for less favourable nonwage amenities. In other

words the individual will expect a greater increase in wages to compensate them for a

smaller increase in unfavourable nonwage amenities. If the indifference curves are flatter

workers will be willing to give up a larger proportion of favourable nonwage amenities or

49

accept more unfavourable nonwage amenities in exchange for a smaller wage increase. It

also implies that workers with relatively flat indifference curves would need a considerable

increase in nonwage amenities to accept a lower wage rate.

Figure 2.5: An indifference map for wages and nonwage amenities

Wage

Rate

2.2.1 Nonwage Amenities in the Teacher Labour Market

The results of the surveys of teachers and potential teachers (university students) to be

found in the following chapters of this thesis consider this trade-off between wage and

nonwage amenities. Some of the main nonwage amenities that influence the teacher labour

market are:

• Job security

Net Nonwage Amenities

I3 I2 I1

50

An increase in job security is considered a favorable nonwage amenity, while any reduction

in job security is seen as an unfavourable nonwage amenity that would act to reduce an

individual’s utility.

• Level of stress

Stress is viewed as being an unfavourable factor that will lower an individual’s utility. It is

similar to the risk of injury in the workplace. A higher level of stress in a particular job will

require an increase in the wage level otherwise utility will decline. Workers may reject

promotion and as a result higher wages because of the increase in stress that the increase in

responsibility and tasks may cause. On the other hand, research by Dinham and Scott

(1999) showed that generally teachers in positions of higher responsibility had lower levels

of stress than those in lower positions in New South Wales high schools. Researchers have

speculated that this may be due to the lower levels of control over their jobs and work

requirement that those on lower levels of responsibility have (see Marmot and Therorell

1988, Marmot, Bosma, et al. 1997). It could also be argued that teachers who can cope

with the level of stress better are likely to perform better and will be promoted to these

positions of higher responsibility, or are more likely to apply for these positions as they do

not see the extra responsibilities as being too stressful.

• Number of holidays

On average in New South Wales high school teachers receive twelve weeks holiday a

year16. The normal holiday period for workers in New South Wales is four weeks annual

16The twelve weeks comprises six weeks at Christmas and two weeks break between each of the other terms. Public schools in the western areas of NSW are further compensated by an additional week due to the

51

leave. The extra holidays increase the individual’s utility and as a result are a favourable

nonwage amenity.

• Hours of work

The hours of work of a teacher can vary considerably. While the normal school hours may

be in the range of six to seven hours a day and the maximum level of face-to-face teaching

is 20 hours per week, the actual number of hours a teacher works may be considerably

more than that. Some teachers surveyed for this thesis reported working up to seventy

hours a week. Many teachers reported that they usually worked over the weekend. Indeed

in many independent schools it is an expectation of employment that teachers will engage

in extra-curricula activities at least one day of the weekend. Some teachers left the

independent system while others were dettered from teaching in this system because of the

weekend work requirement. For some individual teachers the hours of work would be

considered a favourable nonwage amenity, while others would consider them to be an

unfavourable nonwage amenity.

• Support and encouragement from administration

Studies by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES 1996) found that support

and encouragement from administration was an important factor in influencing the level of

job satisfaction in the US teacher labour market (Table 1.6). Teachers, who considered that

they had support and encouragement from their administration, generally had a higher level

conditions in summer. Many independent schools also have in excess of twelve weeks holidays, part of this does compensate for weekend sport commitments.

52

of job satisfaction compared to those who did not feel supported and encouraged. Positive

support and encouragement would be considered as a favourable nonwage amenity.

• The attitude and support of peers

Teachers in the US had greater job satisfaction when there was a ‘great deal of cooperative

effort among the staff’ (Table 1.6). Surveys of teachers in New South Wales high schools

(Chapter 6) also showed that the attitude and support of peers was considered to be

important to teachers. A working environment of friendly co-operation and support would

increase the level of favourable nonwage amenitities for an individual. The level would

decline, if the environment were seen as not being positive and supportive.

• The attitude and support of students

Of considerable importance to teachers is the attitude and support of their students. NCES

studies in the US showed that if student behaviour interfered with teaching then teacher

satisfaction levels declined (Table 1.6). The Vinson Report, ‘Inquiry into the Provision of

Public Education in NSW’ (2002) states that bad behaviour of some students is a serious

problem. It “disrupts learning and drains the morale of staff…The total lack of respect for

teachers and the verbal abuse sometimes showered upon them by disruptive students causes

some teachers to ‘count the days’ until they can flee the situation (xvii).” A positive

attitude and support of students will increase the level of favourable nonwage amenities.

The disruptive behaviour of some students on the other hand will have a considerable effect

on increasing the level of unfavourable nonwage amenities.

53

• The satisfaction of student achievement

Studies by Dinham (1995), and Dinham and Scott (1996, 1997) concluded that the greatest

source of teacher satisfaction in New South Wales schools is pupil achievement and the

obvious sense of teacher accomplishment that occurs as a result of that. The sense of

student achievement is different for a teacher than other occupations. While many workers

may get satisfaction from what they have achieved at a particular point in time, a teacher’s

satisfaction is not just measured in the present but is an ongoing process. It is not just

measured in terms of academic success of the students in the present but also their personal

development and growth over their lifetime. It is not uncommon for teachers to attend

school reunions with past students, one, ten or twenty or more years after they taught those

students. Often the teacher is there to see how well the students finally turn out. A positive

level of satisfaction of student achievement is a major factor promoting favourable

nonwage amenities, while a low level of satisfaction will reduce the level of nonwage

amenities.

• The support of pupils’ parents

Teachers not only react with students but also with the parents of students. If parents are

supportive, this acts as an encouragement to a teacher, whereas condemnation and

harassment lowers teacher morale and satisfaction. NCES studies in the USA (Table 1.6)

reflect the situation that in situations where teachers feel that parents support the work of

the teachers that the level of satisfaction is much higher than in situations where teachers do

not feel that they have the support of the parents. Positive support will increase favourable

54

nonwage amenities while a feeling of a lack of support from parents will generate an

increase in unfavourable nonwage amenities.

• Attitude of the general public towards teachers

The attitude of the general public and the media towards teachers can influence the self-

esteem of the individual as a teacher. The status of teaching and teachers as perceived by

the public and media can influence individuals’ decisions to enter the teaching profession

or remain as a teacher. A positive status and public perception of teachers would increase

favourable nonwage amenities. Research by Dinham and Scott (1997) showed that the two

least satisfying aspects out of seventy-five factors influencing teacher satisfaction in New

South Wales schools were “the image of teachers portrayed in the media (and) the

community’s opinion of the ‘official’ working hours and holidays in teaching.” The sixth

least satisfying factor was “the status of teachers in society.”17

• The support of the teacher’s family

The support of family varies depending on the age and family structure that the individual

is involved with. A single teacher is more likely to react to the support or lack of support

from parents and siblings. A teacher who is in a relationship or married is more likely to be

influenced by their partner and whether there are children or not. Dinham (1997) found

that families having a teacher as one of the parents impacted negatively upon the family. In

some circumstances it worsened relationships as the teacher was not devoting sufficient

17 Teachers were asked the question “How satisfying do you find…?” On a scale up to 100 percent, teachers responded with the lowest scores of three percent for “the image of teachers portrayed in the media (and) the community’s opinion of the ‘official’ working hours and holidays in teaching”. The factor, “the status of teachers in society,” was given a score of six percent.

55

time to the family due to their work commitments and the ‘open-endedness’ of teachers’

work. The support or lack of support of the family can have considerable impact on the

individual’s level of nonwage amenities.

Another consideration involves the moral satisfaction of one’s job. If individuals are

concerned about doing the ‘right thing’ and helping others, then the types of jobs that offer

this opportunity should find it easier to attract workers than jobs that may be seen as

lacking ‘social responsibility’. Robert Frank (1996) of Cornell University found that when

he compared jobs and earnings of recent graduates from Cornell, those who had socially

responsible occupations, such as teachers, medical workers and counselors received lower

wages than those consider to be socially less responsible such as stock brokers, salesmen

and marketing analysts. Socially responsible jobs paid workers on average 30 percent less

than otherwise similar workers in the jobs rated least socially responsible.

2.2.2 The Role of Isoprofit Curves

The employer is able to affect the nonwage amenities offered to the worker. Some of these

nonwage amenities will represent a cost to the employer, so the employer is faced with a

trade-off between the wages offered and the level of favourable nonwage amenities. For

example a policy to reduce class sizes would require the employment of additional teachers

and a higher total wage bill for the employer. While the level of teacher satisfaction and as

a result favourable nonwage amenities would increase, the costs to the employer would also

rise. In order to maintain any given level of profits for the firm, the employer can either

56

·

·

pay lower wages to workers and provide a higher level of favourable nonwage amenities or

pay higher wages and reduce the level of favourable nonwage amenities i.e. increase class

sizes. Figure 2.6 shows a number of possible isoprofit curves for an employer. Curve P2 is

a normal profit isoprofit curve, which indicates the various combinations of wage rates and

nonwage amenities that yield a given level of normal profit. It is assumed in this case that

the level of competition among firms will result in only normal profits being made, i.e. zero

economic profits. Curve P1 represents above zero economic profit and curve P3 is below

zero economic profit.

Figure 2.6: A group of isoprofit curves for an employer

A

Wage

Rate B

Note that the shapes of the isoprofit curves are concave. This is derived from the ‘realistic’

assumption18 that each unit of added job satisfaction comes at an increasing expense and

therefore results in a successively larger wage reduction. Successive units of wage

reductions yield diminishing returns to nonwage amenities. Marginal costs typically rise as

18 See McConnell et al. 2003: 262-3, Ehrenberg and Smith 2000: 263-4.

Net Nonwage Amenities

P3

P2 P1

57

a greater level of favourable nonwage amenities is provided. For example at A on the

isoprofit curve P2, the curve is relatively flat, so there can be a relatively large increase in

nonwage amenities with little reduction in the wage rate. However at B, the isoprofit curve

is steeper and any increase in favourable nonwage amenities will require a larger reduction

in the wage rate.

An important consideration for employers in the teacher labour market is, that while some

improvements in nonwage amenities will increase costs for the employer, such as smaller

class sizes, other improvements in nonwage amenities may require little or no increase in

costs to the employer. For example from Table 1.6, ‘an increase in recognition of staff

members for a job well done’, an administration that is ‘supportive and encouraging’ and

‘principals frequently discussing instructional practices with teachers’ would all increase

the level of job satisfaction and favourable nonwage amenities at no cost to the employer.

Recognition of a job well done could be as simple as praising a teacher in front of their

peers and/or students, or a written note of commendation from the school principal or the

Department of School Education.

It is now possible to match the employees with the employers. The aim of the employee is

to achieve the highest level of utility from their choice of job. If an employee is offered

two jobs at the same wage rate, they will choose the job with the highest net nonwage

amenities. If two jobs have the same level of nonwage amenities the individual will choose

the job with the highest wage rate. The overall decision will be based on choosing the job

that occurs on the highest indifference curve. The employers on the other hand can

generally not afford to provide very high wages and a high level of nonwage amenities,

58

otherwise their costs will not allow them to be competitive. As a result a firm in a

competitive market operates on their zero economic profit isoprofit curve. Consider two

employers that make offers of employment to individual workers. Figure 2.7(a)19 shows an

optimal job match between worker A, who places a high value on favourable nonwage

amenities, and employer X, that can offer favourable nonwage amenities at a relatively low

marginal cost. Figure 2.7(b) shows worker B, who is less concerned about nowwage

amenities and employer Y that has a relatively higher marginal cost for nonwage amenities.

The isoprofit curves Px and Py show the highest profit levels attainable for firms X and Y

respectively. The general slope of the isoprofit curve for firm Y is greater than that of firm

X. This indicates that ‘for technological reasons’ the marginal cost of nonwage amenities is

greater in firm Y than firm X (McConnell, Brue et al. 2003).

Figure 2.7: Matching employees and employers

Wage A1 W3

Py Px Py

Na* Na Nb Nb Na

Net Nonwage amenities Net Nonwage amenities Net Nonwage amenities

(a) Worker A (b) Worker B (c) Market trade-off

19 This figure is adapted from McConnell, Brue and Macpherson (2003, figure 8.4: 263)

A2

W2 W1

B2 B1

W

S

59

Workers who have a much greater preference for higher wages than improved nonwage

amenities will work for employer Y and those who have a greater preference for nonwage

amenities will work for employer X. Graphing the worker indifference curves and isoprofit

curves together can show which workers will choose which job offers. Each worker will

maximise his or her total utility where his or her highest indifference curve is tangential to

the employer’s zero-economic profit isocost curve.

In Figure 2.7(a) worker A maximises utility on indifference curve A2 by working for

employer X at wage rate W1 and receiving nonwage amenities, Na. If worker A accepted

the offer of employer Y and received wage W2 and nonwage amenities Na*, the level of

utility would be lower at indifference curve A1. Worker A values favourable nonwage

amenities highly and wage rate W2 is not sufficient to compensate for the loss of nonwage

amenities. Worker B on the other hand has a relatively flat indifference curve, Figure

2.7(b). If worker B accepted the wages offered by firm X, W1, utility would be lower on

indifference curve B1, compared to wage rate W3 that would be offered by firm Y. At wage

rate W3, worker B is receiving wages and nonwage amenities that provide greater utility at

indifference curve B2.

WS in Figure 2.7(c) demonstrates the general relationship between wages and nonwage

amenities in a labour market characterised by many heterogeneous workers, not just A and

B, and many firms, not just X and Y. It demonstrates that higher wage rates are associated

with lower nonwage amenities and lower wage rates are associated with higher nonwage

amenities, ceterus paribus.

60

2.3 Conclusion The hedonic wage model has some important implications in regard to the teacher labour

market in New South Wales high schools. First, workers with identical levels of human

capital will be willing to work for different wage levels depending on the nonwage

amenities available and their individual preferences for nonwage amenities compared to

wages. A situation of fewer nonwage amenities but a relatively higher wage would attract

some workers. This is most relevant in regards to teacher shortages in isolated schools.

These schools tend to have less social amenities for teachers compared to that existing in

regional centers and large cities. The hedonistic wage model would suggest that higher

relative wages in school areas that are fairly isolated would be a trade-off for the lower

level of nonwage amenities.

Second, the hedonic wage model tells us that wages can be traded–off for nonwage

amenities. The major employer of teachers in NSW high schools is the NSW State

Government. Their ability to fund teachers’ wages is constrained by their budgets and the

political repercussions of increases in taxation or cuts in Government expenditure in other

areas to fund the teacher wage increases. There is also the issue of flow-on effects to other

workers in the public service, which would put further pressure on the Government’s

budget. An alternative, at least in part, to wage increases offered by the hedonic wage

model is improved nonwage amenities for teachers. Later chapters of this thesis will

examine the main nonwage amenities that teachers seek and consider the relative cost of

adopting those amenities. Some of those nonwage amenities have a relatively low cost to

implement and may increase teacher retention and entry rates if adopted.

61

Third, the indifference curves, on average, for males and females may be quite different.

Females, overall, generally receive lower wages than men in the labour market (Ehrenberg

2000, McConnell 2003, Norris 2000); this may, in part, reflect differing tastes for positive

job nonwage amenities such as pleasant working condition, suitable work times to fit in

with a family, low risk of injury and short commuting distances. Men may be more

concerned about having sufficient income, to look after the family financially both in the

present and in the future (superannuation), that they may accept relatively lower levels of

nonwage amenities in exchange for higher wages. Research by Filer (1985) found that

female workers are more likely to accept lower paid jobs that had relatively better nonwage

amenities compared to men. This issue will be examined further in later chapters that look

at the decline in the percentage of male high school teachers in NSW and the relative

decline in teachers’ wages compared to average weekly earnings in Australia. This would

support the hypothesis that lower relative wages would have a bigger impact on the supply

of male teachers compared to female teachers. Filer’s results could lead us to consider the

proposition that, if school authorities wish to increase the quantity of male high school

teachers, an increase in wages would be a more important factor in comparison to

increasing wages to increase the quantity of female teachers.

Finally, improvements in utility for workers and thus the achievement of higher

indifference curves could also occur as a result of greater flexibility in nonwage benefits.

Many organisations have set benefits that apply to all workers. Greater utility could be

achieved for some workers if they were able to trade-off some of those benefits for

increased wages and visa versa. If organisations consider the marginal cost of providing

benefits then they could have lower relative costs by offering certain benefits. While a

62

retail firm may give its workers discounts on merchandise, schools could offer free

education for children of teachers in a particular education system. The teachers who

accept this benefit would trade-off wages or another benefit to have the free education for

their children. While this would be limited in the public school system in NSW, it would

be a potential benefit for both teachers and administrators in the Catholic and independent

systems, as an incentive to work in that system and also to send their children to school in

that system. If the schools had excess capacity, the cost of the extra student would only be

equal to the marginal cost to the school. The teachers could be offered this as an alternative

tradeoff to higher money wages being paid to them. This issue will be considered further in

the policy recommendations in Chapter 8.

63

Chapter 3. The Demand for High School Teachers in New South Wales

3.1 Introduction

The labour market for teachers is made up of those groups who employ teachers

20 and the teachers who are available for work. For the purpose of this chapter the demand

for teachers will be restricted to those groups who operate registered and accredited high

schools in New South Wales and employ teachers. The supply of teachers will be restricted

to residents of New South Wales who are qualified to teach in New South Wales high

schools and are willing and able to work as high school teachers. While there are teachers

who move across state boundaries there are limited records of the numbers of these and the

net effect is likely to be small. If there were a high level of mobility then theory would

suggest that teachers would move to areas of highest relative wages and greatest job

opportunities. This does not appear to be the case. The state and territory with the highest

median initial salaries for Education graduates, Victoria and the Northern Territory, also

have the highest level of fulltime initial graduate employment (Table 3.1).

20 Teachers are defined as staff at schools that spend the majority of their time in contact with students, i.e. support students either by direct class contact or on an individual basis and have teaching duties, that is, are engaged to impart the school curriculum. Teaching staff includes principals, deputy principals, and senior teachers who may be involved in administrative duties. Excluded are emergency and casual relief teaching staff (Australian Bureau of Statistics, Schools Australia, 2002)

64

Table 3.1: Median Salaries and Level of Full-time Employment of Initial Education

Graduates, by State and Territory, 2001

State/Territory Median salary ($) Percentage employed

full-time ACT 37,500 89.5 NSW 37,600 82.2 NT 39,000 90.9

QLD 37,500 80.4 SA 38,200 74.9

TAS 38,600 70.6 VIC 39,000 90.0 WA 36,000 88.3 AUS 38,000 83.3

Source: Graduate Careers Council of Australia, 2002

In the early 1990s there was an overall teacher surplus in Australia. However by the start

of 2000, education authorities in the states and territories reported that the teacher labour

market was broadly in balance throughout Australia (Party 2001). More rapid growth in

teacher demand during the later part of the 1990s led to this gradual tightening of the

teacher labour market. MCEETYA (2001) reported that recruitment difficulties were

nonetheless being experienced during 2000 in a number of disciplines and in rural and

remote regions. Vacancies for Mathematics, Science and Information Technology (IT)

secondary school teachers were hard to fill in all states and territories. Positions for

Mathematics teachers were the hardest to fill but recruitment difficulties in this and the

Science and IT areas were long standing. Other subject areas experiencing some

recruitment problems, although not necessarily in all states and territories, included Modern

Foreign Languages and Industrial Arts/Technology. The report also stated that most states

and territories authorities indicated that, in addition to these specialisations, teachers in

general were hard to recruit for positions outside the metropolitan and larger urban centres.

65

This trend was supported by the National and State Skill Shortage Lists Australia (DEWR,

various) that showed there was an increasing shortage of particular categories of teachers

especially in high schools.

3.2 The Employers of Teachers in NSW High Schools

In 2002 there were 38,447 teachers employed full-time in high schools in NSW (ABS,

Schools Australia, 2003). There are three main categories of employers of high school

teachers in NSW21. The Australian Bureau of Statistics classifies these as:

• Government;

• Non-Government Catholic; and

• Non-Government Independent.

As shown in Table 3.2, 62.7 percent of high school teachers in NSW are employed in

government schools, 21.6 percent in Catholic schools, and 15.7 percent in independent

schools. The ratios of male to female teachers vary slightly between the three systems. The

independent schools have the highest proportion of male teachers at 45.9 percent, while the

Catholic system has least with 42.7 percent. One area where there is a considerable

difference is the number of students per teacher. The largest student teacher ratio occurs in

Catholic schools at 13.3 students per teacher and the lowest is in independent schools at

21 It should be noted that teacher graduates may not only be employed by schools in NSW, but may be employed by TAFE, schools interstate and overseas, and by universities. The Graduate Careers Council of Australia (GCCA) survey (2002) found that 91.3 percent of Education graduates worked in the field of Education.

66

10.6 students per teacher. Government schools were in the middle with 12.5 students per

teacher. These results would generally mean that class sizes would be greatest in Catholic

schools and least in independent schools.

Table 3.2: Percentages of Teachers in New South Wales High Schools, by Category of

School22

Percentages of teachers Government Catholic Independent Male teachers, as a % of all teachers, by system

45.2 42.7 45.9

Female teachers as a % of all teachers, by system

54.8 57.3 54.1

% of teachers in each school classification

62.7 21.6 15.7

Student/teacher ratios 12.5 13.3 10.6 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Schools Australia, Cat. No. 4221.0, 2002.

Teachers returning to the classroom who were employed in schools the previous year meet

most of the annual demand for teachers. Each year, however, some new teachers need to

be employed due to some teachers leaving and due to changes in a number of other factors.

The demand for these additional teachers in NSW high schools is a function of:

• the number of teachers leaving the workforce (permanently or on leave); and

• what is referred to as the ‘growth demand for teachers’ (MCEETYA, 2001).

The number of teachers leaving the workforce depends on:

• the number of teachers retiring;

• the number of teachers going on leave; and

• the number of teachers quitting for various reasons, including going into other areas

of teaching, excluding NSW high schools.

22 The teacher numbers are measured as full-time equivalent teaching staff.

67

The most important factor at the present time is the ageing teacher workforce. In March

2002, 48 percent of the teachers working in public high schools in NSW were 45 years of

age or older (DET 2002). While no figures were available for the non-government sector

the figure would most likely be similar. As this group moves towards retirement in the next

15 years the demand for new teachers will increase. This issue is discussed more fully later

in this chapter.

3.3 Determinants of Demand for Teachers in NSW High Schools

The demand for teachers depends on:

• the wage rate and the budget constraint (as discussed in Chapter 2)

• the size of the school age population;

• participation rates at various ages and especially the retention rate to Year 12;

• the level of government and private funding of schools, and teacher and ancillary

costs; and

• policies regarding class sizes and curricula (which can affect class sizes).

Changes in the above factors will lead to changes in the demand for teachers. The

Conference of Education Systems Chief Executive Officers (CESCEO) National Teacher

Supply and Demand Working Party estimate that the number of teachers employed grew

throughout Australia at 1.1 percent per annum during the 1990s, slightly higher than 1.0

percent in the 1980s. This largely came about because of increased student enrolment and

increased school retention rates, especially in years 11 and 12. From 1996 to 2001, the

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school retention rate from year 10 to year 12 rose from 77.3 percent to 79.4 percent

throughout Australia (ABS, Schools Australia, 2002). This was in turn accompanied by a

decline in student to staff ratios. In NSW public high schools the student staff ratio

declined from 12.8 per teacher in 1996 to 12.5 in 2002 (DET 2003). Overall the strongest

growth was experienced by secondary student enrolments in the non-government sector

(see Figure 3.3).

The NSW Department of Education and Training (DET) base the number of teachers that is

employed in a particular public school on a set staffing formula. The formula varies

depending on the number of students enrolled in various years of the school. For example

if there are 83 students in a primary school, then the school is entitled to three teachers. If

the number increases to 84, the school can now employ four teachers. Changes in the

staffing formula would cause a change in the demand for teachers, ceterus paribus.

The major source of funding for Catholic schools is the Commonwealth Government,

followed by the State Government, parents and parishioners. Parents contribute to their

schools through school fees, voluntary work and fund raising as well as through their taxes.

Catholic systemic schools make up the vast majority of Catholic schools. They can be

parish primary schools or regional secondary schools. The diocesan Catholic education

offices (CEOs) administer these schools. There are 11 dioceses in NSW/ACT. The

Catholic systemic schools are funded by:

• the Commonwealth Government approximately 60%;

• the State Government approximately 25%; and

69

• parents (fees) and parishioners (donations) approximately 15% (Catholic Education

Commission 2002).

Commonwealth and State Government grants and school fees are paid into an account for

each of the 11 dioceses and the money is distributed ‘according to need across the schools

in the Diocese’ (Catholic Education Commission 2002). Expenditure includes schools'

operating costs, teachers' salaries, resources, maintenance, capital works, and system

administration costs.

There are between 40 and 50 Catholic high schools in NSW that are not under the direct

control of the diocesan Catholic education offices (Catholic Education Commission 2002).

These are the Catholic congregational schools. Congregational schools are owned and

operated by religious congregations. They vary considerably in the fees they charge. Some

charge fees that are comparable to CEO schools, while others such as St. Joseph’s College

at Hunters Hill and St. Ignatius’ College at Riverview have fees that are similar to the

wealthiest independent schools. Congregational schools are generally funded at a lower

rate than systemic schools and therefore set their own fees to cover the cost of salaries,

buildings, and equipment. In addition many congregational schools gain additional funds

by having boarders. In the past, the distribution of funds to congregational and independent

schools has been based on the Commonwealth Government's classification of schools

according to a needs index that measures the total resources available to a school. This

classification has now being replaced with a new socio-economic status (SES) funding

model. An overall comparison of funding of schools in NSW can be found in Table 3.3.

70

The demand for teachers will vary with the number of pupils in each school but also with

the level of government funding and private revenue. The CEOs also have a staffing

formula, based on student numbers, and fund each school to employ that number of

teachers. The school fees charged by the Catholic systemic schools are set by each of the

dioceses and vary with the year of schooling the student is undertaking. There are also

discounts available for families with more than one child in a Catholic school. In 2000 the

private revenue raised from fees and charges was equal to $1241 per student in NSW

Catholic schools (Table 3.3). The total expenditure from all sources of funds per student in

public schools in NSW was $6907 per annum, while in the NSW Catholic systemic schools

it was $6473 per annum. The difference in funding of $434 per student has led to a lower

demand for teachers per pupil, as reflected in the higher student teacher ratio in Catholic

schools in NSW (Table 3.2). This shortfall has also meant that Catholic diocesan education

offices aim to have wage rates at the same level as for public high school teachers and

cannot offer the higher wages that are used to attract teachers to private independent high

schools. This creates a situation that effectively 84.3 percent of teachers in NSW high

schools have their wages determined by the agreement between the State government and

public school teachers. This leads to a monopsonist position (as discussed in Chapter 2) for

the NSW Government where they can determine the wages for 84.3 percent of the teachers

in NSW high schools, through the current enterprise bargaining process23. Schools that do

23 In 2003 both the NSW Teachers Federation (representing public school teachers) and the Independent Education Union (Catholic school teachers) have lodged separate applications for their log of claims to be heard as a special case in the NSW Industrial Relations Commission. The log of claims in both cases seeks a 25 percent pay rise, after both the State Government and the Catholic dioceses offered three percent per

71

not pay salaries based on the state teachers’ award generally receive extra allowances of a

few thousand dollars a year but the overall level of wages is still based on the award. For

example one independent high school (that asked not to be named) paid their teachers the

award plus an extra three percent for between 50 and 70 hours of co-curricular work per

annum, with Heads of Department being paid an extra $3500 annually on top of the award.

Table 3.3: Sources of Income per Student in Schools in NSW, by System, 2000

Source Catholic ($) % Independent ($) % Government ($)24

Fees and Charges 1,241 19.2 5,490 58.9 na Private donations and income

635 9.8 716 7.7 na

State grants 1,331 20.6 1,119 12.0 na Commonwealth grants

3,266 50.5 1,999 21.4 na

Total Income 6,473 100.0 9,324 100.0 6,907 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Education and Training Indicators, Australia, 2002, Cat.No. 4230.0 na: Not available

There is an additional factor that differentiates the demand for teachers in the Catholic

schools from the demand in public high schools in NSW. That is the Catholic religion

dimension. The Catholic Education Office, Parramatta Diocese, points out in their

recruitment package (2003) that, “You don’t need to be a Catholic to teach in a Catholic

school …(however some) teachers are required to teach Religious Education and therefore

annum over two years. This is the first special case request by teachers since enterprise bargaining was introduced in NSW in the 1990s.

24 The NSW State Government allocates 91.9 percent of its education budget to public schools. These funds come from the Commonwealth Government and are supplemented by State taxes - the exact proportion that comes from each level of government is not clear. Public schools often do have incidental fees but in principle no one is forced to pay these fees.

72

need to be accredited.” The vision statement also highlights that “the system of Catholic

schools in the Parramatta Diocese seeks to be authentically Catholic.” In addition the

Targeted Teacher Graduate Program Application Form requires the name and address of

two referees, the first of whom must be a priest. The Catholic Education Offices also

prevent non-Catholic teachers from holding positions of principal, deputy principal, first

assistant and religious education coordinator in their schools. These policies have the effect

of limiting demand predominately to teachers with a Catholic religious background and

imply a preference to those trained in religious education. In 2002, 73.0 percent of high

school teachers in Catholic schools in NSW were Catholic (Catholic Education

Commission 2003), compared to an overall population proportion of Catholics in the

general community of 26.6 percent (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003c). The reference

to “an appreciation and acceptance of Catholic teaching and values” in the Parramatta CEO

documentation including the application for classification form would most likely reduce

the supply of applicants for teaching in Catholic schools. At least, as a minimum, agnostics

and atheists would probably see themselves as not being suitable for this system and would

not be likely to apply. A number of non-Catholic trainee teachers who attended a

Parramatta CEO talk, at ACU National, on teacher recruitment expressed the view that they

did not believe that they would get a job in a Catholic school and there was no point

applying for a position in a Catholic school.

The final category of employers of high school teachers in NSW is the independent schools

system. They are a diverse group of schools serving a range of different communities.

Many independent schools provide a religious or values based education. Others promote a

73

particular education philosophy or interpretation of mainstream education. Independent

schools include:

• schools affiliated with Christian denominations, for example, Anglican, Lutheran,

Presbyterian schools;

• non denominational Christian schools;

• Islamic schools;

• Jewish schools;

• Montessori schools;

• Rudolf Steiner schools;

• Aboriginal community schools, and

• schools that specialise in meeting the needs of students with disabilities (ISCA

2003).

For the independent sector, as a whole, 63 percent of schools’ income was from private

sources and 37 percent from government sources in the 2000-01 financial year.

Government expenditure per student in independent schools was, on average, some 48

percent of that for students attending government schools (ISCA 2003).

Independent high schools, as a whole, charge considerably higher fees for students than

Catholic systemic schools. While the average level of fees and donations in Catholic

schools is $1241 per pupil per annum, the amount and range of fees is much higher in

independent schools. For example, the Illawarra Christian School in 2000 charged fees

74

ranging from $2030 for a single child to $3215 (for a family of four) depending on the year,

while Sydney Grammar School had fees ranging from $11910 to $12375 for a single child,

depending on the year (Wilton 2000). When it is considered that the total expenditure from

all sources of funds per student in public schools in NSW was $6907 per annum in 2000

(Table 3.3), these fees and government funding provide the wealthier independent schools

with the greatest level of income. The larger capacity the school has to charge fees the

higher the wages the school can offer to attract staff or alternatively the greater the number

of teachers that they can afford to employ, or a combination of both. The higher relative

income compared to public and Catholic schools, also allows independent schools, overall,

to have the smaller student/teacher ratios and class sizes.

The demand for teachers by independent schools can also be affected by the religious

denomination and attitude of the governing authority. Unlike the strong structure of the

diocesan Catholic education offices, the independent schools are a loose association of

schools in regard to policies on employing individual teachers. Many of the religiously

affiliated schools do have religious criteria for employment and require a local minister of

religion as a referee. At times, ministers of religion may also be involved on interviewing

panels. This restricts the demand for some categories of teachers but increases the demand

for others. The only major employer of high school teachers in NSW that cannot

discriminate on religious grounds is the NSW Department of Education and Training.

The demand for teachers by independent schools also differs in regard to the expectation of

the teacher to be involved in weekend or other out of school hours sporting, activities, or

75

supervision commitments. Teachers are often paid higher salaries or allowances for these.

In addition many independent schools provide more holidays to compensate for the loss of

regular non-school hours during the school term.

Teachers’ salaries and conditions of employment in independent high schools in NSW vary

from school to school. All schools are at least covered by awards, some independent

schools have certified agreements, and some schools negotiate pay and conditions for

teachers on an individual basis. The Independent Schools Council of Australia (ISCA

2003) states that “some independent school teachers may receive higher salaries than their

government school colleagues but this may reflect more out of school hour activities or

supervision that teachers may be required to undertake.”

The demand for teachers by non-government high schools in NSW is different from the

demand by government high schools. This difference comes about as a result of the

requirement that exists in many independent schools for teachers to work outside of regular

teaching hours and/or the religious background or religious knowledge/training

requirements that are determined by many non-government schools. Figure 3.1

demonstrates the effect of religious discrimination on the demand for teachers in a

competitive labour market25. First we assume that all the teachers have the same

qualifications. Let us also assume there are two categories of teachers, religious that would

be acceptable to non-government schools and non-religious who would not be acceptable.

This means that all teachers who can teach in a non-government school could be employed

in a public school but because of discrimination not all teachers in public schools would be 25 This model has been adapted from sex discrimination models in McTaggart (2003) and Ehrenberg (2000).

76

75 50 25 0

75 50 25 0

1 2 3 1 2 3 Teachers (000) Teachers (000) (a) Non-religious (b) Religious

acceptable for employment in non-government schools. We also assume for the sake of

simplicity that there are equal numbers of religious and non-religious teachers. Figure 3.1

(a) is the market for non-religious teachers and Figure 3.1 (b) is the market for religious

teachers.

Figure 3.1: Discrimination in the teacher labour market

Wage $ Wage $ (000) (000)

MRPN

With no discrimination the wage rate for non-religious teachers would be $50,000 a year

and two thousand would be employed. Similarly the wage rate for religious teachers would

be $50,000 a year and two thousand would be employed. This is reflected by an equal

demand for both categories of teachers, reflecting the marginal revenue products, as shown

by the curves labelled MRP.

S

MRP

MRPR

MRP

S

77

With discrimination the non-government schools will not employ non-religious staff and

the demand for non-religious staff will fall from MRP to MRPN in Figure 3.1 (a). The

wage rate for the non-religious teachers would fall to $25,000 and only 1000 teachers

would be employed. The demand for religious staff will increase and the demand curve

will shift to the right in Figure 3.1 (b) from MRP to MRPR. This will increase the wage for

religious teachers from $50,000 to $75,000 and the number employed from 2000 to 3000.

The discrimination model concludes that the favoured group, the religious group or others,

who are prepared to trade-off higher wages for loss of leisure for school weekend sport

commitments, etc., should receive higher wages than the discriminated group. While this

may be the case in independent schools, where higher wages can be paid because of the

higher income the schools receive, this is not the case for Catholic systemic schools. The

Catholic schools are effectively restricted to paying the wages offered to public high school

teachers or employing fewer staff and increasing student teacher ratios further. Another

possibility is that teachers employed in Catholic systemic schools in NSW are a lower

quality than those employed in other schools. The available evidence points out that the

opposite is true in comparison to teachers employed in government schools. The Quality

Teaching Survey (Commonwealth Quality Teacher Programme 2001) showed that teachers

in Catholic schools had overall higher qualifications than government school teachers but

lower than teachers in independent schools (Table 3.4). In addition to this, Catholic school

teachers were the largest group upgrading and furthering their qualifications. In total, 19.4

percent of Catholic teachers were currently enrolled in another formal course, compared to

10.1 percent for government school teachers and 13.9 percent for independent school

78

teachers (Commonwealth Quality Teacher Programme 2001). This result could reflect the

willingness of the CEOs to support religious education training by time release and funding

and/or the requirement to complete religious education qualifications as part of the Catholic

school teachers’ employment conditions or for promotion.

Table 3.4: Highest Formal Qualifications of Teachers in Australia, by School System

2001

Highest qualification Percentage of respondents

Government schools

Catholic schools

Independent schools

Certificate/diploma 19.2 23.2 13.3 10.3 Bachelor degree 42.9 43.0 45.0 43.0 Postgraduate diploma 28.1 26.6 30.0 28.1 Masters degree 9.3 7.0 11.5 16.0 Doctorate 0.5 0.2 0.2 2.2 Source: Commonwealth Quality Teacher Programme 2001

Offering higher wages relative to public school teachers is probably not an option for the

Catholic system considering the possible flow on effect that could occur and again the

restoration to the same wage structure. The question becomes how can Catholic systemic

schools attract sufficient of the discriminated teachers when their wage rates are the same

as in public schools? The answer must be the non-wage amenities that the Catholic

systemic system must provide, that are considered more favourable to some teachers than

that found in public schools. This situation can be demonstrated in Figure 3.2. Indifference

curve I2 demonstrates a higher level of worker satisfaction (utility) than indifference curve

I1. The discrimination model would suggest that the favoured teachers would be paid wage

rate WC and the discriminated teachers should be paid the lower wage WP. Public high

school teachers should be paid WP and the non-government high school teachers, WC. The

79

A1 A2

favoured teachers would increase their utility from I1 to I2. Wage level WC is not a

satisfactory outcome for the diocesan Catholic education offices, as they can only afford to

pay wage rate WP. The favoured teachers are capable of achieving higher utility on

indifference curve I2. If the wage rate is WP for public and Catholic systemic high school

teachers, then the only way the favoured teachers can achieve the higher level of utility is if

nonwage amenities are greater for the Catholic systemic high school teachers than the

public high school teachers. This implies that the levels of nonwage amenities are A1 in

public high schools and A2 in Catholic systemic high schools. This proposition will be

examined in Chapter 5 of this thesis.

Figure 3.2: An indifference map for wages and nonwage amenities

WC

Wage

Rate WP

Research in the USA (NCES 1996) has already demonstrated that teachers in US Catholic

schools were actual paid less than the public school teachers but continued to teach in

Catholic schools and had higher levels of teacher satisfaction than the public school

teachers (Tables 1.1 and 1.6).

Nonwage Amenities

I2 I1

80

3.4 What are the Trends in the Demand for High School Teachers in NSW?

In the period from 1984 to 2002 the total number of teachers employed in NSW high

schools increased by just over 20 percent or approximately one percent per annum from

31,952 to 38,447 (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Number of teaching staff in NSW high schools, 1984-200226

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Years

Teac

hers Government

Non-governmentAll Schools

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Schools Australia, Cat. No. 4221.0.

In contrast, the total employment of teachers in NSW public high schools has remained

fairly constant over the 18 years. The growth in demand has only been 2.2 percent over the

period, or 0.1 percent per annum. Government high school teacher numbers rose from

23,844 in 1984 to 24,372 in 2002. The substantial growth in demand for high school

26 The teacher numbers are measured as full-time equivalent teaching staff.

81

teachers has occurred in the non-government sector with teacher numbers increasing 73.6

percent in the period from 8,108 to 14,075 or at approximately four percent per annum.

While the overall demand for high school teachers in NSW is fairly predictable and stable,

there is also the need to consider the demand for replacement teachers and new teachers as

these are less predictable. ‘Replacement demand’ arises as a result of teachers resigning,

retiring or taking leave. These departing teachers, who reduce the available supply and as a

result increase the quantity of replacement teachers required, are referred to technically as

total separations (MCEETYA 2001). The total separations in NSW public high schools

have risen from 3.6 percent of the workforce in 1996 to 4.7 percent in 1999. There is no

available data for Catholic systemic schools or independent schools. The CESCEO

National Teacher Supply and Demand Working Party (MCEETYA 2001) classify the main

categories of (gross) separation as:

• age retirement;

• resignations which include:

• leaving teaching;

• leaving to take up a position in another teaching jurisdiction or overseas;

• leaving but intends to continue as a relief, casual or emergency teacher;

• leaving the workforce to travel, look after children, etc;

• leaving for personal reasons;

• taking a voluntary separation package; and

• leaving for other reasons.

• redundancy;

• contract expired (and not renewed);

82

• going on extended leave of at least one term duration; and

• other.

3.4.1 Age Retirement Age retirement depends on the age distribution of teachers, their retirement intentions, and

superannuation arrangements. Table 3.5 provides data on retirement, resignations, and

other forms of separations (other than leave of absence) for permanent teachers in

government high schools in Australia. The data shows that retirements have not been as

important a reason for separations among the teaching profession as resignations. This

relationship could change in the future because of the rapid ageing of the teaching

workforce. In 1991, 3.9 percent of schoolteachers in Australia were 55 years of age and

over, by 2001 this percentage had risen to 10.2 percent (Figure 3.4). Similarly the

percentage of teachers in the 50-54 age bracket has risen from 6.7 percent in 1991 to 13.4

percent in 2001, with the largest group of teachers progressing from the 35-39 age bracket

in 1991 to the 45-49 age bracket in 2001. In March 2002, 48 percent of the teachers

working in public high schools in NSW were 45 years of age or older (DET 2002).

Table 3.5: Separations (Other than through Leave of Absence) from the Government

Permanent Teaching Workforce in Australian High Schools, as a

Percentage of that Workforce, 1996 and 1999

Reason for the separation 1996 1999 Retirement 0.8 1.1 Resignation 2.5 2.9 Other27 0.7 0.6 Total 4.0 4.7 Source: DETYA 2000 27 The ‘other’ category includes deaths, retrenchments, dismissals, and transfers to the Public Service.

83

Figure 3.4: Age of school teachers in Australia, 1991 and 2001

0

5

10

15

20

25

24 and under

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55 and over

Age in years

%

19912001

Source: ABS data available on request, Labour Force Survey, 2003.

While there is no specific data available on separations in non-government high schools in

NSW, the number of years of experience of teachers in Catholic systemic schools and

congregational schools would also suggest an ageing teaching workforce. The Catholic

Education Commission in NSW does not collect data on the age of their teachers only their

years of experience. Figure 3.5 shows the pattern of an increasing proportion of teachers in

Catholic systemic and congregational schools with 21 or more years experience in teaching.

Allowing that the teachers could have began teaching at an age of 21 or 22; this would

imply at least 33 percent of the teachers would be over the age of 42 in 2002. While this is

considerably lower than the figure for government high school teachers, the use of years of

teaching experience would give a lower figure than age, for teachers who left teaching for

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any period of time. This would be an important discrepancy especially for women who left

teaching for a period of time to have children or people who decided to train to become

teachers a number of years after they had left high school.

Figure 3.5: School teachers by years of experience in all NSW Catholic high schools,

1992-2002

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Years

More than 20 16-20 11-15 6-10 1-5

Source: Unpublished data from the NSW Catholic Education Commission, 2003

3.4.2 Resignations

Resignations can occur for a number of reasons and not all are associated with moves out of

teaching. Some resignations actually involve teachers moving from one education system

85

to another or from one state to another, or as a result of the developing global teacher

shortage, from one country to another. Research indicates that resignations out of teaching

are affected significantly by the state of the economy and the characteristics of the teaching

labour force, such as the age structure. During the recession of the early 1990s resignations

fell and according to Burke (1994) this was largely due to the reduced opportunities for

other employment in the labour market. As a result, other teachers, who may have wished

to take some time off teaching with the intention of re-entering at a later date, may be

deterred from doing so, knowing that in the future opportunities for re-entering may be

curtailed, if fewer teachers resign.

Burke (1994) also concludes that resignation rates tend to rise when the general labour

market conditions, such as low unemployment rates, favour job seekers. There are also

indications that resignations are more common for younger male teachers in the early part

of their careers, especially in the first four years, compared to teachers over 35 years old.

Department of Education figures, obtained by the Sydney Morning Herald (Wainwright

2001), show that there is a leakage from the system of teachers aged between their mid-

twenties and thirties, who are resigning at twice the rate of any other age group. More than

five percent of teachers aged between 25 and 29 resigned in 2000, compared with an

average of 2.1 percent across all age brackets. This supports data from the NSW DET

(2002) that in 2001 the resignation rate of NSW government high school teachers was

almost four times as large in their first four years of teaching as in their fourth to twelfth

year of teaching.

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After teachers have reached a reasonable level of seniority in the school system they may

find it more difficult to secure jobs with similar pay and conditions outside teaching. They

may have to start their new career at a lower level of salary and conditions. Exiting teachers

may also have to undergo retraining and pay for further study to upgrade their

qualifications. In addition, teachers may not wish to relinquish superannuation benefits

they have accrued. This is especially the case for teachers who were employed in

government high schools under the State Superannuation Scheme (SSS) that applied to

teachers joining the profession prior to June 1985 (NSW Government 2000). The SSS is a

defined benefit scheme, subsidised by the Department of Education and Training. The

benefit on retirement is directly related to the teacher’s salary on retirement. Normal

retirement age is 60 except for female members who elected on joining to retire at age 55

and, as a result, contributed at a higher rate to provide for this earlier retirement. Teachers

who have joined since June 1985 have a more flexible superannuation scheme. First State

Super is the fund that covers teachers who have joined since the early 1990s. This has

greater flexibility and allows members to rollover their funds, if they leave the public

teaching service. This scheme has a lower cost to teachers who leave the teaching

profession compared to the older SSS model. As a result those who are covered by the SSS

model (mostly 40 years or older) are less likely to resign from the NSW public school

system, because of superannuation, compared to teachers under 35 years old. It is possible,

however, that resignation rates may increase in the future, as these teachers with a more

flexible superannuation scheme get older.

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3.4.3 Redundancy MCEETYA (2001) found that redundancy had played only a small part in teacher

separations in recent years and then only in some states.

3.4.4 Contract Expired (and Not Renewed)

MCEETYA (2001) reported that contract teachers comprise a significant part of the

teaching workforce in some states, like Victoria and Western Australia, where contract

teaching has been an established institutional arrangement especially for new teachers. In

these instances, contract teachers were used both to fill in for teachers going on leave and to

occupy an ongoing position. However, in most states, including NSW, only teachers going

on leave are backfilled from the casual teaching labour force. These casual teachers may be

employed on contract for the period of the break or, most often, as a casual for the entire

period. In NSW high schools there is greater use of ongoing contracts for reasons other

than casual vacancies for teachers in independent schools, than for public or Catholic

systemic schools.

3.4.5 Going on Extended Leave of at Least One Term Duration Leave is provided to teachers for a variety of purposes. In NSW high schools the main

types of leave are in the categories of long service, family, sickness, carers, study, and

maternity leave. The types of leave and their availability vary from system to system. One

important reason for taking leave among the female teaching workforce is to look after

children while they are still young and not at school. While the statutory entitlement for

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maternity leave is one year in NSW, teachers may leave teaching, often for periods ranging

from five to seven years, to have and look after children, with the intention of returning to

teaching. While there was no available data for NSW schools, Queensland provided

MCEETYA (2001) data that showed that maternity leave accounted for around 40 percent

of extended leave taking in recent years.

It was reported to MCEETYA (2001) that during 1999, 8.3 percent of the permanent

workforce in the government secondary sector took leave lasting at least one term. This

was considerably higher than the exit rate due to retirements, resignations, and other non-

leave related separations. Leave for a year or more has often represented the bulk (half or

more) of total gross separations.

3.4.6 Other The other category includes deaths, retrenchments, dismissals, and net transfers to the

Public Service. Teachers in Catholic schools may also be recruited to work as

administrators and advisers in the Catholic Education Offices. A relatively small number

of teachers move back and forth between administration and teaching in each of the

systems. The total of the ‘other’ category is not a significant proportion of separations.

The most relevant measure of the demand for additional teachers in a particular year is the

net separation rate. The net separation rate is the difference between the numbers leaving

the teaching force minus the numbers returning or re-entering the teaching force as a

percentage of the total teacher work force. There are no exact figures on net separation rates

89

only estimates and projections. Even in the government high school sector, where there is

some data available, this only produces an estimate of net separations for government high

schools. Some teachers who have left the public school system could have entered the non-

government school sector and visa versa. As a result you cannot calculate the total number

of teacher separations by just adding up the separations for each of the three school

systems, as there would be some double counting.

The findings of the DETYA 2000 survey suggest that typically in the government sector

around eight percent of teachers go on leave each year. However, while some teachers go

on leave others return. It can be expected that some teachers going on leave will resign

while they are on leave, so that there will be a net loss of teachers through this process.

Data from the states and territories indicates that separations arising from (net) leave

movements have been in the vicinity of two percent a year.

Resignation rates fluctuate over the business cycle and across states, with the rate being

somewhere between two and four percent a year. A commonly accepted average

resignation rate in high schools throughout Australia is just over two percent a year. In the

1990s retirements are estimated to be have been just below one percent a year and reached

one percent in 1999. Results from the DETYA 2000 survey and other analyses (NSW

Department of Education and Training 2002, Preston 2000) suggest retirements are likely

to rise in the future as baby boomers start to retire. This data suggests that exits from

teaching through leave, retirements and resignations can amount to typically between eight

and eleven percent a year within the government school system. When teachers returning

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from leave are taken into account, however, the estimate for net separations from the

government school system falls to typically around five to seven percent a year.

The Catholic Education Commission in NSW does not collect data on new entrants or exits

from their teacher work force. However, there has been an increasing number of first year

teachers employed by the system. First year teachers have risen from 3.1 percent of the

Catholic high school teachers in NSW in 1994 to 4.4 percent in 2001. The Catholic

Education Commission in NSW ceased to collect this data after this time “partly because of

changes to the privacy legislation and partly because the data was unreliable.” (McKinnon

2003) These figures cannot be interpreted as the net separation rate as it forms only part of

this rate, but it shows a trend of an increase in demand for new teachers in Catholic high

schools. There is no available data from the remainder of the non-government school

sector in NSW. Preston (2000) has estimated the net separation rate in NSW high schools

overall to be approximately 3.3 percent in 2000, but rising by 0.2 percentage points a year

after that, at least till 2005, largely due to increasing age retirements.

3.5 Conclusion While the overall demand for teachers is fairly predictable and consistent, the level of new

teachers required each year is not. The demand for teachers is related to the cumulative

demand of the three school systems that operate in NSW. Making accurate predictions or

projections of the demand for teachers is not possible without this cumulative result. The

DET does have information on a wide variety of teacher separation factors that influence

replacement demand but the same cannot be said for the non-government sector. This lack

91

of information makes the projections largely unreliable as teachers can move back and forth

within the three systems over time. There needs to be a central registry of data for all

schools in NSW that will include teacher numbers dealing with various aspects of net

teacher separations, including age, resignations, and leave. This will allow the Government

and other education providers to develop policies that may ensure that the quantity supplied

of available teachers will be suitable to the quantity demanded.

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Chapter 4. The Supply of High School Teachers in New South Wales

Most of the annual requirement for teachers in NSW high schools is supplied from

previously employed teachers who return at the start of each year. The analysis in this

chapter examines the sources of additional (or new) teachers to cover separations and any

net increase in demand for teachers.

4.1 The Factors Influencing the Overall Supply of Teachers in NSW High Schools

The principal sources for additional teachers in NSW high schools are:

• new graduates;

• teachers returning from leave;

• former teachers returning to teaching;

• the pool of trained teachers who are not employed full-time as teachers; and

• teachers who have moved into NSW from another state or from overseas.

It should be noted that this supply of teachers is generally available for employment in both

the government and non-government sectors.

4.1.1 New Graduates

Until recently there have been two main sources of new graduate teachers. First, there was

a four year undergraduate degree in initial teacher training such as a Bachelor of Education

or a combined Bachelor of Teaching or Education with another degree. The second was a

one or two year graduate diploma in teaching (generally called a Graduate Diploma of

Education), following completion of an undergraduate degree in an area without teaching

93

or education qualifications, such as Science, Economics, or Arts. An additional source of

trained teachers in particular subject areas in NSW high schools involves the Accelerated

Teacher Training Program. Skilled workers from industry28 are supported by the NSW

Department of Education and Training (DET) to help them obtain teacher qualifications in

Mathematics, Science and Technology and Applied Studies (TAS), through an 18-month

university Accelerated Teacher Training Program, which recognises work skills and

industry experience. The program pays for tuition and course administration costs,

provides a $1500 training allowance and guaranteed employment as a teacher at NSW

public schools in non-coastal areas and Sydney's west and south-west. In 2002, 147

training places were offered to applicants in the following teacher training areas: Industrial

Arts (66), Computing (26), Mathematics (23), Food Technology (15), Physics (9) and

Agriculture (8) (NSW Department of Education and Training 2002).

According to the NSW Education Minister John Watkins’ media release, (NSW

Department of Education and Training 2002) the people being fast-tracked as teachers

include:

• A senior IT manager, who wants a more fulfilling job, will teach Physics.

• A motor mechanic, with extensive involvement in community projects, will become

an Industrial Arts teacher.

28 Admission to the program is based on the assessment of qualifications and industry experience. TAS applicants require a minimum trade certificate III (or equivalent), an indentured trade, evidence of ongoing study and 3-5 years related industry experience. The prior learning for Mathematics and Science would be in the form of a TAFE diploma or part degree and professional experience and/or a degree in a related field. Entry requirements must be equivalent to at least two years Recognised Prior Learning (RPL) (NSW Department of Education and Training 2002).

94

• A catering manager for a very large organisation will retrain to teach Food

Technology.

• An industrial chemist and engineering manager will be trained to teach Physics.

The NSW DET also has a number of retraining strategies to secure ‘experienced and

qualified’ teachers to work in areas of NSW with a staffing need in specialist teaching

areas. The priorities in 2002-03 were for retraining in the curriculum areas of TAS,

Mathematics, and Science, especially Physics (NSW Department of Education and Training

2002). While this retaining does not change the total supply of teachers it does increase the

number of ‘new’ teachers in a particular subject area. This ‘fast track’ training of teachers

raises the issue of teacher quality which will be discussed later in this chapter.

The Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) (2003)

reported that while the overall number of people graduating from universities in Australia

increased over the decade to 2001, the number of people completing a university

qualification in the field of teacher education decreased by 13 percent to 19,400 in 2001.

Three-quarters of the students who completed university courses in 2001 in the field of

teacher education were women. Similar patterns occur in the number of people

commencing and continuing study in teacher education courses. In 2002, there were

72,400 people studying a university course in the field of teacher education, including

30,900 people who commenced in 2002. Almost three-quarters of these students were

women. From 1983 to 2000 the proportion of higher education students studying

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Education declined from 21.3 percent to 10.6 percent. Across Australia the actual number

of Education students fell from 74,314 in 1983 to 73,680 in 2000. While the number of

female students studying Education increased over the period by 13.8 percent, the number

of male students declined by 28.8 percent (DEST 2003).

In New South Wales, 12 institutions - 11 universities and the Seventh Day Adventist

Avondale College, provide teacher education. The total numbers of secondary teacher

training commencements and completions, covering undergraduate courses and graduate

diploma courses (referred to as postgraduate courses hereafter) have fluctuated

considerably in NSW. This is shown in Figure 4.1 for the period 1988 to 1999 (DETYA

2000).

Total commencements fell from 1989 to 1992 but have been rising steadily since then so

that towards the end of the 1990s they were slightly above the levels at the beginning of the

decade. This is reflected, with a lag, in the rising levels of completions since around 1992.

The exact time of the lag varies with the level of teacher training. For undergraduates it is

at least four years and for postgraduates generally one year. The ratio of secondary trainee

teacher commencements to completions in NSW averaged 71.7 percent over the period.

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Figure 4.1: Total commencements of and completions from secondary teacher

training courses in New South Wales, 1988 to 1999

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Years

Num

bers

CommencementsCompletions

Source: DETYA 2000

Another important trend has been the increase in the number of commencing postgraduate

students in secondary teaching courses in NSW and the decline in undergraduate

commencing students, as shown in Figure 4.2. From a low of 5.7 percent of the total

secondary trainee teacher commencements in 1990, postgraduate commencements rose to

overtake undergraduate commencements in 1998, comprising 50.4% of total

commencements. This trend makes projections of the number of teacher completions over

a period of two to four years more unreliable because of the shorter training lag for

postgraduates.

As can be seen from Figure 4.1 the total number of secondary trainee teacher

commencements is not as volatile as the individual components shown in Figure 4.2.

97

Whether this is just a change of student preferences to a broader degree followed by

postgraduate Education qualification, instead of just a specialist Education qualification, or

greater volatility in both groups is unclear. If the result were independent of a change of

preferences, then projections of the number of secondary trainee teacher commencements

and completions would be more difficult to make. DETYA (2000) projections for 1999-

2003 show that completions may vary from year to year for secondary teachers in NSW by

up to 180 teachers or over 14 percent during the period, as shown in Table 4.1.

Figure 4.2: Commencements of postgraduate and undergraduate secondary teacher

training courses in NSW, 1989 to 1999

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Years

Num

bers

UndergraduatePostgraduate

Source: DETYA 2000

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Table 4.1 Projections of Total Completions from Secondary Teacher Training

Courses in NSW, 1999 to 2003

Year Projection of completions 1999 1409 2000 1361 2001 1492 2002 1372 2003 1552

Source: DETYA 2000 It is important to note that not all graduating Education students become teachers, so the

actual numbers who are available to work as teachers are lower than the completion

numbers. Data from the Graduate Destination Survey conducted by the Graduate Careers

Council of Australia (GCCA) indicates that most but not all teaching graduates go into the

labour market immediately after graduating. The 2002 study (Graduate Careers Council of

Australia 2002) based on students who graduated in 2001, showed that 83.3 percent of

Education graduates with an initial bachelors degree (available for full-time employment)

and 86.7 percent with postgraduate Education qualifications were in full-time employment,

across Australia. The remaining 16.7 percent of Education graduates with an initial

bachelors degree and 13.3 percent with postgraduate Education qualifications, who were

seeking full-time employment, were working part-time or casual or unemployed. Of the

Graduate Survey respondents 8.5 percent of Education graduates with an initial bachelors

degree and 4.7 percent with postgraduate Education qualifications were not seeking full-

time employment but were undertaking further study. This effectively delays their entry

into the labour market, some by a year and others (e.g. Masters and PhD students) for

longer. Only 2.9 percent of Education graduates with an initial bachelors degree and 5.0

99

percent with postgraduate Education qualifications were seeking full-time employment and

not working. The Graduate Survey data for NSW shows that 82.2 percent of graduates

with an initial bachelors degree in Education and 84.5 percent with postgraduate Education

qualifications, seeking full-time employment, were in full-time employment. The

remaining 17.8 percent of Education graduates with an initial bachelors degree and 15.5

percent with postgraduate Education qualifications, who were seeking full-time

employment, were working part-time or casual or unemployed. Of the Graduate Survey

respondents from NSW 11.0 percent of Education graduates with an initial bachelors

degree and 4.4 percent with postgraduate Education qualifications were not seeking full-

time employment but were undertaking further study. The Graduate Destination Survey

gathers information about the job obtained and reported that across Australia around 85.7

percent of all Education graduates from 2001, in full-time employment, had obtained a job

in teaching. The remainder took up positions in government and the private sector, with the

most popular choice being management and administration with 3.4 percent.

As a result, there are a percentage of Education graduates who do not enter teaching but

find careers in other fields or carry out further study. This contributes to the difficulty of

projecting the number of new Education graduates who will enter the teaching workforce.

In addition the entry of new graduates into teaching does not provide any guarantee of

continuity in this career. This issue will be discussed later in this chapter.

100

4.1.2 Teachers Returning from Leave

The number of teachers going on leave (discussed in Chapter 3) is a factor that influences

the replacement demand for teachers. Their counterparts are teachers who return to the

classroom as permanent, full or part-time teachers after a period of extended leave. This

influences the available supply of teachers. Teachers returning from leave are an important

source of new teachers in the annual intake in all states in Australia. Data provided by the

education authorities throughout Australia to MCEETYA (2001) indicates that around six

percent of the government permanent teacher workforce in 1999 was made up of teachers

returning from leave. The percentages were more or less the same in both the primary and

secondary sectors. In any one year, the number of teachers returning from leave may

exceed or be less than those going on leave. However, over a longer period, it can be

expected that the number of teachers who return is less than the number of teachers who

leave as some teachers resign while on leave. Longer-term data is not available but data

from 1999 from five states and territories29, which were able to provide information on a

consistent basis, indicate that teachers going on leave exceeded those returning. In 1999

almost 25 percent of high school teachers going on leave for one term or more did not

return to teaching at the end of the leave period.

One of the states that was not able to provide data that satisfied the methodological

approach applied by DETYA was NSW. From the NSW data that was available the

29 The states and territories were Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory.

101

difference expressed as a percentage of the permanent teaching workforce was around two

percentage points.

In addition to the limitations of suitable data, the number of teachers going on leave and

returning to teaching from leave is likely to vary over time. This also makes it difficult to

develop accurate long run projections of the teacher labour supply.

4.1.3 Former Teachers Returning to Teaching

A second and related group is those teachers who resign and leave teaching altogether, but

after a period of time return to teaching. Some of these teachers may have resigned from

teaching only because they were unable to secure leave of absence long enough for their

needs. To the extent that these teachers intended from the start to return to teaching, they

are akin to those teachers who go on extended leave. Others, however, would have left

with no clear intention of returning to teaching. They may have found that they could not

find other employment or their circumstances have changed. On returning to teaching,

these former teachers re-enter the classroom directly from outside teaching or via the relief

and casual teacher arrangements. Again there is no reliable data on this category of supply.

It is likely though that changes in employment condition may affect the number of people

returning to teaching. Cyclical downturns would tend to increase the number of returns

while a high level of alternative job opportunities may reduce the number. The number of

teaching jobs available and/or changes in conditions of employment could also influence

the likelihood of former teachers returning to the teaching workforce. An oversupply of

102

existing teachers would tend to discourage teachers returning, while improved conditions of

employment could act as an incentive to return to the teaching workforce.

4.1.4 The Pool of Trained Teachers who are not Employed Full-time as Teachers

The high school teacher pool in NSW refers to individuals who are qualified to teach in

NSW high schools that are not currently employed as teachers but are available for

employment in such positions. The pool consists broadly of three groups:

• qualified teachers on waiting lists for casual, part-time and/or full-time

employment;

• relief and casual teachers, who may be available for full-time or additional casual or

part-time employment; and

• contract teachers on less than their desired annual hours of work.

It may also be possible that there are a number of former teachers not currently actively

involved in teaching who may be encouraged to return to teaching, if a suitable position

became available.

New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia are the only states

with a recording system whereby people with teaching qualifications, who are not

employed as teachers, can indicate their interest in teaching and be placed on an

employment list for permanent positions in teaching. In March 2000 there were over

18,000 seeking employment as teachers in New South Wales government schools, which

103

represents over 35 per cent of the permanent teaching workforce (DETYA 2000). While

this may appear to be a substantial and significant reserve of teachers on which to draw, not

all those listed as seeking employment are available to teach in all areas of the State, or

qualified to teach in subjects where there are shortages of teachers. There is also a number

who are employed in Catholic and independent schools and still on the list for government

schools. Others may have full-time employment in non-teaching areas and if they were

offered employment, as teachers, may not accept it. There is considerable evidence that the

number of available teachers, especially in secondary schools in NSW, is much smaller

than on the Departmental list. As early as 1999 the Australia Secondary Principals

Association (ASPA) (Australian Secondary Principals' Association 1999) claimed that the

data was invariably dated, inaccurate and thus unreliable and that there were critical

curriculum areas not even represented. For schools in some hard to staff areas there were

no teachers willing or able to be appointed. In key curriculum areas teachers were

increasingly hard to find, e.g. Mathematics, Technology, Languages other than English

(LOTE), Home Economics, Senior Schooling/Vocational Education and Training (VET),

Music, Teacher Librarians. Replacement teachers that were provided frequently did not

match the vacancies that they were expected to fill. A similar problem existed in the

Catholic system by 2001. Brother Kelvin Canavan (Baird 2001), executive director of

schools for the Archdiocese of Sydney, was reported as saying that a survey of more than

40 Catholic secondary schools in the metropolitan area of Sydney revealed that there were

17 permanent teaching positions still unfilled at the beginning of term two, 2001. In some

instances there were no applicants for the positions. The greatest difficulty was finding

teachers in Mathematics, the Sciences, Computing, Design and Technology, senior English

104

and some languages. The situation was even more severe in regional NSW. The Catholic

year 7-10 school at Glen Innis was forced to close because after advertising in NSW and

Queensland, as well as on the internet, they could not find sufficient staff.

Apart from those on lists for employment as permanent teachers another source of teacher

supply is the pool of relief and casual teachers. Every state and territory has a system of

relief and casual teachers, some of whom are only available for relief work, but others are

available for permanent and/or contract positions. According to the Premier of NSW

(Totaro 2003), Bob Carr, there are 30,000 casual teachers on the Department of Education’s

lists. Yet despite this there was a shortage of casual and relief teachers in government

schools in NSW. The Premier said “unfortunately some principals have had to make up to

60 phone calls, taking several hours, to get a casual teacher”(Totaro 2003).

The lists of number of available teachers in the teaching pool appear to over estimate the

real number of individuals who are willing to work as teachers in NSW. This is especially

the case for locations and subjects with the most need for teachers.

There are an additional two groups that could be added to the supply of teachers and

teachers’ time. These groups include:

• trained teachers who are not actively seeking employment but would be available

to take up teaching if a suitable job were offered to them; and

• trained high school teachers working in other occupations.

105

In 2000 the percentage of Education graduates unemployed was 1.7% (Australian Bureau

of Statistics 2001). This is a relatively small proportion and most of these would be picked

up in the employment lists mentioned above. There is, however, a relatively high number

of Education qualified persons not working as teachers. In 2000, only 48 percent of

Education graduates were working as school teachers and a further six percent were

employed in an associate occupation (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001). Some of these

graduates were working in teacher-related positions within education organisations, such as

the Board of Studies, the Department of Education and Training and the Catholic schools

offices. Other Education graduates left their employment in high schools and were now

teaching in TAFE and in universities. The ABS report on Australian Social Trends (2001)

states that 28.3 percent of Education graduates were working in occupations that were not

associated with teaching, while a further 16 percent of Education graduates, in the age

range 15-64 years, were not in the labour force at all30. The fact that the proportion of

Education graduates not working as teachers is large suggests that, in principle at least,

there may be some scope for attracting back into teaching some of these former teachers.

As suggested by evidence from the United Kingdom and New Zealand, Straker (1991)

noted that in the United Kingdom it was estimated that “the pool of qualified teachers under

the age of 60 which is currently inactive exceeds the number of teachers who are currently

in teaching posts”. Straker pointed out that in 1989 almost 60 per cent of new

appointments were teachers returning to the profession and that this pool remained a

valuable source of recruitment, provided that updating of skills and knowledge of curricula

could be achieved.

30 This would partly reflect the relatively high proportion of women as school teachers and their family commitments.

106

As shown on the previous page, 52% of individuals with training as school teachers in

Australia do not work as school teachers. There is therefore scope to increase the supply of

teachers by developing policies to attract at least some of this group back into teaching.

4.1.5 Teachers who have Moved into NSW from another State or from Overseas

Interstate movements can be an important source of flexibility in the teacher labour

markets, with surplus teachers from one state or territory helping to overcome shortages in

other areas. MCEETYA (2001) reported that research from the Graduate Destination

Survey of graduates from 1998 showed that around 8.4 per cent of graduates in Australia,

who found employment soon after graduation, moved from the state or territory where they

obtained their qualification. The proportion varied from almost two thirds in the Australian

Capital Territory to less than three per cent in Queensland. In the case of New South

Wales, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, during 1999 a greater number

of new teaching graduates left the State/Territory to take up a teaching position than came

into the State/Territory. Most of the New South Wales graduates, who leave the State, go

to Queensland, while most of the ACT graduates, who leave the Territory, go to New South

Wales. Only 34.8 percent of ACT new graduates teach in the Territory and 46.7 percent of

new graduate teachers come from other states and territories. For NSW, 11.8 percent of the

State’s new teacher graduates teach outside of NSW, while the inflow is only 5.3 percent

from other states and territories.

107

It is important to note that these results relate only to the movement of new teaching

graduates. Graduates of previous years and currently employed teachers are not included in

the Graduate Destination Survey. In the case of New South Wales a number of interstate

teachers and interstate teaching graduates of previous years apply for employment with the

Department of Education and Training each year. Once graduates obtain a job, their

mobility declines. Data from the 1996 census, for instance, show that over a five-year

period three to four per cent of all employed teachers moved interstate, but this varied from

one state and territory to another. In the case of New South Wales, 2.6 percent of the high

school teachers came from interstate and 2.5 percent moved interstate, leading to a net gain

of 0.1 percentage points. So overall interstate movements of practicing teachers have a

minimal effect on the supply of high school teachers in NSW.

This absence of any substantial net movement in teachers shows that current wage

differentials between the states and territories does not appear to be a major contributing

factor in teacher movements, although it may have some affect on commencing teachers.

Table 3.1 showed the annual wage levels of initial Education graduates and employment

levels in the states and territories of Australia. In Victoria and the Northern Territory the

local graduates have the highest median salaries, each at $39,000 and full-time employment

rates of 90.0 and 90.9 percent respectively. Despite this, in the five years from 1991 to

1996 Victoria was a net exporter of teachers with a net loss of 1.8 percent of its teachers to

other states and territories (MCEETYA 2001). Tasmania and South Australia have only

slightly lower median annual salaries, $400, and $800 respectively but considerably lower

108

levels of graduate employment, 70.6, and 74.9 percent. This suggests a lack of interstate

mobility even for initial Education graduates.

Data from Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (DIMA) (2001), as shown

in Figure 4.3, indicate that, at least in recent years, Australia has been a net gainer of

teachers through the migration process31. However, the net gain has slowed in recent years

and there was a small loss in 1998-99.

Figure 4.3: Annual net migration flow of school teachers in Australia from 1995-96 to

1999-2000

-500

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000

Years

Num

bers

Source: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2001

31 Three broad categories of movers are distinguished by DIMA as; those arriving as permanent residents or settlers, net residents and net visitors. Settlers or permanent residents include all those who initially arrive in Australia holding permanent resident visas. They also include New Zealanders where such persons indicate that their stay in Australia is permanent. Once in Australia, however, settlers are regarded for the purposes of this study as part of the overall stock of residents. The second category, net residents, refers to the difference between the number of permanent residents leaving Australia who say that their departure is permanent or long-term and the number who return after a long-term stay overseas. The third category, net visitors, refers to the difference between the number of those who arrive in Australia with a visa allowing them to work, who indicate that their stay is to be for a year or more, and those who leave Australia after a long-term stay of a year or more.

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Most of the inflow/outflow is associated with Australian residents leaving to go overseas or

returning, the net resident category (see Figure 4.4). The largest net loss of residents

occurred to the UK. This could be explained by a desire of teachers to combine work with

travel. DIMA data suggest that each year around 4000-4600 teachers leave Australia, at

least for a short period of time, to teach overseas with this number increasing in recent

years. Preston (2000), for example, has estimated that around 2000 teachers have been

recruited, while still in Australia, by recruitment agencies for the year 2000-01 northern

hemisphere school year. As a result of this increasing trend in residents leaving for periods

overseas, the previous balance between resident teachers leaving and those returning has

shifted from a net gain of 36 in 1995-96 to a net loss of 1,863 in 1999-2000, as shown in

Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Annual net residents flow of school teachers in Australia from 1995-96 to

1999-2000

-3000-2500-2000-1500-1000

-5000

500

1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000

Years

Num

bers

Source: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2001

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As a result of the rise in the number of Australian residents leaving to teach overseas, the

positive effect of migration on the teacher labour supply has declined from approximately

1800 extra teachers in 1995-96 to only 800 in 1999-2000. It should also be noted that not

all teachers with overseas qualifications settling in Australia will actually teach in

Australian schools. The various state, territory, and non-government education authorities

may not accept their qualifications, or they may seek other careers once they have settled in

Australia.

4.2 Factors Influencing the Supply of Teachers in Specialisation Classifications

So far the supply of teachers in NSW high schools has been largely examined at an

aggregate level. It is also necessary to break down the aggregate and look at teacher

mobility both in terms of subject areas to be taught and the willingness of teachers to teach

in particular locations. In terms of the supply of teachers available to teach a specific

subject or specialisation, there are a number of issues to be considered. First, what are the

basic qualifications a teacher should have to teach a particular subject? What are the

desirable qualifications a teacher should have to teach that subject? For example, should a

teacher have a major in Physics to be able to teach it or is a first year qualification in

another area of Science an acceptable level? The issues of suitability of qualifications or

the quality of teachers are not always considered when considering the supply of teachers.

A lowering of qualifications or acceptable standards will usually lead to an increase in the

supply of labour. Research by the NCES32 (National Center for Education Statistics 2002),

in the USA, found a relatively high incidence of teachers teaching outside their areas of

32 See for example Bobbitt 1994, Ingersoll 1999, and Neuschatz and McFarling 1999.

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subject matter training and certification, referred to as ‘out-of-field’ teaching. While there

is no specific data available on this for NSW high schools, the DET, the Catholic Schools

Commission, and independent school principals have all expressed concern about the

difficulty of finding teachers in particular fields of study. As early as 2000 the NSW DET

had reported to Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs

(MCEETYA 2001) that shortages had been experienced in Technological and Applied

Studies (which includes Computing), Mathematics, and Science. The NSW DET also

reported that an oversupply existed for recent graduates in some subject areas, especially

Creative and Performing Arts, Personal Development, Health, and Physical Education. The

Catholic Education Commission and regional Catholic Education Offices reported

shortages to MCEETYA in Science, Mathematics, Technological and Applied Studies, and

Computing. According to McMullen (2002), Head of Secondary Curriculum, Sydney

Catholic Education Office, apart from these subjects principals are increasingly reporting

difficulties finding quality teachers for English, the Humanities, and Languages. He also

expressed concern about the future of Vocational Education and Training (VET) subjects as

they were limited by ... “schools’ abilities to find teachers qualified according to the

increasingly stringent guidelines, especially in courses that are technology based.” The

National and State Skill Shortage Lists Australia – 2003 (DEWR 2003) reported a state-

wide shortage in NSW of teachers in the following teaching areas:

• Manual Arts/Tech Studies;

• Maths;

• Physics/Chemistry; and

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• General Science.

In most cases classes in these teaching areas, which are not taken by specialists in the field,

would be taken by ‘out-of-field’ teachers. In a worse case scenario as reported in the

Vinson Report on Public Education in NSW (2002: xii), students would be instructed to ...

“go to the front lawn,” and grouped with other students for minding rather than formally

being taught.

The issue of teachers having few or no qualifications in subjects that they are teaching is

quite important. There is considerable evidence that teachers' knowledge and ability are

associated with student learning in the classroom. A 1992 study in the USA (Hanushek,

Gomes-Neto, and Harbison, as cited in Monk 1994) used measures of teachers' subject

matter knowledge and student learning gains, and found a positive relationship between

how much teachers knew about the subject taught and their students' learning gains in that

subject. In a 1994 analysis of student performance and the Science and Mathematics

subject matter preparation of their teachers, Monk reported a positive relationship between

student gains in performance and the number of courses their teachers had taken in the

subject taught. Other research in the USA by Goldhaber and Brewer (1997) that analysed

the quality of teachers' postsecondary degrees and students' Mathematics performance

found a positive relationship between these variables, with higher levels of performance

among students whose teachers held a bachelors or masters degree in Mathematics than

among students whose teachers were out-of-field. In 2000, Goldhaber and Brewer

examined data on the postsecondary degrees and certification status of teachers and their

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students' performance in Mathematics and Science. They observed a positive relationship

between teachers' degrees and student performance in Mathematics consistent with earlier

findings. They also found that students whose teachers were certified in Mathematics but

did not hold a postsecondary degree in Mathematics did not perform as well as students

whose teachers held a postsecondary degree in Mathematics.

While a partly trained Mathematics teacher might be better than no Mathematics teacher at

all, these results call into question the ‘quick fix’ policy of the accelerated teacher training

program33. The program may provide more teachers in the areas of shortage but the

qualifications of the teachers may be lower and thus a lower level of student achievement

could result.

4.3 Factors Influencing Supply by Geographic Location

Geographical mobility is the second issue relating to teacher supply. Positions in some

school locations are more difficult to fill than others. In NSW high schools, the main

concerns relate to rural and remote schools and schools in particular areas of the Sydney

metropolitan region. According to Bladen (2001), A/Director of Training and

Development, the NSW DET Mathematics, and Science Retaining Programs were set up

with the “aim to recruit and retrain teachers in the area of secondary Mathematics and

secondary Science to address a shortfall particularly in the southwestern and western areas

of Sydney and non-coastal NSW”. The NSW DET also recognises the problem of finding

33Skilled workers from industry are supported to help them obtain teacher qualifications in Mathematics, Science and TAS, through an 18-month university Accelerated Teacher Training Program, which recognises work skills and industry experience.

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staff in particular remote or climatically undesirable areas by paying an allowance to attract

teachers to these areas. According to the Crown Employees Award for teachers, any

teacher that is appointed to a school or campus located in the “Western Division of New

South Wales upon or to the west of a line starting from a point on the right bank of the

Murray River opposite Swan Hill (Victoria), and thence by straight lines passing through

the following towns or localities in the order stated, viz., Conargo, Coleambally, Hay,

Rankins Springs, Marsden, Condobolin, Peak Hill, Nevertire, Gulargambone,

Coonabarabran, Wee Waa, Moree, Warialda, Ashford and Bonshaw” (Industrial Relations

Commission of NSW 2000), can be paid allowances of over $5000 per annum depending

on their personal circumstances34 and location of the school. In addition a teacher

appointed to a school or campus “within a zone of New South Wales established by the 0

Degrees Celsius July Average Minimum Temperature Isotherm as contained in the

Climatic Atlas of Australia, June 1974 as amended, and published by the Bureau of

Meteorology” (Industrial Relations Commission of NSW 2000), can also be paid

allowances of over $5000 per annum depending on their personal circumstances. For

example ABS census data (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003c) shows that the median

wage for high school teachers in a number of locations in these regions, including, Blayney,

Boorowa, and Jerilderie, is in excess of $1200 per week, compared to $1000 in Sydney.

Despite these benefits teacher shortages still exist in these regions. According to the

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) (2000) there are difficulties

in staffing rural and remote schools in all states and territories in Australia and that these

schools also have a higher staff turnover rate than metropolitan schools. In addition

34 A teacher with a dependent partner is currently paid $150 (01-01-2003) per annum in addition to the basic allowance compared to a teacher without a dependent partner. There is also additional funding for dependent children.

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HREOC considers that staff retention rates might be an important determinant of the

quality of the education being delivered to rural and remote children. HREOC reported that

recruitment and retention difficulties meant that a disproportionate number of country

teachers are inexperienced and English as a Second Language (ESL), Mathematics, Science

and Information Technology (IT) staffs, in particular, are in short supply. In one

submission from Trangie Central School in NSW to the HREOC, it was stated:

Small rural schools have always had a problem with finding then keeping

specialist staff. A looming teacher shortage will exacerbate the problem;

however, a lack of Maths, Science, and Information Technology teachers has had

an impact in our area already. Consequently in all rural schools you have staff

teaching out of their faculty areas. This cannot be for the overall good of the

student.

Throughout Australia school student retention and completion rates are lower in rural and

remote schools compared to metropolitan schools. Table 4.2 indicates the lower levels of

retention for rural and remote students and, within these groups, the lower levels of

completions for boys compared to girls.

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Table 4.2 Year 12 Completion Rates by Locality and Gender, Australia, 1994-1998 (%)

Year Urban Rural Remote

Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total 1994 66 76 71 57 71 64 51 65 58 1995 64 75 69 54 70 62 46 59 52 1996 62 72 67 55 72 63 46 65 55 1997 61 71 66 54 70 62 43 62 51 1998 62 73 67 55 71 63 48 61 54 Source: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 2000: 8 Table 4.2 also shows a decline in all three regional classifications35 in school completion

rates over the period. The decline in completion rates has been greatest in the remote areas

as a percentage of completing students but has not been as large in rural schools in

comparison to remote or urban schools.

In NSW 34.6 percent of students attend rural and remote schools. School retention rates in

these regions are overall lower than the State average. Some of these rural and isolated

schools receive special assistance from the Commonwealth Government to improve the

teaching situation in those schools. The Country Areas Program (CAP) is a

Commonwealth funded program targeting small and isolated schools. Commonwealth

program guidelines prescribe the eligibility criteria that relate to population and distance

from major centers. In NSW in 1997 there were 2,594 students attending non-government

schools and 26,975 attending government schools under the CAP program. The year 7-10

apparent retention rate was 80.2 percent; 14.4 percentage points below the NSW State

average. The year 7-12 apparent retention rate was 43.7 percent; 19.2 percentage points

35 The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission define rural and remote school locations by using the data and references from the various State and Territory Department of Educations’ Country Areas Program indices.

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below the NSW State average (Council on the Cost and Quality of Government 1998).

These figures may over estimate the difference between the rural, remote, and metropolitan

high schools in NSW. The Council on the Cost and Quality of Government (1998) pointed

out that there is a substantial net movement of students from CAP schools to other

government or non-government high schools. Even for those CAP schools offering senior

enrolment, many students chose to move to other government or non-government high

schools for senior years to take advantage of the broader curriculum offered at larger

schools. Thus the comparison with State rates shows a large negative difference that does

not necessarily mean the students have left schooling.

The performance of CAP school students is also below the State average. In 1997, only 25

percent of CAP students achieved results in the top 30 percent of the State in English, along

with only 21 percent of CAP students achieving results in the top 30 percent of the State in

Advanced Mathematics (Council on the Cost and Quality of Government 1998).

Monitoring of these performances could be a useful way of examining the effectiveness of

policies to improve schooling in these rural and remote locations. The effect of changes in

funding, the use of the funding and variations in the number and qualifications of teachers

employed would all be important considerations to consider. This process is, however,

beyond the intended scope of this thesis but worthy of consideration in other research.

The problem of teacher shortages does not just relate to rural and remote areas of NSW.

The NSW State Government instigated the Casual Teacher Plan 2002 to combat a shortage

of casual teachers in NSW. The Government announced that they would not only have

priority targets in the rural areas of Broken Hill, Griffith, Dubbo, Deniliquin and Moree, but

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also in the Sydney metropolitan school districts of Blacktown, Fairfield, Granville,

Campbelltown, and Mount Druitt (NSW Department of Education and Training 2002).

In Blacktown Girls’ High School’s Submission to The Inquiry into The Provision of Public

Education in New South Wales it was pointed out that while there was a relatively stable

staff population for the school as a whole, there was high turnover in certain subject areas

and in particular in Mathematics and Computing. They considered that some consequences

of this high turnover were:

• student dissatisfaction (sick of changing teachers);

• overburden on Head Teachers (continuously inducting new teachers and very often

having to supervise several probationary teachers); and

• insufficient permanent experienced staff to do the needed faculty tasks such as program

development. This becomes critical in a time of major curriculum change as has been the

case with the new HSC and will continue with the review and implementation of Years 7-

10 syllabus documents (Vinson 2002).

The submission also claimed that many newly appointed teachers to the school,

particularly, but not exclusively, in Mathematics and Science were overseas-trained

teachers and that growing vacancies in the TAS area were being filled predominantly

through a DET retraining program. Their concerns about the overseas-trained teachers

related to:

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• Overseas trained and retrained teachers often being sent to the most difficult

locations, where they are most likely to encounter challenging educational

situations. Many of them are not sufficiently trained to deal with this.

• Classroom management was a ‘huge’ issue for overseas teachers who lacked the

necessary language skills. This created significant workload implications for those

in supervisory positions.

• Overseas teachers often found it difficult to adopt new teaching strategies, for

example, changing from teacher centred instruction to student centred learning.

• Students who have been in the class of a struggling overseas teacher were often

initially hostile towards other overseas-trained teachers. This hostility was often

also expressed by parents in the form of demands to have their child placed in

another class (Vinson 2002).

The submission also claimed that TAS vacancies were filled by teachers from primary and

other secondary backgrounds who were being given a ‘brief and very limited retraining

program’ and lacked the particular classroom and resource management skills required to

teach TAS subjects (Vinson 2002).

The Vinson Report36 (2002) found this to be a common problem facing schools in the

western suburbs of Sydney. Another school submitted the following:

36The Vinson Report’s official title is Report of the Independent Inquiry into Public Education in New South Wales. It should be noted that teachers from the Public Education Fund with a contribution from the Parents and Citizens Association funded the Inquiry. This may create an element of bias in the Inquiry’s approach and findings.

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Located in the far western suburbs of Sydney, our school has experienced

extraordinary changes in staffing over recent years. In a recent two-year

period over forty teachers (executive staff and classroom teachers) left the

school. This represents approximately 80% of the teaching staff. Forty-two

of the forty-six current members of the executive and teaching staff are in their

first appointment in those positions. In the past four years just one member of

the school's executive has remained at the school. Difficulties in attracting

staff to schools such as ours means that a significant proportion of the staff are

beginning teachers and teachers trained overseas, who are required to make a

quantum leap in adjusting to teaching in Sydney's western suburbs.

The schools that have the greatest difficulty in finding staff tend to be in the more socially

disadvantaged areas of Sydney. The Federal and State Governments have jointly

introduced the Priority Schools Funding Program (PSFP), which is designed to assist

school communities to improve the learning outcomes of students in schools with high

concentrations of students from low socio-economic status (SES) background. While the

extra funds available should provide a certain level of benefit, the extra funding does not

necessarily mean that the PSFP will attract the more qualified and experienced teachers to

these SES schools. The additional staffing allocation, which totals around 280 extra

teachers across the State, is generally used to reduce class sizes, assist with the appointment

of Support Teacher Learning Difficulties or to provide teacher release for team teaching

(Vinson 2002).

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4.4 The International Supply of Teachers The shortage of high school teachers facing NSW also faces Australia, as a whole, and is

part of a global problem. The National and State Skill Shortage Lists for Australia (2003)

show there is a nation wide shortage of high school teachers in:

• Manual Arts/Tech Studies;

• Maths;

• Physics/Chemistry; and

• General Science.

In addition there are shortages of high school teachers in other states in the areas of:

• Music;

• Languages;

• Home Economics;

• Information Technology;

• Senior English;

• Special Needs;

• Agricultural Science; and

• Physical Education.

An UNESCO-ILO study (2002) reported that the global teacher shortage was causing a

decline in the quality of education. The study found that the number of school-aged

children had outpaced the growth in the number of teachers worldwide in the 1990s,

packing classrooms in some developing countries with as many as 100 students per teacher.

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At the same time, the study revealed that declining working conditions and low relative

salaries in the industrialised nations had discouraging new recruits to the profession,

creating shortages and threatening to diminish the quality of education at a time when the

need for new knowledge and skills is growing dramatically. In addition teacher shortages

in wealthier countries such as the USA, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand are

causing a drain on the poorer countries as higher wages were attracting teachers to the

highest bidder. For example, in 2001 the Chicago school district, as part of its Global

Educators Outreach Program, hired 36 teachers from more than 20 countries, including

countries such as Kenya and Bangladesh (American Teacher 2001).

An OECD study of teacher supply and demand (Directorate for Education 2002) indicated

that these supply difficulties were increasing across most OECD countries and being

exacerbated in some cases by other factors, including, increases in the size of the school

student population. The OECD report notes, however, that despite widespread predictions

of teacher shortages, school systems and other employers of teachers were generally able to

fill teaching vacancies. The report indicates that the predicted shortages in the ‘quantity’ of

teachers supplied are most often overcome by reducing the ‘quality’ of teachers supplied.

In some OECD countries strategies to balance supply and demand do not always involve

efforts to increase supply. For example, in France and Holland supply difficulties were

being alleviated by increasing class sizes and reducing face-to-face teaching time. The

report concluded that regardless of whether unqualified or partially qualified teachers are

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employed, class sizes increased or teaching time reduced, the impact is the same, the

quality of teaching and hence the quality of student outcomes comes under pressure.

Across the majority of OECD countries including Australia, two predominant trends were

evident: the teaching workforce is becoming older and an increasingly higher percentage of

teachers are women. Table 4.3 shows the proportion of lower secondary teachers aged 50

or more years in selected countries and the proportion of women among lower secondary

teaching staff.

Table 4.3 Percentage of Lower Secondary Teaching Staff 50 Years and Over, and

Percentage of Women Among Lower Secondary Teaching Staff, 1992

and 1999

Age 50 years and over Percentage of women

Country 1992 1999 1992 1999

Austria 7 17 61 64

Finland 38 33 68 71

France 20 33 55 63

Italy 22 45 71 73

New Zealand 23 25 63 62

United Kingdom 17 22 50 55

United States 29 28(est.) 57 60

Source: OECD 2002

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This data indicates that the proportion of teachers over 50 years is not uniform across

countries but is overall on the rise. This raises the concern of a global shortage of teachers

occurring unless there are measures put in place to attract more individuals into the teacher

work force and to keep them there. These policy issues will be discussed in Chapters 8 of

this thesis. The data on gender balance in teaching shows a general trend of increasing

proportions of women among lower secondary teaching staff37. The data for Australia

shows similar trends. In 1982 there were 0.8 female high school teachers for every male

high school teacher. The ratio in 2002 was 1.2 females for every male high school teacher

(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003b). The ageing of the Australian teacher workforce is

reflected in the increase in the median age of teachers from 34 years in 1986 to 43 years in

2001. Over the same period the number of Australian teachers aged 45 and over increased

from 17 percent to 44 percent (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003b).

It is important to point out that the trend of increasing proportions of females in the

teaching profession in OECD countries has of itself no particular implications for the

quality of educational outcomes. There are, however, some important issues raised by this

trend. The first is the government and public concern of the largely unknown implications

of what is seen as an inadequate representation of male role models in the teaching service

for the socialisation of both boys and girls38. While this has largely involved concerns

relating to primary education in Australia, this could develop into a concern in secondary

schools if Australia follows the trend of countries such as Belgium (87.3 percent of females

37 The OECD data that is available shows that in most countries the percentage of women involved in upper secondary teaching is not as high as in lower secondary but is still in excess of 50 percent of the teaching staff (Directorate for Education 2002). 38 See House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Training 2002, Buckingham 2002, Wood 2002.

125

among lower secondary teaching staff) and Canada (81 percent) (Directorate for Education

2002).

The second is concern about the potential for reduced curricular and co-curricular offerings

where no male teachers are employed in a school. This is not just relating to activities that

require male supervision but may also relate to the availability of women, who have

responsibilities caring for their own children, for after school activities. In Australia male

teachers tend to work longer hours than female teachers. ABS 2001 census data stated that

in the week before census night 25 percent of male teachers reported working more than 50

hours, compared with 17 percent of female teachers (Australian Bureau of Statistics

2003b).

4.5 Projections of Teacher Supply in NSW

Projections are used widely in economic and social analysis to inform stakeholders of

future outcomes under certain conditions and explicit assumptions. Projections of teacher

supply are designed to inform stakeholders of what is likely to happen, ceteris paribus,

based on the assumptions underlying the projections. The projections are only as useful as

the data that the projections are based on and the accuracy of the assumptions. Actions that

stakeholders take in response to the projections may change the actual outcomes and as a

result bring into question the validity and accuracy of the original projections. This in itself

is not a bad thing, if it is correcting a problem that was suggested by the projections. It is a

good thing if the actual outcome differs from that projected because school authorities,

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universities or other stakeholders have taken action to prevent projected shortfalls or

surpluses of teachers in particular years, subjects or regions. Preston (2000) points out that

in recent years some universities, informed by past projections, have been able to adjust

intakes of students. This occurred in Tasmania as a result of changes in the school starting

age. There had been significant fluctuations in the demand for primary and secondary

teachers from year to year as the small cohort, resulting from a change in school starting

age, had moved through primary and then secondary school. The University of Tasmania

adjusted its intakes into primary and secondary initial teacher Education programs to

somewhat overcome the projected imbalances.

There have been a number of organisations and individuals who have made projections of

the teacher labour market in Australia and NSW. These projections will differ as they are

based on different sources of data and different assumptions. MCEETYA (2001) provided

projections for teacher requirements and the supply of teachers up to 2003, at the national

and state and territory level. The year 2003 was chosen as this was the last year for which

projections of graduations could be based on actual data that they had for commencements

in undergraduate courses. The analysis by MCEETYA included an assessment of whether

projected graduations are likely to lead to a tightening or loosening of the labour market for

teachers at the national level in the early 2000s, compared to that at the end of the 1990s.

The analysis then goes on to examine projections at the state and territory level and

concludes by discussing sources of flexibility on the demand and the supply side, which

assist in the adjustment of the teacher labour market within a jurisdiction and across

jurisdictions. Projections in this report are based on assumptions about key factors, which

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influence demand and supply. The projections for school enrolments are based on the ABS

population projections by age and assume that grade progression rates remain at the 1999

level. Teacher numbers are broadly based on projected enrolments (for the government and

non-government sectors, within the primary and secondary levels) divided by the most

recent student-teacher ratios, but education authorities have used additional information to

estimate teacher requirements within the government sector in their State or Territory

(MCEETYA 2001).

Projections for the number of teachers to be recruited to 2003, as discussed earlier in this

chapter, are made up of the need to satisfy the growth in requirements and the need to

replace teachers who leave teaching. MCEETYA estimates that the Australia wide annual

requirement for ‘new’ high school teachers will increase from 6000 in 2000 to 7100 in

2003. At the same time the annual requirement for primary school teachers will decline by

950. While there may be some scope for retraining some of any excess of primary school

teachers as secondary school teachers, not all primary teachers will be willing to teach in

high schools or undergo the extra training. The overall result of the projections suggests

that there will be a need for education authorities to encourage more individuals to train to

become teachers or to encourage former teachers to return to the teaching profession.

On the supply side, MCEETYA made their projections of completions from initial teacher

training courses based on information on commencements in these courses and applying an

expected completion rate. To project completions in the period to 2003, the following

assumptions were made for the different streams:

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Undergraduate completions:

• For the period to 2003, completions equal commencements four years earlier

multiplied by an average completion rate of 60 percent.

Post-graduate completions:

• For the period to 2000, completions equal commencements one year earlier

multiplied by an average completion rate of 85 percent.

For the period between 2001 and 2003, commencements in postgraduate teaching courses

have been assumed to run at a level equal to the average during the previous five years.

During that time postgraduate commencements were on a slightly upward trend. The

‘completion rates’ have been calculated by comparing commencements and completions,

suitably lagged, over the 1990s and averaged. The initial secondary teacher Education

graduates are projected to rise slightly over the period from 4360 graduates in 1999 to 4493

in 2003.

MCEETYA, taking into account the fact that less than half of government additional

teacher recruitments nationally was met by hiring new graduates, suggests that balance in

the teacher labour market could be maintained over the next few years with a flow of 8500

new graduates a year on average, across the primary and secondary sectors. MCEETYA

concludes that the number of graduates at the national level that are projected to be

available for teaching jobs in the next few years (starting at 8260 in 1999 and rising to 9770

in 2003) appears to be broadly in line with the requirements for a stable teacher labour

market at the national level. MCEETYA warned that in the period after 2003, however,

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with retirement pressures starting to emerge, overall replacement needs will rise and an

increase in graduate numbers will become necessary.

In NSW the projected number of high school teachers available was projected to remain

relatively constant over the period 1999-2003, at approximately 37,000 (MCEETYA 2001).

The initial secondary Education graduates in NSW are expected to increase by

approximately 10 percent from 1409 in 1999 to 1552 in 2003. While the number of

secondary Education graduates varies from year to year, the overall number of secondary

Education graduates over the period was projected to rise by 2.5 percent per annum.

There are a number of concerns about the accuracy of the projections and the conclusions

that have been made by MCEETYA. First the total number of high school teachers

employed in Australia was projected to be 109,000 in 2002 but the actual number in full-

time employment was 110,900 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003b). Thus the quantity

of teachers demanded by high school educational authorities and institutions was 1900

more than that projected, meaning any net positive outcome/surplus in the high school

teacher labour market would have been overestimated and implying future projections

could also under estimate the demand for teachers. The situation is relatively worse in

NSW. The total number of full-time high school teachers was projected by MCEETYA to

be 37,014 in 2002 but the actual number was 38,447 (Australian Bureau of Statistics

2003b), 3.9 percent higher than projected. The projections of high school teacher demand

in NSW were understated implying potentially larger shortages than projected. The

quantity of qualified high school teachers supplied could also be overstated, if the trend for

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teacher annual net resident migration flows continues in its negative direction, as discussed

earlier in this chapter.

On the supply side MCEETYA (2001) have used DETYA statistics on ‘initial teacher

Education’ to develop estimates of future supply. This is problematic for two reasons.

First, data on recent enrolments (commencements, completions) cannot take account of

future plans to change intakes or to change course length or structure in a way that will

change the number of graduates in particular years in the future. Second, Preston (2000)

considers that the data is generally of poor quality for such purposes. This is because of

ambiguities or misunderstandings in course nomenclature and classifications. For example,

in the DETYA collection many pre-service Diploma in Education courses are classified as

‘post-initial’, and many inservice fourth year Bachelor of Education courses are classified

as ‘initial’ teacher Education. Preston (2000) refers to one example of this occurring in the

MCEETYA report of 1998, the 1996 total secondary initial teacher education completions

in South Australia were reported at just 100 (fewer in the three preceding years), when the

actual number was over 250.

The most common projections referred to in the literature, and used by a number of

Catholic Education Offices in NSW and others, were those of Preston (2000) for the

Australian Council of Deans of Education. Preston points out that the teacher labour

market in Australia has some advantages over labour markets in general for making

projections. There is “relatively good data and reasonable assumptions possible for some

major inputs of a projections model (especially student enrolments, pupil teacher ratios, and

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graduate supply), and entry requirements (qualifications) are relatively clear-cut.” (Preston

2000) Despite this there are a number of problems involved in making accurate projections

of the teacher labour market in Australia. First there is a relatively high rate of separation

from the teacher labour force. ABS census data for 1996 showed that a little over 50

percent of people with Education qualifications were actually employed as teachers.

Second, the availability of alternative employment and the relative attractiveness of

teaching (about 30 percent of men and women with teaching qualifications are in

occupations other than teaching) fluctuate over time with economic and other

circumstances. Preston also concedes that future trends in separations are difficult to

project and current separation rates are difficult to measure. This is made more difficult by

the lack of data for the non-government sector and the limitations of the data for most

government education authorities (for example, those on casual or short term appointments

ceasing to be available are not accounted for, and extended leave creates measurement

difficulties). Preston concludes, “what appear to be small changes or differences in

separation rates can have a very large impact on demand.” (2000) The Preston projections

do have an advantage on the supply side, as the source for the graduate supply projections

is a survey completed by all initial teacher Education providers in Australia. This results in

generally high quality, up-to-date projections, though university plans and the reality of

student enrolments and completions can differ from that assumed when the survey form

was completed. It also takes greater account of recent trends in the international

recruitment of graduates and experienced teachers from Australia.

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Irrespective of limitations of data the value of projections are important for planning

involving the teacher labour market in NSW. Preston’s projections (2000) for high school

teachers in NSW are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Projections of High School Teachers in NSW, 2000-2005 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 1 Enrolments 464,546 465,243 469,122 473,398 476,891 481,4702 PTR (FTE) 12.57 12.57 12.57 12.57 12.57 12.57 3 Persons: FTE (teachers) 1.083 1.088 1.093 1.097 1.102 1.106 4 PTR (persons) 11.6 11.55 11.5 11.46 11.4 11.36 5 Total teachers 40,034 40,279 40,801 41,324 41,819 42,373 6 Change from prev. yr 12 245 522 523 495 555 7 Net separation (%) 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.041 0.043 8 Net separation number 1,313 1,403 1,503 1,604 1,707 1,814 9 Recruits required 1,325 1,648 2,025 2,127 2,201 2,368 10 Graduates (%) 0.95 0.88 0.87 0.95 0.97 0.97 11 Graduates number 1,259 1,451 1,762 2,020 2,135 2,297 12 Avail/suit (%) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 13 Total graduates (demand) 1,574 1,813 2,202 2,526 2,669 2,872 14 Total graduates (supply) 2,032 2,215 2,183 2,238 2,294 2,312 15 Surplus/shortage (number) 458 402 -19 -288 -375 -560 16 Surplus/shortage (% of total) 0.011 0.01 0 -0.007 -0.009 -0.013 17 Surplus/shortage (% of demand) 0.291 0.222 -0.009 -0.114 -0.141 -0.195 18 Surplus/shortage (% of supply) 0.226 0.181 -0.009 -0.128 -0.163 -0.242 19 Supply as % of demand 1.291 1.222 0.991 0.886 0.859 0.805 Source: Preston, Table 2, 2000 Notes on Table 4.4. 1. Enrolments projections are for government and non government schools combined; provided by DETYA, April 2000. 2. PTR (FTE) from ABS, 1999 Schools Australia , with no change assumed during the period. 3. Persons: FTE is derived from ABS, Schools Australia, 1990 to 1999. The projections are concerned with the relationship between the supply and demand of persons, not full time equivalents. 4. PTR (persons) is derived from rows 2 and 3. 5. Total teachers is derived from the PTR (persons) and Enrolments (rows 4 and 1). 6. Change is the difference from the previous year's total teachers. 7. Net separation % takes account of returnees and reentrants as well as those leaving (resignations, retirements, unavailability after a period of casual or limited term employment, or the taking of or returning from leave not accounted for in PTR). 8. Net separation No is derived by applying the rate to the total number of teachers in that year (rows 7 and 5). 9. Recruits required is derived by adding the change in teacher numbers to the separation number (rows 6 and 8). 10. Graduates % is the proportion of recruits who are graduates of the previous year. Those not included in

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'graduates %', and thus make up the residual, are mostly graduates of earlier years. Re-entrants and returnees are accounted for in ‘net separation’. Graduates of earlier years are included in more substantial numbers when there is a surplus in the previous year. The proportion of any surplus of the previous year that is carried over varies according to the national surplus or shortfall (and thus the likelyhood that graduates would have taken up interstate positions). These projections do not take account of any future active recruitment campaigns to attract teachers from interstate. 11. Graduates No is derived from the previous two rows. 12. Availability/suitability % is the proportion of all graduates who are available and suitable for employment. It is generally assumed to be 80% (consistent with the assumption underlying Net separation % and Graduates % that about 80% of graduates enter teaching soon after graduating, and a usually small proportion enter teaching later on). 'Available' means generally available for actual vacancies - not for only the most desirable positions. 13. Total graduates (demand) is the minimum number of graduates (who completed the previous year) required to meet demand, and is derived from rows 11 and 12 - that is, row 11 is the percentage indicated in row 12, of row 13. 14. Total graduates (supply) is derived from graduate projections provided for all initial teacher education programs by education faculties (or schools of teacher education). Graduates of early childhood and other programs that prepare graduates for non-school as well as school settings are appropriately apportioned. 15. Surplus/shortage (no) is the difference between demand and supply in number of persons. 16. Surplus/ shortage (% of total teachers) is row 15 as a percentage of 'Total teachers' (row 5). This is a key indicator for school authorities to judge the magnitude of any shortfall they have to manage. 17. Surplus/shortage (% of supply) is row 15 as a percentage of 'Total graduates (supply)' (row 14). 18. Surplus/shortage (% of demand) is row 15 as a percentage of 'Total graduates (demand)' (row 13) 19. Supply as % of demand is row 14 as percentage of row 13. It shows the number of expected graduates (as planned by the universities) as a percentage of the minimum number of graduates required to meet expected demand. Note that 'graduates' are those who completed their course at the end of the previous year. This is the key indicator of the magnitude of expected shortage/surplus of graduates.

The Preston projections are at a general statewide level. They do not take account of:

• the quality39 of teachers (except that only those with formal primary or secondary

teaching qualifications are included);

• subject and other specialisations; and

• the availability of teachers for particularly hard to staff locations and schools.

Preston (2000) projects that by the end of 2002 there will be a small shortage (19) of high

school teachers in NSW but this shortage will grow in the years following (Table 4.4). It

could be argued that there was no overall shortage of high school teachers at the end of

39 The OECD Directorate for Education considers the quality of teachers to be related to the level of teacher academic qualifications, teacher certification, academic tested ability, teacher experience, and professional development (2002).

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2002 but there were definitely some problems in filling vacancies in a number of subject

areas and school locations. The Preston Report (2000) suggests that this will worsen in the

years ahead and become more widespread. The NSW Government has reduced the effect

of certain aspects of the projections by attempting to increase the supply of teachers by

advertising campaigns such as ‘Teach and Make a Difference’, the Accelerated Teacher

Training Program, and the Pre-service Teacher Education Scholarship Program40.

The Baumgart Review of staffing in New South Wales also projected a serious shortage of

teachers in the decade beginning around 2005 (Baumgart 1995). Furthermore, the Ramsey

Report on teaching in New South Wales, which also discusses this issue in detail, draws

similar conclusions, though with some caution. "There is no doubt that the supply of

teachers will tighten in the long-term with the effects being more dramatic in some states

and in some teaching areas than others."(Ramsey 2000: 201) Thus, although there is room

for difference over the extent of shortages and how soon they will emerge, there is

widespread agreement that if there is not an increase in the supply of high school teachers

then there will be shortages in the period nearing 2005 and thereafter. Actions by

government and other school authorities may be able to prevent or delay the shortages, but

this may be at a cost of the quality of teaching. This could mean teachers teaching ‘out-of-

field’ or with lower formal qualifications than their peers.

40 Scholarships were offered to allow students to complete the final one, two, three or four years of a four-year teacher education program, or four years of a five-year program. The scholarships were for study, which would qualify students to teach Mathematics, Science, Technology, or English. The program pays each student’s HECS liability plus a $1,500 gross per annum training allowance for the period of the scholarship (NSW Department of Education and Training 2002).

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4.6 Conclusion

The supply of high school teachers depend on a large number of variables, including the

number and proportion of new graduates, who wish to become teachers; teachers returning

from leave; former teachers returning to teaching; the pool of relief and casual teachers; the

net movement of teachers into NSW from another state or from overseas; and the overall

state of the alternate job market for teachers. Many of these factors vary from year to year.

It is thus difficult to project how many teachers will be available to teach in NSW high

schools at some particular point in time. Even if there is sufficient aggregate supply for the

State, it is most likely that there will still be shortages in particular subject areas and some

locations in the State.

The issue of measuring the supply of teachers is made more difficult by the lack of

information in regard to teachers going on and returning from leave and teachers re-

entering the teacher labour force after resigning. Different state and territory bodies may

not have comparable data. There is little accurate data on casual teacher and limited term

employed teacher availability and movements into and out of teaching positions. In the

non-government sector the problem is even worse with no central data on staff turnover,

patterns of leave, or even the age of teaching staff. There needs to be a national body

similar to the NCES in the USA to collect and provide the data for educational

stakeholders. This would improve the reliability of projections and provide useful data in

matching the demand and supply of teachers in Australia for policy makers and

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administrators. This issue will be discussed in more detail in the policy recommendation

section in Chapter 8.

There are three factors that are contributing most to the changes in the current labour

supply for high school teachers in NSW. They are the ageing teacher population, the lower

proportion of new teaching graduates, and the decline in the proportion of males seeking to

become teachers. All of these factors create an environment where it is most likely that

there will be a shortage of high school teachers in NSW starting sometime in the period

2003-2005 and continuing into the foreseeable future after that. While it is acknowledged

that the NSW Department of Education and Training and other school authorities are taking

some steps to deal with this, more may be required. These steps will be discussed further in

later chapters. To attract more teachers it is necessary to understand the factors that

influence the decisions of individuals to teach in NSW high schools. This will be examined

in the next chapter.

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Chapter 5. Models of Teacher Labour Supply 5.1 Introduction

As seen in Chapters 3 and 4, the demand for high school teachers is fairly predictable at

least in the short term of two to three years. The supply of high school teachers is much

less predictable. Projections in Chapter 4 imply that the quantity of high school teachers

supplied in NSW and in many other nations will be less than the quantity demanded at least

in the period from 2005-2010. The aim of this chapter is to develop a model of teacher

labour supply for high school teachers in NSW. This model should enable policy makers to

consider various options to increase the quantity of supply of teachers.

There have been a number of models of teacher labour supply offered for consideration by

researchers. They generally relate to overseas teacher labour markets, especially the USA.

These cannot be applied directly to the NSW high school teacher labour market but can

offer some insights into the functioning of teacher labour supply models. From these and

the research carried out on teachers and potential teachers in NSW, we will attempt to

develop a teacher labour supply model that relates to the NSW high school teacher labour

market. One issue that the model cannot address is the quality of teachers. Policy makers

and school administrators are often more concerned about having a teacher in every

classroom, rather than the minimum qualifications and quality of the teacher. An increased

number of high school teachers can be achieved by lowering the standard below that of the

current teaching workforce, such as substituting a four year trained Mathematics teacher

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with a teacher with three years primary training and one year or six months Mathematics

training. This issue will be discussed later in this chapter.

5.2 Teacher Supply Projection Models

Many teacher labour supply models are actually projection models. They do not consider

the factors that influence individuals to become teachers or to leave teaching, but rather the

number of individuals who will be in the teacher labour supply at a point in time. Teacher

projection models can provide information as was shown in Chapter 4 about possible

teacher shortages but they cannot provide solutions to the problem or offer alternative

approaches to dealing with the situation. There have been a number of projection models

introduced over the years by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the

USA. According to Barro (1992) these models differ in certain important respects but they

all have a teacher supply model that has two basic components. They are:

• a submodel for projecting the supply of continuing or retained teachers (or a model

of teacher attrition), and;

• a submodel of the supply of potential entrants into teaching.

These two taken together are intended to yield projections of the total teacher supply,

similar to those seen in Chapter 4. A review by Barro and others, as reported in Barro

(1992), on teacher supply and demand projection methods for the National Research

Council in 1986, found attrition models ‘generally to be crude’. Barro considered that there

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were also weaknesses in projecting the supply of potential entrants. He considered that

many models equate the projected supply of potential entrants to the stock of persons

certified to teach in a particular state. The weaknesses in this proposition are that many of

these people certified may not be willing to teach under the current circumstances while

others who are not certified may be available to teach. Barro also believes that basing

projections on past entry rates is also flawed, as the rate of entry is strongly influenced by

demand. If there is a low quantity demanded for new entrants, then the quantity supplied

would invariably also be low. Thus entry rates are automatically low when quantity

demanded is low and rise as quantity of new entrants demanded increases. The general

conclusion by Barro is that teacher demand and supply projection models are largely

mechanical not behavioural. They can only project future demand and supply under the

implicit assumption that all influences on demand and supply remain unchanged or follow

the same predetermined pattern. They do not consider the impact of changes in wages and

other teaching circumstances and conditions on supply and fail to predict how changes in

policy and conditions of teaching will affect the teacher labour market.

5.3 A Model of Teacher Labour Supply in a Particular Geographic or Socio-economic

Area

The labour supply of teachers is an aggregate of individual labour supply decisions. There

are a variety of decisions made at different points in time based on different information

and influences. In the pre-teaching phase a person begins with a decision to train for

teaching and with successful completion of teacher training to meet the requirements of the

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educational authorities, the person then moves to the application and job matching process.

The first employment decision is to consider if they still wish to become a teacher, or under

what conditions or circumstances are they prepared to teach in a particular geographical or

socio-economic area or a particular school. As seen in Chapter 4, not all people graduating

with educational qualifications to be teachers actually enter the teacher work force. If they

do pursue a teaching position another phase of decision-making begins. Having been hired

at a particular school, the career path is determined by continuation and retention decisions

of both teachers and schools. These decisions may be made on an ongoing basis, especially

for a teacher who may be on a fixed term contract.

The standard model of the supply of labour to schools in a particular geographical area j

can be characterised by:

Qj = f (wj, WCj, Aj, Oj )41 (5.1)

where Qj is the quantity of teachers supplied in area j; wj and WCj are wages and working

conditions, respectively, in area j; and Aj and Oj are amenities and other employment

opportunities, respectively, in area j. Consideration of each of these elements allows us to

examine the basic conditions to make an analysis of the teacher labour supply.

Wages (wj). A fundamentally important issue in the consideration of teacher labour markets

is which wage differences to look at and how they should be interpreted. In some countries

such as the USA, with a relatively flexible wage structure when compared to Australia,

teacher wages vary within geographical areas and across districts. In NSW high schools 41 This model is based on work done by Hanushek et al. (2001)

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the level of nominal wages is, in large, centrally determined, as discussed in Chapter 4.

There are 13 steps in the basic teacher salary scales that apply to most high school teachers

in NSW. These wage differences in the steps reflect teaching experience and graduate

education levels.

Alternative Earnings Opportunities and Amenities (Oj, Aj). In considering the willingness

of an individual to become a teacher, it is important to consider opportunity cost. It is

necessary to take account of differences in alternative earning opportunities for teachers. It

is also important to consider the different alternative earning opportunities for teachers in

certain specialisations, such as Mathematics, Science, and Computing teachers versus those

in other specialisations where there is a lower level of alternative earning opportunities

(Kershaw and McKean 1962, Zarkin 1985, Murnane et al. 1991). These considerations

may also vary from one geographical location to another. If areas differ by prices or

amenities or if labour markets are geographically confined, wages must also be considered

in comparison to the relevant group of competing districts.

Dolton and van der Klaauw (1995, 1999) and van der Klaauw (1997) found evidence that

opportunity wages affect the probabilities of both entry to and exit from the labour market

in the United Kingdom. These results are consistent with earlier work by Murnane and

Olsen (1989, 1990), who found that opportunity wages affected duration in teaching in both

Michigan and North Carolina in the USA.

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Working Conditions (WCj). As shown in Chapter 1, there are many other considerations

that affect teacher satisfaction and the willingness to work in particular school systems

apart from just the overall salary or compensation levels. Some of the earliest work

considered how teacher preferences might affect the selection of schools (Greenberg and

McCall 1974, Murnane 1981). More generally, teachers might be willing to take lower

salaries to obtain better conditions in their schools, a proposition introduced by Antos and

Rosen (1975) and subsequently pursued in a variety of other analyses (e.g., Baugh and

Stone 1982, and NCES 1996, 1997). It has even been argued that the push for lower class

sizes by teachers reflects an element of teacher compensation, as opposed to an educational

policy designed to improve student achievement (Grissmer and Kirby 1992).

While this model can observe the relationship between wages, and other variables, and

employment, it is not possible to infer a priori that the relationship is a ‘supply function’

for teachers. Rather district hiring and retention practices are an important element in the

labour market for teachers. This premise is supported by Ballou and Podgursky (1995,

1997) and Ballou (1996). It is important because it frames the interpretation of movements

observed in the market. This will also be an important consideration in assessing the

results obtained for the high school teacher labour market in NSW, to be discussed later in

this chapter.

Personnel policies are also an important issue in determining the teacher labour market,

especially in NSW. The NSW high school teacher market is largely a monopsony, as

discussed in Chapter 2, and as a result the decisions of the NSW DET and the Catholic

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Education Offices have a large impact on the numbers of teachers employed in particular

locations in high schools in NSW. Both the NSW DET and the Catholic Education Offices

have staffing formulas that determine how many teachers will be offered employment in a

particular school, based on the number of pupils in that school. In public high schools

teachers are allocated to schools throughout the State. A teacher can refuse to accept an

allocated position and become unemployed or work as a casual teacher. Alternatively they

can apply for a position in a Catholic systemic or private school or apply for a non-teaching

job. In addition, as discussed in Chapter 4, wages are determined by a single enterprise

agreement, with a common salary schedule, covering all teachers in Government schools

with a follow-on process to cover the Catholic systemic schools. With one exception, the

only sources of variation in the wage across teachers in these two systems are teaching

experience and the amount of formal qualifications. The exception from the rule is the

allowance paid to teachers who work in climatically disadvantaged areas in NSW.

Normally it would be expected that when wages are common at all public and Catholic

systemic schools, that there would be excess quantity demanded at some schools and excess

quantity supplied at others (Falch 2003). This is generally not the case when there is an

excess quantity of supply of teachers in the labour market as the educational authorities

allocate teachers between the schools to overcome these imbalances. Shortages in schools

will only become obvious when there is an overall shortage in the total labour market for

teachers. There may be shortages in some subject areas but these will be covered by

teachers in subject areas that have an over supply. The quantity of supply of teachers at a

particular wage rate in a period of balanced supply or a small over supply is largely

‘demand driven’. The quantity of teacher supply will largely be those teachers who are

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employed in schools. Teachers who cannot gain full-time employment as teachers will

most likely seek out casual teaching positions or non-teaching jobs. Therefore the quantity

of supply at the award wage will be very close to the teacher employment level42.

5.4 The Effect of Gender on Teacher Labour Supply Models

Individuals consider many things when deciding to choose teaching as a job or a career, the

wage level is just one of those factors. Individuals generally do not make career choices

each year independently of their past decisions or future plans. Marriage and family in

particular have been found to have considerable influence on individuals’ decisions to

choose an occupation and to decide whether to work each year (Van der Klaauw 1996,

Stinebrickner 2001). Teaching may be viewed as an attractive occupation by those

individuals desiring to have a family as it has comparatively flexible hours and does not

penalise individuals as much as other occupations for taking time off to raise children. The

'flexibility option,' that female teachers who take temporary leaves to raise children do not

suffer subsequent wage loss upon re-entry, is shown to be an important attraction of the

teaching profession to women (Flyer and Rosen 1997). Research by Stinebrickner (2001)

indicates that the decisions of males and females are quite similar in the first years after

certification, but become quite different as the number of years after certification increases.

As time goes on married women are much more likely to leave teaching than married men.

Teacher labour market supply models need to consider these differences between the

42 This is supported by the low unemployment rate for teachers in Australia – 1.7 percent in 2000 (ABS, Australian Social Trends 2001 Cat. No. 4102.0).

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decisions of male and females in order to understand the factors that influence the numbers

of teachers in the market.

5.5 A Dynamic Model of High School Teacher Labour Supply

Csellak (2002) and Stinebrickner (2001) use dynamic models to estimate the importance of

various factors in determining the decisions of individuals to teach. Csellak (2002) showed

that amongst the factors that determined the teacher labour supply were the teaching wage,

the non-teaching wage, the gender of the individual, the number of children the individual

had and the children’s age and the state unemployment rate. Stinebrickner’s model (2001),

while accepting that marital status and number of children are very important predictors of

exits out of the workforce for women, did not measure the complete effect due to the

limited data sample. Estimates of the wage equations in the model support the notion that

lower teaching participation rates for academically gifted teachers stem in part from the

ability of these teachers to obtain wage premiums in the non-teaching sector but not in the

teaching occupation. This again supports the premise that the relationship between

teachers’ wages and non-teaching alternative incomes is also important in decisions to

teach, especially so for the more academically gifted teachers.

5.6 A Model of High School Teacher Labour Supply for a Particular Location in NSW

After considering the various models provided in the literature, a model has been adopted

that may provide some understanding of the factors that affect the quantity of high school

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teachers, who will be willing to work in a particular location in NSW. The quantity of

teachers supplied for a particular geographical location is QSj. QS

j is measured by the

teacher student ratio in high schools in that geographical location. The teacher student ratio

has been selected as the proxy for the quantity of teachers for two reasons. First, the

number of teachers in a particular location will generally be a function of the number of

students in that location. This is especially the case in regard to staffing formulas applied

by the DET and Catholic Schools Offices that are used to allocate teachers to particular

schools based on the number of students in that school. Second, the quantity of teachers

supplied in NSW at the time of this study was largely ‘demand driven’, as discussed earlier

in this chapter. Individuals would seek employment as teachers in a particular location if

there were teaching positions available and the demand for teachers and the quantity

employed is a derived demand based on the number of pupils in that location.

The quantity of supply of teachers within a geographical location, j, can be characterised

by:

QSj = f (Wj, Uj, WCj, Mj,Cj, Nj F,T) (5.2)

Wj is the relative nominal income of teachers compared to nominal incomes for all

occupations in location j. It is measured by dividing the median income of teachers by the

median incomes of all persons in that location. It includes benefits paid to teachers in

certain locations. This relative wage measure has been selected as we are looking at

aggregate supply of teachers and not individual supply schedules. The literature showed

that teacher supply was influenced by teacher wages relative to alternative earning

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opportunities (Kershaw and McKean 1962, Zarkin 1985, Murnane et al. 1991). Census

data (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003c) allows for a comparison between the median

income of teachers and the median income of all persons in each particular location. We

would expect the model to show that increased relative wages (incomes) should lead to an

increased quantity of supply of teachers relative to students in a location. The observed

values of relative wages, eg.rw1, rw2, and rw3, and teacher student ratios at each location,

eg. 0.9, 0.8, and 0.7,ceterus paribus, would determine a supply schedule. The plotting of

the schedule would create a supply curve for high school teachers in NSW. It could be

expected that this would create an upward sloping supply curve as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Relative wages of teachers and the quantity of teachers per student across

regions

Relative Sj

Wage rw1

rw2

rw3

0.7 0.8 0.9

Teacher/student ratio

It is important to note that the number of teachers who are working in schools is not the

actual supply of teachers in the market. The supply of teachers is determined by the

number of teachers willing to work at various wage rates, where as the observed quantities

148

of teachers are those who are willing to work at the actual wage rate at that time in that

location. If the model is in equilibrium, then the quantity of supply of teachers will equal

the quantity of teachers demanded. This occurs at rw1 in Figure 5.2. If the model were in

disequilibria, then a relative wage rate above equilibrium, i.e. rw2 would create a surplus of

teachers in that location. Similarly a relative wage rate below equilibrium, i.e. rw3 would

create a shortage of teachers.

Figure 5.2: Relative wages of teachers and the quantity of teachers per student in

equilibrium and in disequilibrium

Relative D unemployment Sj

Wage rw2

rw1

rw3

shortage

0.7 0.8 0.9

Teacher/student ratio

The other variables in Equation 5.2 are:

• Uj, the non-pecuniary utility teachers get from teaching. This cannot be measured

directly in this model. The measurement of this will be discussed in the next

chapter.

149

• WCj, working conditions, including hours of work, and holidays. These would

generally be similar across locations43. There is no data available to distinguish

working conditions in the various locations in NSW, such as Statistical Local Areas

(SLAs)44, and as such is treated as a constant in this model.

• Mj, the distance of the location from a major city. This is a function of distance of

the location from a capital city or a large regional city with a population in excess of

100,000 people. The cities included are Sydney, Newcastle, Wollongong, Canberra,

Brisbane, Melbourne, and Adelaide.

In 2001, 71.1 percent of the population of NSW lived in major cities. A further 20.6

percent lived in inner regional areas and the balance in outer regional and remote and very

remote areas (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003b). It would be expected that there would

be fewer teachers further away from the major cities. Figure 5.3 shows the numbers of high

school teachers in NSW and the distances that they are located from the major cities, based

on the NSW Statistical Local Areas (SLAs) where they live. As can be seen, the largest

numbers of teachers live in SLAs in or near the major cities and there are fewer teachers

located further from the major cities. If there were a shortage of teachers in NSW, we

would expect the teacher pupil ratios to be highest near the major cities and smallest further

43 In certain areas in the Western Region of NSW there is an additional one weeks holiday for teachers at Christmas due to the high temperatures that exist in these locations.

44 The Statistical Local Area (SLA) is an Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) defined area, which consists of one or more Collection Districts (CDs). SLAs are Local Government Areas (LGAs), or parts thereof. Where there is no incorporated body of local government, SLAs are defined to cover the unincorporated areas. SLAs cover, in aggregate, the whole of Australia without gaps or overlaps.

150

from the major cities. These locations that are further from major cities are further away

from the amenities and job opportunities offered by major cities and also tend to be further

from the coast and as a result more climatically unfavourable with wider ranges of

temperature.

Figure 5.3: Location of high school teachers in SLAs in NSW, based on their distance

from major cities (klms)

Cj, in Equation 5.2, is the distance of the location from the coast. It is generally considered

that people prefer to live near the coast rather than inland. This is supported by the

allowance that the NSW DET pays to teachers in more isolated geographical regions. This

hypothesis will also be tested in this model. There is likely to be some co-linearity between

0 250 500 750

Distance from major city

0.00

400.00

800.00

1200.00

Tota

l num

ber o

f tea

cher

s

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Mj and Cj as most of the major cities are near the coast. This will be adjusted for in the

model.

Nj, in Equation 5.2, is the overall level of unemployment in a particular location. It could

be expected that an area with a low level of unemployment would tend to attract more

teachers because of better job prospects and therefore an increased quantity of supply of

teachers. Inversely it could be expected that locations with high levels of unemployment

would have a lower teacher/student ratio.

F, in Equation 5.2, represents a vector of variables determining the family situation. These

include gender, marital status, and number and age of children. In this initial model these

variables are assumed to be a constant.

T, in Equation 5.2, is the quantity of trained teachers. This is a function of the numbers of

new graduates, teachers returning from leave, former teachers returning to teaching, the

pool of relief and casual teachers, unemployed teachers and teachers marginally attached to

the labour force, migrating teachers from overseas and interstate and teachers leaving

teaching. There is no available data on the number of trained teachers in particular SLAs at

a particular point in time. For the purpose of this model T will be treated as a constant.

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5.6.1 A Description of the Sample

ABS 2001 Census Data is used to estimate the model. All high school teachers (36,985),

who were staying in NSW (the 'place of enumeration' 45) on census night, are included in

the data and they are classified according to 190 Statistical Local Areas (SLAs). The

number of students and teachers in particular SLAs refers to their places of enumeration not

specifically where the teachers work or the students attend school. It is assumed in this

model that students and teachers would live close to where they attend and work at schools,

respectively, and as such are satisfactory proxies for the location of school attendance and

place of work. While there would be some net movement between SLAs especially in the

Sydney region, where they are geographically quite close, the difference is assumed to be

minor in other regions.

The relative wage of high school teachers, Wj, is measured by dividing the median income

of high school teachers in a particular SLA, by the median income of all persons in that

SLA, as reported in the 2001 Census. The distances from the coast and major cities were

measured as traveling distances by road. This is considered as a more significant

measurement of transport distances for teachers to travel rather than straight-line

measurement46. This will enable us to examine the importance of traveling distances from

major cities and their amenities as an issue for teachers. The distance from the coast is also

45 The population count for place of enumeration is a count of every person, who spent census night in Australia, based on where he/she was counted, and is the source of population data for this study.

46 2001 Census data (ABS 2003c) shows that almost 80 percent of NSW workers travel to work by car, either as a driver or a passenger.

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a consideration in terms of changes in climatic conditions. Generally the further a location

is from the coast the more unfavourable are the climatic conditions with greater variations

of temperature. As discussed in Chapter 4, there are allowances for high school teachers in

NSW who live in more isolated and less favourable climatic conditions. These allowances

are already included in the median income of high school teachers and as a result the

relative wage, Wj. Descriptive statistics describing the data sets for the variables from the

19947 SLAs in NSW are displayed in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Descriptive Statistics across Regions of NSW, High School Teacher Model

(1)

Statistics

Teacher student

ratio

Teachers/all persons income

Distance from major city (km)

Distance from coast

(km) Unemployment

rate % Population in SLAs Valid 190 190 190 190 190 199 Number Missing 9 9 9 9 9 0

Mean 0.090 1.845 224 164 7.540 31818 Std. Error of Mean 0.003 0.024 13.40 12.41 0.236 3028 Median 0.088 1.849 195 100 7.0 11469 Std. Deviation 0.043 0.335 184 171 3.246 42716 Range 0.330 1.628 740 690 17.70 181443 Minimum 0.020 0.983 10 10 2.00 280 Maximum 0.350 2.611 750 700 19.70 181723

There were no high school teachers living in nine of the SLAs in NSW. There were

considerable differences in the population sizes of the SLAs ranging from a population of

280 in Yarrowlumbla to 181,723 in Wollongong. This contributed to the relatively large

range in the teacher/student ratio between SLAs. The maximum teacher/student ratio

occurred in the inner region of Newcastle at 0.3495 teachers per pupil. Thirty six high

school teachers lived in this SLA but only 103 students. In the inner city SLA of Sydney

there were no teachers living in the region but there were 148 students living there. 47 Not all 199 SLAs in NSW had teachers living in those areas.

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Obviously in some of the city SLAs there will be movement of both teachers and students

between SLAs from places of residence to schools but in general this is assumed to balance

out. The lower levels of teacher/all person’s income tended to occur in the richer parts of

the Sydney region, with Mosman having the lowest with 0.9834. The highest relative

income levels were in the rural areas with Barraba achieving the highest with 2.6108. The

weekly median income level in Barraba was only $424 compared to the State average of

$618. The lower relative incomes in the country SLAs had the effect of increasing the

relative incomes of teachers compared to the rest of the population in those SLAs. If the

teachers’ incomes in the rural SLAs were compared to the State average of median

incomes, the relative income levels would be considerably lower.

5.6.2 The Model Estimated

The model of high school teacher labour supply for a particular location in NSW will be

estimated using a multiple regression equation. It is assumed four independent variables

are potentially related to the dependent variable. Thus the model is represented by the

following equation:

QSj = β0 + β1 Wj + β2 Mj + β3 Cj + β4 Nj + e (5.3)

QSj is the dependent variable. Wj, Mj, Cj, Nj are the independent variables, β0...β4 are the

coefficients and e is the random error component, made necessary because not all

observations are likely to fall directly on the regression line. It is important to note that the

independent variables may actually be functions of other variables and will require testing

to verify or dismiss these possible relationships.

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In a competitive model of teacher labour supply it would normally be expected that the

coefficient of teachers’ relative wage would be positive. The higher the relative wage the

greater the quantity of teachers who would wish to work in that location. Normally it

would be expected that individuals would prefer to live in more favourable environmental

conditions closer to the coast and closer to major cities and the amenities they provide. As

a result the coefficients of these two variables would be expected to be negative. The

further the distance from the coast and major cities the lower the supply of teachers would

be. It is expected that the coefficient for the level of unemployment would be negative, as

teachers would be more likely to go to areas where there chances of employment were

greater. So increased unemployment rates would suggest a lower teacher/student ratio.

The data has been processed through SPSS statistical analysis and data management system

to report the following results. Table 5.2 displays the coefficients of the variables. The

least square estimates of the coefficients of the variables appear in Table 5.2 in the column

under the heading ‘B’, thus β0 = 0.151, β1 = -0.039, β2 = 3.060E-5, β3 = 0.151, and β4 =

0.000. The standard errors of the estimators are given in the column under ‘Std Error’. The

T value for testing the null hypothesis given by H0: Bi = 0 i = 0,1,2,3,4 is in the column

headed ‘t’ on the same line as B. The significance of the coefficients can also be tested by

using the p-values reported in the table under the column heading of ‘sig’.

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Table 5.2 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Model (1)

Variablesa Unstandardised coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error

(Constant) 0.151 0.018 8.329 0.000

Teachers/all persons income -0.039 0.011 -3.650 0.000

Distance from major city 3.060E-05 0.000 0.918 0.360

Distance from coast 5.804E-6 0.000 0.165 0.869

Unemployment rate (%) 0.000 0.001 0.361 0.719

a. Dependent Variable: Teacher/student ratio

The estimated regression equation is:

QSj = 0.151 - 0.039Wj + 3.060E-05Mj + 5.804E-6Cj + 0.000Nj (5.4)

(0.018) (0.011) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001)

The coefficient of teachers’ median relative income, Wj, is negative. This suggests that a

10 percent change in the teachers’ relative incomes would change the teacher/student ratio

by 0.0039. Considering the median teacher pupil ratio is 0.088077, the change would lead

to a 4.4 percent change in the teacher/student ratio. It suggests that changes in teachers’

relative wages would not only have a negative effect but would also be quiet significant on

the teacher/student ratio in particular locations in NSW. The coefficient of distance from

major city, Mj is positive and very small. This suggests that the further schools are located

from major cities the greater the teacher/student ratio there would be in those particular

locations in NSW. The coefficient for distance from the coast, Cj, is also positive and

small. This suggests that the further schools are located from the coast the greater the

teacher/student ratio there would be in those particular locations in NSW. This also implies

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that class sizes further from the coast would be slightly smaller. The coefficient of the

unemployment rate, Nj, is zero. It suggests that difference in the unemployment rate has no

influence on the teacher/student ratio in particular locations in NSW.

In an attempt to improve the validity of the model the least useful independent variables

were dropped. The value of the F-statistic for each independent variable remaining in the

model decides which variable to eliminate. The model was improved by dropping distance

from coast. The model was improved further by also dropping the next least useful

variable, the unemployment rate. This produced the model with the highest adjusted R

square value. Tables 5.3 and 5.4 show the new coefficients and regression statistics after

the elimination of these least useful variables.

Table 5.3 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Model (1a)

Variablesa Unstandardized coefficients t Sig. VIF

B Std. Error

(Constant) 0.152 0.017 8.841 0.000 Teachers/all persons income

-0.038 0.010 -3.866 0.000 1.170

Distance from major city

3.547E-05 0.000 2.004 0.046 1.170

a Dependent Variable: Teacher/student ratio

Table 5.4 High School Teacher Model (1a) Summary

R R square Adjusted R square Std. error of the estimate 0.275 0.076 0.066 0.0415

The value of the model increased from an adjusted R square of 5.6 to 6.6 percent. The new

model for teacher labour supply in a location is given by:

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QSj = 0.152 - 0.038Wj + 3.547(10-5) Mj (5.5)

(0.017) (0.010) (0.000)

The sign of the coefficient for Wj suggests that as the relative wage rises there will be a

smaller quantity of teachers per student in a location, potentially leading to increased class

sizes. The sign of the coefficient for Mj suggests that, as the location of the school is

further from major cities that there will be a larger quantity of teachers per student and

potentially smaller class sizes.

5.7 Gender Models of High School Teacher Labour Supply for a Particular Location

in NSW

It has now been established that the original model (1), which does not differentiate

between genders in decisions to work in high schools in particular locations in NSW, can

explain only 5.6 percent of the variation in the number of teachers per student in a

particular location. After the elimination of the least useful variables distance from major

coast and age the model can only explain 6.6 percent of the variation in the number of

teachers per student in a particular location. In an attempt to further improve the usefulness

of the model, the model will be divided into two subsets of the original data to assess if

there is any difference in the decision pattern of male and female high school teachers. The

Csellak (2002) and Stinebrickner (2001) models showed that we could expect different

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relationships between the models, with the males more likely to be concerned about relative

wages.

The supply of teachers within a geographical location j can be characterised by:

QSj = QS

jm + QSjf (5.6)

QSjm is the supply of male teachers, measured by the number of male teacher per student in

high schools in that geographical location.

QSjf is the supply of female teachers, measured by the number of female teachers per

student in high schools in that geographical location.

The results (Table 5.5) suggest that relative wages (incomes) are not an important

consideration in the decisions of teachers to work in particular locations. They show that

there is even a small tendency for the quantity of teachers per student in a particular

location to be lower in areas with relatively higher median incomes. This could imply

larger class sizes in areas with higher relative median incomes or it could just be that

teachers are less inclined to live in areas where their relative incomes are lower, because of

the cost of living in higher median income areas. This is more so in the case of females

than to males.

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Table 5.5 Summary Table of the Teacher Models

Explanatory variable

Model 1 Model 1 (a) Model 2 Model 2 (a) Model 3 Model 3 (a)

Constant 0.151 0.152 0.051 0.053 0.088 0.084 t statistic 8.329 8.841 6.390 7.037 8.987 9.159 Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Teachers/all persons income

-0.039 -0.038 -0.011 -0.009 -0.017 -0.018

t statistic -3.650 -3.866 -2.334 -2.053 -3.553 -4.087 Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.021 0.042 0.000 0.000 Unemployment rate 0.000 - 0.001 - -0.001 - t statistic 0.361 - 1.272 - -1.208 - Sig. 0.719 - 0.205 - 0.229 - Distance from major city

3.060E-05

3.547E-05 7.923E-06 1.398E-05 1.225E-05 -

t statistic 0.918 2.004 0.484 1.574 0.559 - Sig. 0.360 0.046 0.629 0.117 0.550 - Distance from coast 5.804E-

06 - 6.817E-06 - 2.030E-05 3.524E-05

t statistic 0.165 - 0.402 - 0.905 3.017 Sig. 0.869 - 0.688 - 0.367 0.003 F 3.814 7.638 1.612 2.367 5.844 10.989 Adjusted R2 0.056 0.066 0.013 0.015 0.094 0.097 Standard error of the estimate

0.042 0.042 0.020 0.020 0.026 0.026

Model 1: All teachers Model 2: Male teachers Model 3: Female teachers The unemployment rate in different locations does not appear to be a significant factor in

influencing teachers’ decisions about where they work, although it tends to be a slightly

greater concern for female teachers compared to male teachers. The results show that

distance from a major city and/or distance from the coast appear to influence the decisions

of teachers. Male teachers are more prepared to work in schools further away from major

cities than female teachers. Female teachers are more willing to work away from the coast

provided they are still relatively close to a major city. In all these cases there were more

teachers per student working further away from major cities and the coast. This suggests

that class sizes in these areas would be lower.

These results for relative income and distances from major cities and from the coast go

against conventional economic theory. It is therefore necessary to examine possible

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reasons for these results. The most likely reasons go back to the institutional constraints

discussed earlier in this chapter. The number of teachers in a particular public high school

in a location is determined by Departmental staffing formulas. These formulas allocate a

slightly higher proportion of staff to smaller schools. The schools with the smallest

numbers tend to be further away from the populated city and coastal regions of NSW. The

Catholic systemic schools are subject to similar staffing formulas. It could be expected

therefore that more teachers would be allocated to these schools. The staffing formulas

would lead to an expectation of higher staff student ratios the further that locations are from

major cities and from the coast, which is what these results demonstrate. While this

appears to be an issue of demand, the supply of teachers in a location in 2001 could be

considered as ‘demand driven’ as there was not an overall shortage of teachers in NSW

high schools at that point in time. It is also likely that unemployed teachers would not

move to a new location unless they had been offered a job in that location.

The static nature of this study is a further consideration as to why some of the results defy

the expected outcomes. The majority of teachers in NSW high schools are faced with a

common salary schedule. Changing schools will generally not lead to any change in money

wages for teachers. Teachers who are not satisfied with the relative salary they are

receiving may have already left teaching or will leave at the end of the year. Others who

have been at a school for many years may be happy there and will not be willing to move to

other locations. In some locations there could be unfilled positions, so there could be more

teachers employed in some locations, if there were suitably qualified teachers in those

locations. The Department also applies restrictions on the ability of teachers to move

between schools. Generally a teacher must have taught at least three years in a school

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before they can even apply for a transfer. The application does not guarantee a transfer.

The transfer also depends on a suitable position being available in the school requested.

Another possible consequence of the differences in relative wages between locations could

be differences in the quality of teachers being employed. There is considerable anecdotal

evidence of a lowering of the standard of the teachers being employed in NSW schools

because of the increasing shortage of qualified teachers in particular subject areas and

geographical locations (Vinson 2002, Canavan 2004). Canavan, Executive Director of

Schools for the Sydney CEO, reported that principals are reporting increasingly that

advertisements for teachers fail to attract ‘suitable applicants’ (2004: 20). In one Catholic

systemic school, with a good reputation, a head teacher referred to the lack of quality

applicants for a particular position leading to the employment of a teacher from a non-

English speaking and cultural background. This teacher was employed rather than having

no teacher in the classroom. It was discovered that the teacher did not have the skills to

teach these students. To avoid this group of students facing the full consequences of this

teacher, the school rotated this teacher with the other Mathematics teachers in that year,

every five weeks, thus sharing the burden. The level of award wages paid to teachers in

particular locations and subjects may not be sufficient to employ the required number of

fully qualified teachers. In some instances this shortfall is made up by employing less

qualified teachers. The effect of this can be seen in Figure 5.4.

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Figure 5.4: The labour market for qualified and unqualified teachers D1 Sq (qualified) Wage W1 St (qualified and unqualified) W2

q1 qe Quantity of high school teachers

The demand for teachers is based on the staffing formulas set by the educational

authorities. At a particular point in time the demand for teachers will be a constant. The

demand curve will be perfectly inelastic, D1. There will be two possible supply curves Sq,

the supply of suitably qualified teachers and St, the total supply of teachers (suitably fully

qualified and unsuitably qualified48). The number of suitably qualified and unqualified

teachers will be determined by the wage offered by the employing authorities in their

enterprise agreements with the teachers.

At a wage rate of W1, the quantity of supply of fully qualified teachers will be able to match

the quantity demanded. If the wage rate is set below W1, there will be a shortage of fully

qualified teachers at this lower wage. This shortage will be made up from the supply of

unqualified teachers. At a wage rate of W2 there will be quantity q1 qualified teachers

48 The distinction is made that the fully qualified teachers are those trained in teaching students in that subject area and with appropriate educational training and the not suitably qualified are teachers without either or both of these requirements.

164

employed and quantity qe minus q1 unqualified teachers employed. There will be no

official teacher shortage present, at this wage rate, as there are teachers in the classrooms.

The quality of the education is however likely to suffer. Only when the wage rate falls

below W2, will there be a statistically observable teacher shortage.

The model of lower relative wages leading to less qualified teachers is supported by data,

obtained by the Daily Telegraph (Parker 2004) through the Freedom of Information Act,

that shows that in April 2004 there were 41 teachers in NSW public schools teaching

Mathematics who were not qualified Mathematics teachers. In addition the NSW DET had

set up a program advertising for teachers to be retrained as Mathematics teachers in six

months on full pay, much less than the normal period of up to four years.

At this point the significance of wage relativities on the supply of teachers is questionable.

The next section of this chapter will explore the effect of changes in teacher relative wages

over time on the employment decisions of male and female teachers.

5.8 A Time Series Study of Changes in the Relative Wages of Male and Female

Teachers in NSW High Schools 1976-2002

The previous models considered the median relative incomes of teachers in NSW, based on

2001 Census data. The following time series study will compare the average weekly

earnings of male and female teachers in Australia to the level of average weekly earnings

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for all adult males and females in Australia49. As can be seen in Figure 5.5 there has been a

general decline in the relative earnings of both male and female teachers in the period.

In 1976 the average earnings of a male teacher was 14.7 percent higher than male average

weekly earnings and for a female teacher it was 23.5 percent greater than average female

weekly earnings. By 2002 the average weekly earnings of male teachers had fallen to less

than male average weekly earnings (-0.3 percent), while female earnings had declined to be

17.6 percent more than female average weekly earnings. The relative earnings of male

teachers have declined 20 percentage points in the period 1976 to 2002, while the relative

earnings of female teachers have declined only 5.9 percentage points.

Figure 5.5: The relative average weekly earnings of male and female teachers in Australia 1976-2002

0.9

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1976

1986

2000

Years

Rat

ios Male teacher earnings to male

AWE

Female teacher earnings tofemale AWE

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Employee Earnings and Hours, Cat. No. 6306.0. 49 Due to changes in ABS classifications in the period 1977 to 2003 the average wages for males and female teachers are for all teachers not just high school teachers. For years with data specifically on high school teachers their average wages are five to six percent higher than that for primary teachers. Changes in teacher salaries have generally been similar over the time period between states.

166

In the period 1977 to 2003 the number of high school teachers in NSW increased 42.4

percent. The number of female high school teachers increased by 70 percent, while the

number of male teachers rose by only 18.7 percent. In 1977 the ratio of male teachers to

female teachers in NSW high schools was 1.16 to 1, rising to 1.25 to 1 in 1981. The

decline in the male/female teacher ratio began after the 1983 economic recession. By 1991

there were more female teachers in NSW high schools than male teachers. By 2003 the

ratio of male to female teachers had fallen to 0.81 (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6: The ratio of males to female teachers in high schools in NSW, 1977–2003

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

Years

Rat

io

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Schools Australia, Cat. No. 4221.0

The decline in the relative number of male teachers accompanied the relatively larger

decline in relative earnings for male teachers. The relative earnings of female teachers was

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not only greater in absolute terms but had also declined by a smaller proportion than the

relative earnings for male high school teachers during the period.

Since 1988 there has been a decline in absolute terms in the number of male teachers in

NSW high schools by 2.7 percent from 17,961 to 17,485 and an increase in the number of

female teachers in NSW high schools by 31 percent from 16,474 to 21,580. At the same

time the relative wage for male teachers declined by 10 percentage points. There appears to

be a link between the time series data on relative wages and the quantity of teachers, at least

in the case of males. The decline in the relative wage of males is associated with fewer

males teaching in high schools in NSW. The relationship with female teachers is more

complex as the decline in the relative wage of females has been less and the relative wage

of female teachers is still more than 17 percent higher than other females in the workforce.

These factors would tend to make teaching an attractive proposition for females at least for

the time being. The proportion of male teachers in NSW high schools was highest when

the relative wage of male teachers was at least ten percent higher than male average weekly

earnings.

5.9 Male Teachers and Relative Wages The importance of relative wages to males in regard to teaching is supported by research

conducted by Lewis and Butcher (2002). They surveyed 1413 Year 12 students from 15

Catholic schools in the Sydney Diocese, representing 58 percent of a total potential

population of 2436 Year 12 students across the diocese. There were 1059 male and 354

female respondents: a ratio of 75 percent to 25 percent. The study showed that teaching

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was not seen as an attractive career choice by males compared to females. Fifteen point

two percent of the females’ surveyed intended to become teachers but only 5.9 percent of

the male respondents stated the same intention. When the data for those who intended to

pursue teaching was analysed with respect to the gender of the respondents the following

differences were found. More of the males agreed to, or found, the following factors

attractive:

• high public professional status;

• good salary;

• promotion and career opportunities;

• predicted demands for teachers; and

• working with communities.

More of the female respondents found the following factors attractive:

• being able to help others;

• good working hours and holidays; and

• offers a secure job.

The differences between male and female responses related to good salary (Chi-square

value 7.1, df =1, significance 0.008) and promotion and career opportunities (Chi-square

value 8.37, df =1, significance 0.004) were statistically significant. Only 13.6 percent of

respondents, who considered teaching but had decided not to pursue that career, believed

that teachers had a ‘good salary’ compared to 19.8 percent who intend to become teachers.

169

Results of surveys of current high school teachers in NSW in regard to the importance of

wages also showed that it was a more important consideration for male teachers than

female teachers. (These results will be examined in Chapter 6 of this thesis).

5.10 The Private Rate of Return for Teachers

A further factor that is likely to influence the decisions of people to seek employment as

teachers or follow alternative career paths is the private rate of return for teachers compared

to other occupations. There have been a number of studies (Miller 1982, Maglen 1994,

Borland 2000, Johnson and Lloyd 2000, Borland 2001, Lewis 2004) of private rates of

return to higher education in Australia (see Table 5.6). Only two studies have attempted to

measure the private rate of return for teachers. Chapman and Salvage (1997) and

Productivity Commission (1997) show that the private rate of return for teachers is below

the average private rate of return for higher education. In addition the private rate of return

for male teachers is considerably lower than the rate of return for female teachers. There is

also a difference in rates of return between teachers depending on the courses that they

studied (Table 5.7). Teachers who study higher HECS band courses such as Business,

Computing, Economics, Law, Mathematics and Science have lower private rates of return

than those who study English, History and Art. The implications of this can be

demonstrated by comparing the private rates of return for computer professions compared

to computer teachers. The private rate of return for computer professionals was estimated

by the Productivity Commission (1997) at 20.8 percent but the private rate of return for a

male computer teacher in a school was only 6.1 percent.

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Table 5.6 Measurements of the Private Rate of Return to Higher Education

Study Private rate of return (%) Miller (1982) 21.1 Maglen (1994) 13.5 Chapman and Salvage (1997) 9.4 Johnson and Lloyd (2000) 13.4 Borland (2001) 14.5 Lewis et al. (2004) 15.9 Source:Lewis et al.(2004), Borland (2001).

Table 5.7 Measurements of the Private Rate of Return to Teaching (%)

Source Occupation Male Female Average Productivity Commission (1997)

Teacher Ia 6.5 13.2 10.4

Teacher IIb 6.1 13.0 10.1 Chapman and Salvage (1997)

Teacher IIb 5.7 12.3

a Teacher I is an English/History teacher b Teacher II is a Mathematics/Science teacher Source: Productivity Commission (1997), Chapman and Salvage (1997).

5.11 Teacher Salary Relativities: A Benchmarking Approach

Another approach in examining the relative wage of high school teachers in NSW

compared to other occupations is by benchmarking. Horsley and Stokes (2005) conducted

a benchmarking exercise comparing teachers in NSW with four other areas of employment

that teachers might consider. For this benchmarking research project a leading

international firm, Mercer Human Resource Consulting undertook a remuneration

benchmarking study of private sector positions, job descriptions, and salaries in four job

families in Australia.

171

Job families are classifications of private sector occupational groups that reflect common

training and expertise. Human resources firms typically develop job families as a way of

classifying skills and experiences across a range of occupations. The project team required

Mercer to collect data on four job families:

• Information Technology;

• Finance and Administration;

• Engineering and Scientific; and

• Human Resources.

The job families were selected to enable a comparison between teaching and a large range

of professional occupations and to compare within these job families, where clear salary

pressure is evident. For example the Science and Engineering job families that Mercer

collected data on reflected a number of private sector occupations covered by ABS

employment classification data.

An important consideration in this benchmarking project was the development of

descriptions of the benchmarking positions covered in this study. These were developed by

Mercer and allow a comparison to be made between teachers and other professional groups.

This benchmarking exercise showed that teachers are paid substantially less for comparable

work and responsibilities compared to the private sector. As the level of experience and

qualifications in teaching increase the gap widens between the groups. The difference is

most reflected at the top end of the salary scales, where teachers are not able to reach the

over $100,000 salary levels that are available in the all the private sector job families

benchmarked in this study.

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For example, of the professions selected for comparison with the private sector, teaching

positions are somewhat comparable with the private sector in Information Technology.

The most direct comparison could be made between Computer teachers and IT workers. In

many instances schools are competing directly with the private sector for teachers with

qualifications in the IT field. IT is also one of the fields highlighted by the National and

State Skill Shortage Lists for Australia (2003) as an area of teacher shortage. A comparison

was made between the two job families over a number of salary bands.

Band A - School Teacher Steps 5-13 ($39,000- $55,000)

Teachers in this range would have at least a four-year degree combining IT and Education.

They would have up to seven years experience in teaching IT subjects in schools and some

would have other relevant industry experience. They would not only know the content

matter of the IT industry but would have the training to convey this knowledge to others.

IT positions in the private sector identified by Mercer typically require a level of experience

ranging from one to six years and formal qualifications ranging from nil to Higher School

Certificate to a degree or diploma.

One example of a private sector IT position matching indicators for positions with a median

salary within the teacher range of $39,000 - $55,000 is that of a Trainee Programmer. The

Trainee Programmer typically has less than one year’s experience with a three or four year

degree or diploma and is paid in a salary range $37,033, $38,657, $49,64550. A three-year

trained teacher with less than one’s years experience would be earning $35,305, while a

50 The salary data is expressed as an interquartile range for the salary selected.

173

four year trained teacher would receive $39,151. A four year trained teacher would need to

have six years experience to be earning $49,000.

Band B - Executive or Head Teacher – ($56,000 - $64,000)

The head teacher of IT could be most closely benchmarked to an Information Technology

Training Manager on a salary level generally between $58,000 and $77,000. The teacher

would generally have 10 or more years teaching experience and have been selected to be

in-charge of IT and be responsible for managing all the operations of that department. The

Information Technology Training Manager in the private sector has extensive experience

developing and delivering training, as well as experience managing an IT unit or similar

training function.

This benchmarking analysis shows that there is a degree of convergence between the job

descriptions of private and school sector positions. Whilst the Training Manager position

can be compared to that of a teacher in charge of IT (an executive teacher), the actual

description does not reflect the full range of tasks of an executive teacher.

Band D Principal – ($79,000 -$95,000)

A school principal could be most directly benchmarked to the Principal Manager of

Information Systems. The High School Principal Grade 1 (PH1) ($90,572) is a highly

experienced teacher who is responsible for the management, organisation, administration,

supervision, and efficiency of a school and all departments in a school with in excess of

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900 students and with more than 70 staff. The principal MIS executive typically has a three

to five year degree or diploma and over 15 years experience in an IT environment, with at

least 30 staff and an installation cost greater than $900,000. The principal MIS executive is

generally paid in the salary range from $120,000 to $250,000, well in excess of what the

school principal would earn.

What this benchmarking analysis shows is how private sector salaries influence the teacher

labour market. Horsley and Stokes (2005) concluded that because of the poor relative

salaries at all levels of teaching compared to the private sector, potential teachers in the IT

field have been attracted to the private sector by the higher salaries on offer for positions

offering less training, skills and qualifications. In addition IT professionals tend to be

highly mobile and demonstrate enthusiasm for change. They regularly move for

employment opportunities and career progression, enhancement, and job security.

An analysis of the benchmarking exercise carried out between the teaching profession and

the Finance and Administration job family found that there were 20 private sector positions

clearly attracting salaries in the private sector greater than that of the highest teacher salary,

that of principal (PH1). A number of these positions pay salaries in excess of 150 percent

more than that received by the highest paid school principal and had similar managerial

requirements.

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5.11 Conclusion

The use of traditional labour market models to measure the importance of wage relativities

and other factors on the teacher labour market in NSW high schools is limited. This is due

to a number of factors. Not least of which is the role and institutional control of the NSW

Department of Education and Training, the major employer of teachers in NSW. The DET

determines the placement of teachers throughout the NSW public school system. Teachers

cannot move freely inside the public school system and this limits their ability to move

between locations in response to changes in wages and conditions. The wage fixing system

is also highly centralised with teachers in public and Catholic systemic high schools

following the same salary schedule, with only relatively minor differences applying in the

private school system. The absence of an aggregate shortage of teachers at the time of the

census survey also limits the measurement of teacher labour supply in a location as the

quantity supplied is largely in response to the quantity of teachers demanded in a particular

location. The measurement of teacher labour supply is also limited as there is no data

available on the quality of the teachers who are working or willing to work. There is

considerable anecdotal evidence that lower relative wages may not initially reflect a lower

supply of teachers but rather a lowering of the quality of teachers. There are some relevant

variables that cannot be observed by the model, such as marital status and family structure

and differences in living and working conditions between schools and locations.

If the results of the static models are accepted as valid, then there is the implication that

lower relative wages will lead to an increase in the quantity of teachers per student. The

time-series data has shown that in the case of male high school teachers in NSW, that this is

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not true. As the earning relativities of male teachers declined so did the quantity of male

teachers in NSW high schools. The time-series data showed that there had been an increase

in the proportion and quantity of female high school teachers in NSW despite a small

decline (5.9 percent) in relative earnings over the 27-year period.

The benchmarking study showed that teachers could earn relatively higher wages in other

occupations with similar levels of responsibilities and qualifications. Some teachers have

moved to these more financially rewarding occupations but many still stay in teaching.

Wage relativities do have some influence but are not necessarily the main factor that

determines teachers’ decisions to teach or not to teach. The relative importance of wages

compared to nonwage amenities will be explored in the next chapter to try and gain a

clearer picture of what factors influence teachers in NSW high schools and the relative

importance of these factors in the decision of being a teacher.

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Chapter 6. A Survey of Teachers in NSW High Schools on the Influence

of Salaries and Nonwage Amenities in Determining Job Satisfaction

6.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to discover the main factors and the relative importance of those

factors in influencing the overall job satisfaction of teachers in NSW high schools. Job

satisfaction can be defined as an overall feeling about one’s job or career or in terms of

specific facets of the job or career (e.g., compensation, job security, level of support). It

also is a major factor in determining the utility of a worker (see Chapter 2). A teacher’s

satisfaction with his or her career may influence the quality and stability of instruction

given to students. Ostroff (1992) and Ashton and Webb (1986) argue that teachers who do

not feel supported in their work may be less motivated to do their best work in the

classroom. In addition, highly satisfied teachers are less likely to change schools or to

leave the teaching profession altogether, than those who are dissatisfied with many areas of

their work life (Choy, Bobbitt et al. 1993). Workplace conditions that affect not just

current job satisfaction, but satisfaction with teaching as a career, need to be identified and

examined by policy makers. If these conditions can be improved through changes in

policy, then it might be possible to increase the satisfaction levels of the teaching force.

This may lead to an improved retention rate and also attract more university graduates to

the teaching profession. The greater job satisfaction can also lead to increased teacher

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effectiveness, which ultimately affects student achievement (Ashton and Webb 1986,

Carnegie Task Force on Teaching 1986).

6.2 Methodology of the Study

The aim of the study was to survey teachers across the three categories of school systems in

NSW high schools to determine the importance of various factors on their level of

satisfaction as a teacher. A request was made to the NSW Department of Education and

Training (DET) and the regional Catholic Education Offices (CEOs) to survey teachers in a

randomly selected group of high schools in NSW. The DET and all but one of the CEOs

granted their permission. Each organisation stipulated the condition that the authority was

only given, if the principals of the selected schools agreed for their staff to be surveyed. As

there was no controlling authority for independent schools each of these schools’ principals

was contacted separately. Initially 100 requests were sent out at random to 60 public

schools and 20 catholic and 20 independent school principals. The principals were asked to

select 15 teachers at random and ask them if they would like to participate in the study.

The number of teachers per school was selected to gain a diverse sample of views on the

issues to be surveyed and to provide information that would be representative of the three

school systems and the different geographical regions of NSW. Individual participation in

the surveys, by the teachers, was voluntary and anonymous. The conduct of the survey

involved a teacher receiving an envelope with an information sheet, a survey and a reply

paid envelope. The first round of 100 requests and follow up resulted in only seven high

school principals giving permission for their staff to be surveyed. Despite follow up

communication with the principals, there appeared to be reluctance on their part to be

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involved in the study. Some replied that they had too much work to do to be involved

while others said that they did not want to put any more burdens on their ‘overworked’

staff. Others were just not interested. Another possible reason could be that the principals

did not want their staff expressing opinions about their level of satisfaction with the school,

which may reflect on the principal’s performance. Altogether it required requests to almost

400 high schools in NSW to obtain the sample of 269 teachers, who were surveyed in this

study. The time frame for completion of the surveys ranged from the middle of 2000 to the

beginning of 2003.

One concern with this process, but the most feasible way of contacting a diverse group of

teachers, was the possibility of bias by principals in deciding the teachers that they chose.

Selecting a sample of teachers from representation at conferences or through union

membership, which may have provided a larger sample in numerical terms, could have

potentially had a greater bias. Principals could also control conference attendance by

teachers and weekend conference attendance might be likely to attract the more enthusiastic

teachers or those without weekend commitments. Overall I believe that the sample is as

valid as possible considering the restrictions placed on the research by the DET, CEOs, and

the school principals. The range of gender, age, qualifications, locations and school

systems does provide a diverse sample and generally the sample numbers in various

categories do allow for testing of the validity of the results.

The teacher survey (see Appendix A) classified teachers based on:

• gender;

• age;

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• years of teaching experience;

• qualifications;

• salary;

• whether the teachers have supplementary income sources;

• location of the school;

• place of residence;

• type of school;

• non-English speaking background of the school;

• main field of teaching; and

• main classes taught.

The teachers were asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, the importance of various factors51 in measuring their job satisfaction. Those factors were:

• level of salary;

• job security;

• a low level of stress;

• number of holidays;

• hours of work;

• support and encouragement from administration;

• the attitude and support of peers;

• the attitude and support of students;

• the satisfaction of student achievement;

• the support of the students’ parents; 51 The factors were based on surveys of teacher satisfaction in NSW by Dinham and Scott (1997) and in the USA by National Center for Education Statistics (1997).

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• attitude of the general public towards teachers;

• the support of your family;

• interest in the subjects taught;

• the possibility of promotion.

The teachers were also asked how they would rate their current level of satisfaction on a 1-

5 scale of the same factors.

The teachers were also asked questions relating to:

• How long they planned to remain in teaching?

• If they had the opportunity to choose a career again, would they still become a

teacher?

• What were their opinions on the levels of teachers’ salaries?

• Would they leave teaching to go to an occupation that provided them with a 10%

higher salary?

• How difficult did they think it would be for them to change careers?

• Whether they have changed from one education system to another and the reasons

for that change?

6.3 A Description of the Sample

The survey provided data on 269 respondents, made up of 127 (47.4 percent) males and

141 (52.6 percent) females with one missing response (Table 6.1). The highest percentage

of teachers (34.2) was in the age range 40-49 years (Table 6.2). The sample group was

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overall quite experienced with 75 percent of teachers having 10 or more years teaching

experience (Table 6.3). There was a spread of teachers throughout locations in NSW with

59.7 percent teaching in Sydney, 31 percent in country areas and a further 9.4 percent in the

Newcastle–Wollongong city areas (Table 6.4). The teachers were also spread across the

three education systems, with 49.3 percent teaching in public schools, 28.4 percent in

Catholic schools and 22.4 percent in other private schools (Table 6.5). The following

tables also provide comparison data on the actual percentages of teachers in various

categories in NSW high schools where they are available. Further details of the surveyed

group can be found in Appendix B.

Table 6.1 Gender Distribution of Teachers’ Surveyed and Actual Percentages in

NSW High Schools

Gender Frequency Percent Valid percent Actual percent in

2002a

Male 127 47.2 47.4 44.8 Female 141 52.4 52.6 55.2

Valid

Total 268 99.6 100.0 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0 a Australian Bureau of Statistics. Schools Australia, Cat. No 4221.0.

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Table 6.2 Age Distribution of Teachers Surveyed and Estimated Percentages in NSW

Schools

Age distribution Frequency Percent Valid percent Estimated percent

in 2002b

Valid Under 30 46 17.1 17.1 19.0 30-39 57 21.2 21.2 25.0 40-49 92 34.2 34.2 30.0 50-59 67 24.9 24.9 23.0 Over 59 7 2.6 2.6 3.0 Total 269 100.0 100.0 100.0 b This figure is based on DEST (2003) staffing surveys in 2002 for all schools in NSW.

Table 6.3 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Teaching Experience

Years Frequency Percent Valid percent Valid 0-3 26 9.7 9.7 4-9 40 14.9 14.9 10-19 82 30.5 30.5 20 or more 121 45.0 45.0 Total 269 100.0 100.0 Table 6.4: Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on the Location of the School

Location Frequency Percent Valid percent Valid Sydney - inner city 15 5.6 5.6 Sydney - north 28 10.4 10.4 Sydney - south 53 19.7 19.8 Sydney - east 26 9.7 9.7 Sydney - west 38 14.1 14.2 Newcastle 5 1.9 1.9 Wollongong 20 7.4 7.5 Country 83 30.9 31.0 Total 268 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0

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Table 6.5 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on the School System and Actual

Percentages in NSW High Schools

School system Frequency Percent Valid percent Actual percent in

2002 Valid Public 132 49.1 49.3 63.4 Catholic systemic 76 28.3 28.4 21.5 Other private 60 22.3 22.4 15.1 Total 268 99.6 100.0 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0

6.4 How Important were Wages to the Teachers?

There were seven questions in the survey that looked at the importance of salaries and other

sources of income in terms of teachers supplementing their incomes (Q. 8-10), teacher

satisfaction (Q. 17, 18, 21), and whether they would leave teaching to go to another

occupation, if the salary was 10 percent higher (Q. 22). There was a further question (Q.

27) that asked teachers who changed between systems how important was the level of

salary in making the decision to change.

The survey found that 43.8 percent of teachers had supplemented their teaching salary from

at least one other source (Table 6.6). Of these 3.5 percent earned income from other school

related work; 50.4 percent from other education related employment; 30.4 percent from

non-education related employment and 15.7 percent from more than one of these sources

(Table 6.7). Some respondents earned additional income from all three sources. The level

of additional income earned varied considerably. Twenty six point six percent of those

earning additional income received less than $1000 annually; 45.3 percent earned between

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$1000 and $3000; 15.8 percent earned $3001-$6000 and 12.2 percent earned in excess of

$6000 (Table 6.8).

Table 6.6 Teachers’ Supplementary Income

Supplementary income Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent Yes 116 43.1 43.8 43.8 No 149 55.4 56.2 100.0

Valid

Total 265 98.5 100.0 Missing System 4 1.5 Total 269 100.0

Table 6.7 Source of Supplementary Income

Source of supplementary income Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Other school income 4 1.5 3.5 3.5

Other education related employment 58 21.6 50.4 53.9

Non-education employment 35 13.0 30.4 84.3

More than 1 other source 18 6.7 15.7 100.0

Valid

Total 115 42.8 100.0 Missing System 154 57.2 Total 269 100.0

Table 6.8 Annual Additional Income

Income Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Under $1000 37 13.8 26.6 26.6 $1000-$3000 63 23.4 45.3 71.9 $3001-$6000 22 8.2 15.8 87.8 Over $6000 17 6.3 12.2 100.0

Valid

Total 139 51.7 100.0 Missing System 130 48.3 Total 269 100.0

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These results show that many teachers do not consider that their salary is sufficient and

work extra hours supplementing their teacher salaries. In order to earn an additional

income in excess of $3000, it would generally be expected that quite a deal of time would

be allocated to these tasks. For those earning in excess of $6000, the time would be even

greater. The amount of time that it would take to earn the additional income would vary

depending the nature of the additional source of income and the hourly rate of pay. For

example, a teacher working extra hours as a cleaner may receive $20 per hour, so it would

take 300 hours of work or six hours a week to earn $6000. A teacher involved in School

Certificate and Higher School Certificate marking may expect to earn $50 per hour, so it

would take 120 hours of work or approximately 2.5 hours a week to earn $6000. In

addition there would most likely be travelling time also associated with earning extra

income. The time allocated to this extra work is time that is not being devoted to teaching

tasks or allocated to leisure. This could lower the quality and/or quantity of the teaching

and subsequently the educational outcomes for students.

There are also considerable differences in the responses towards earning additional income

from male and female teachers. A much greater percentage of male teachers (54.4) earn

additional sources of income compared to female teachers (34.5) (Table 6.9). The Chi-

square test shows that it can be concluded with a 99 percent confidence level that earning

additional sources of income is not independent of the gender of the teacher. This may

reflect the different roles of males and females in society, with the married male teachers

more likely to be the sole income earner and the married female teachers more likely to be

involved in family duties after school hours. In addition the males are more inclined to

have a number of sources of additional income and are more likely to pursue employment

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not related to teaching (Table 6.10). While 62.7 percent of females pursuing extra income

tend to rely on education related employment, compared to 40.6 percent for males, 34.4

percent of males rely on non-education employment compared to 25.5 percent of females.

An additional 21.9 percent of males gain income from more than one source compared to

only 7.8 percent of females. The Chi-square test shows that it can be concluded with a

greater than 90 percent confidence level that the number of additional sources of income is

not independent of the gender of the teacher. Male teachers are not only more likely to

seek extra sources of income compared to female teachers, but also out of those who do

engage in additional employment, males earn a considerably higher level of income

compared to the female teachers (Table 6.11). Thirty five percent of female teachers, who

earn additional income, receive less than $1000 per annum, compared to 18.7 percent of the

male teachers. Twenty two point seven percent of male teachers earn between $3001 and

$6000 compared to 7.9 percent of female teachers. An additional 16 percent of male

teachers earn in excess of $6000 additional income compared to 7.9 percent of female

teachers. The Chi-square test shows that it can be concluded with a 98 percent confidence

level that the level of additional sources of income is not independent of the gender of the

teacher. These results support the view that male teachers are more concerned about the

level of income that they receive than female teachers and take more steps to gain higher

incomes. These results would tend to suggest that the average weekly earnings data in

Chapter 5 overestimates the average weekly earnings, just from teaching, of male teachers

compared to female teachers.

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Table 6.9 Income Supplementation of Teachers, Based on Gender

Gender Income supplementation Male Female Total

Count 68 48 116 Yes % within supplement income

58.6% 41.4% 100.0%

Count 57 91 148

No % within supplement income

38.5% 61.5% 100.0%

Count 125 139 264 Total % within supplement income

47.3% 52.7% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.546 1 0.001 Continuity Correction 9.755 1 0.002 Likelihood Ratio 10.604 1 0.001 Linear-by-Linear Association

10.506 1 0.001

N of Valid Cases 264 Table 6.10 Other Income Sources, Based on Gender

Gender Other income source Male Female Total

Count 2 2 4 Other school income % within Other

income source 50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

Count 26 32 58 Other education related employment % within Other

income source 44.8% 55.2% 100.0%

Count 22 13 35 Non-education employment % within Other

income source 62.9% 37.1% 100.0%

Count 14 4 18

More than one other source % within Other

income source 77.8% 22.2% 100.0%

Count 64 51 115 Total % within Other income source 55.7% 44.3% 100.0%

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Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 7.112 3 0.068 Likelihood Ratio 7.373 3 0.061 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.406 1 0.011 N of Valid Cases 115 Table 6.11 Annual Additional Income, Based on Gender

Gender Annual additional income Male Female Total

Count 14 22 36 Under $1000 % within annual additional income 38.9% 61.1% 100.0%

Count 32 31 63 $1000-$3000 % within annual additional income 50.8% 49.2% 100.0%

Count 17 5 22 $3001-$6000 % within annual additional income 77.3% 22.7% 100.0%

Count 12 5 17

Over $6000 % within annual additional income 70.6% 29.4% 100.0%

Count 75 63 138 Total % within annual additional income 54.3% 45.7% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.256 3 0.017 Likelihood Ratio 10.650 3 0.014 Linear-by-Linear Association 8.457 1 0.004 N of Valid Cases 138

Question 21 asks teachers their opinions of the level of teachers’ salaries and had five

possible responses:

• very good;

• good;

• satisfactory;

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• unsatisfactory;

• poor.

While both male and female teachers largely had similar attitudes to the level of teachers’

salaries, a higher percentage of males tended to find the level of salaries unsatisfactory or

poor (56.7 percent) compared to 48.2 percent of female teachers (Table 6.12). Only 11.8

percent of male teachers and 13.5 percent of female teacher thought that their wages were

good or very good. The Chi-square test shows that it can be concluded with only a 25

percent confidence level that teachers’ attitudes to their salaries are not independent of the

gender of the teacher.

Table 6.12 Teachers’ Attitudes to their Salaries

Teachers’ salaries Gender Very good Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Poor Total

Male 2 13 40 50 22 127 Female 2 17 54 46 22 141

Total 4 30 94 96 44 268

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 2.059 4 0.725 Likelihood Ratio 2.063 4 0.724 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.023 1 0.312 N of Valid Cases

268

Question 22 was designed to find out if teachers would change occupations, if they were

offered higher salaries in the other occupation. The question asked teachers whether they

would leave teaching to go to another occupation, if it provided them with a 10 percent

higher salary, and offered five possible responses:

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• definitely;

• probably would;

• unsure;

• probably would not;

• definitely would not.

Nine percent of respondents said that they would definitely leave teaching, if they could

gain a 10 percent increase in salary in another occupation (Table 6.13). A further 19.8

percent responded that they would probably leave teaching. While this demonstrates that

wage relativities (at least at a level of 10 percent) are important for some teachers, it is not

highly important for all. There were considerable differences in responses between males

and females. Eleven point three percent of female teachers said that they would definitely

change occupations for a 10 percent salary increase compared to only 6.3 percent of male

teachers. In addition, 18.1 percent of male teachers definitely would not leave teaching

compared to 10.6 percent of female teachers. The Chi-square test shows that it can be

concluded with greater than 90 percent confidence level that teachers’ attitudes to leaving

teaching for a relatively higher salaries are not independent of the gender of the teacher.

Table 6.13 Relative Salaries and Job Choice

Leave teaching

Gender Definitely Probably

would Unsure Probably would not

Definitely would not Total

Male 8 25 28 43 23 127 Female 16 28 45 37 15 141

Total 24 53 73 80 38 268

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Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.221 4 0.084 Likelihood Ratio 8.299 4 0.081 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.201 1 0.023 N of Valid Cases 268

There are a number of possible explanations for these results. It is possible the difference

in the response between males and females teachers reflects the relatively lower wages of

male teachers compared to other males in comparison to the wage of female teachers

compared to other females (Figure 5. 4) that has existed for a number of years. As shown

in Figure 5.5, the decline in the ratio of male teachers to female teachers, that has occurred,

could indicate that many male teachers who were dissatisfied with their salary have already

left the profession. This is also reflected in the higher percentage of males, who have opted

to stay in teaching despite wage levels below male average weekly earnings, who would

definitely not leave teaching for a 10 percent salary increase. Another important

implication of the responses for this question is that, if the relative wages of female teachers

continue to fall (Figure 5.4), there could be an exodus of female teachers also from the

teaching profession. Allowing for the projections, that already exist, of teacher shortages in

the second half of the first decade of the 21st century, this would worsen the situation

considerably.

Question 27 asked teachers, who had changed school systems how important was the level

of salary in their decision to change. The responses showed that the level of salaries

between school systems was viewed by the respondents as having little importance in the

decision to change between school systems (Table 6.14). The median result on the five

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possible response scale was 2.0, which reflected ‘little importance’. Only 9.1 percent of the

respondents who changed school systems considered the level of salary as being ‘very

important’ compared to 40.9 percent who considered it ‘very unimportant’ in their decision.

This result may also help to explain the failure of the economic modeling in Chapter 5 to

provide a clear link between changes in relative wages and the locations where teachers

were available to be employed (supply).

Table 6.14 The Importance of the Level of Salary in Changing School Systems

Level of importance Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Very unimportant 36 13.4 40.9 40.9 Little importance 12 4.5 13.6 54.5 Neutral 21 7.8 23.9 78.4 Some importance 11 4.1 12.5 90.9 Very important 8 3.0 9.1 100.0

Valid

Total 88 32.7 100.0 Missing System 181 67.3 Total 269 100.0 The other two questions (17, 18) that related to the importance of wages in measuring job

satisfaction and the current level of teacher satisfaction with their salary levels will be

considered in the next section of the chapter, that includes other factors that affect job

satisfaction.

6.5 What Determines Job Satisfaction for High School Teachers in NSW?

Survey respondents were asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, the importance of 14 factors in

measuring their job satisfaction. The 1-5 ratings scale was:

5 – very important;

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4 – some importance;

3 – neutral;

2 – little importance;

1 - very unimportant.

The factors selected were based on the results of surveys of teacher satisfaction in NSW by

Dinham and Scott (1997) and in the USA by the National Center for Education Statistics

(1997). While all of the factors listed were of some importance to at least some teachers,

the most important factors in measuring the job satisfaction of teachers in NSW high

schools (Table 6.15), based on the mean scores, were:

• interest in the subjects taught (4.58);

• the satisfaction of student achievement (4.51);

• the attitude of peers (4.36);

• the attitude of students (4.34);

• job security (4.34);

• support from administration (4.29); and

• level of salary (4.13).

The least important factors for teachers in measuring their job satisfaction were:

• the possibility of promotion (2.91);

• hours of work (3.75);

• attitude of the general public (3.80); and

• the low level of stress (3.94).

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6.6 How Does Job Satisfaction Vary with the Different Characteristics of High School

Teachers?

Cross tabulations were run on a number of characteristics to describe what are the

important factors in determining satisfaction for teachers with varying characteristics.

These characteristics include:

• gender;

• age;

• school system;

• level of academic qualifications;

• location of the school.

6.6.1 Hypothesis Testing by Gender Chi-squared analysis of independence allows the testing of independence between gender

and the factors that affect teacher satisfaction. The null and alternative hypotheses are as

follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of gender.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of gender.

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Table 6.15 The Importance of Factors in Measuring Teacher Satisfaction

Statistics Level of salary

Job security

Low level of stress

Number of

holidaysHours of

work

Support from

admini-stration

The attitude

of peers

The attitude

of students

The satisfaction of student

achievement

The support

of students' parents

The attitude of the

general public

The support of your family

Interest in the

subjects taught

The possibility

of promotion

Number Valid 268 268 268 268 268 266 267 267 267 267 267 267 267 266 Missing 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 Mean 4.13 4.34 3.94 3.65 3.75 4.29 4.36 4.34 4.51 4.02 3.80 4.05 4.58 2.91 Median 4.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 3.00 Std. deviation 0.860 0.856 1.163 1.079 1.067 0.956 0.798 0.813 0.674 .869 1.074 1.017 .712 1.257 Skewness -1.136 -1.643 -1.035 -0.634 -0.764 -1.539 -1.454 -1.411 -1.321 -0.936 -0.670 -0.926 -2.221 -0.031 Std. error of skewness 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149

Kurtosis 1.523 3.302 0.308 -0.171 -0.008 2.156 2.771 2.717 2.080 1.150 -0.112 0.289 6.560 -1.032 Std. error of kurtosis 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0298 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.298

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The decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degree of freedom in

the sample. With a degree of freedom of four the decision rule is based on the value 9.49.

With a degree of freedom of three it is 7.81 and with a degree of freedom of two it is 5.99.

For example for a degree of freedom of four the decision rule is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 9.49.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 9.49.

If the null hypothesis is true, the factors selected are independent of the gender of the

teachers.

All of the factors were compared to gender (Table 6.16). The only factor that had a

Pearson Chi-square, that was significant at the five percent level, was support from

administration with 12.28. The result was actually also significant at the one percent level.

Hence we reject H0, and conclude that support from administration is not independent of

the gender of the teacher.

The results show that support from administration is of greater importance to female

teachers than male teachers (Table 6.17). Sixty point seven percent of female teachers

responded that support from administration was ‘very important’ in measuring their level of

job satisfaction but only 43.2 percent of males classified it as ‘very important’. In addition

10.4 percent of males considered support from administration as being ‘very unimportant’

or of ‘little importance’ compared to only 3.5 percent of females.

198

Table 6.16 Gender and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

Factors Chi-square Dfa Asymp. Sig.

(2-sided) Male mean Female mean

Level of salary 4.880 3 0.181 4.17 4.08 Job security 2.966 3 0.397 4.25 4.41 A low level of stress 9.226 4 0.056 3.75 4.11 Number of holidays 8.419 4 0.077 3.70 3.60 Hours of work 3.608 4 0.462 3.67 3.82 Support from administration 12.278 3 0.006 4.07 4.47 The attitude of peers 5.631 3 0.131 4.25 4.45 The attitude of students 2.343 3 0.504 4.28 4.39 The satisfaction of student achievement 4.258 2 0.119 4.44 4.56

The support of students' parents 7.607 3 0.055 3.93 4.10 The attitude of the general public 6.922 4 0.140 3.67 3.91 The support of your family 3.667 3 0.300 4.01 4.09 Interest in the subjects taught 3.655 2 0.161 4.52 4.64

The possibility of promotion 5.113 4 0.276 2.75 3.04

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results. Table 6.17 Gender and Support from Administration

Support from administration

Gender Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Male Count 4 9 15 43 54 125 Expected count 2.8 5.7 10.4 40.6 65.6 125 % within gender 3.2% 7.2% 12.0% 34.4% 43.2% 100.0% Female Count 2 3 7 43 85 140 Expected count 3.2 6.3 11.6 45.4 73.4 140 % within gender 1.4% 2.1% 5.0% 30.7% 60.7% 100.0% Total Count 6 12 22 86 139 265 Expected count 6.0 12.0 22.0 86.0 139.0 265.0 % within gender 2.3% 4.5% 8.3% 32.5% 52.5% 100.0% Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 12.278 3 0.006 Likelihood Ratio 12.491 3 0.006 Linear-by-Linear Association 11.905 1 0.001 N of Valid Cases 264

199

At the 10 percent significance level the other factors that had a Pearson Chi-square, that

were significant, were:

(i) Low level of stress

At the 10 percent significance level we reject H0, and conclude that low level of stress is

not independent of the gender of the teacher. The results show that low level of stress is of

greater importance to female teachers than male teachers (Table 6.18). Forty four percent

of female teachers responded that low level of stress was ‘very important’ in measuring

their level of job satisfaction compared to 36.5 percent of male teachers. In addition 18.2

percent of males considered low level of stress as being ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little

importance’ compared to only 6.3 percent of females.

Table 6.18 Gender and Low Level of Stress

A low level of stress

Gender Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Male Count 11 12 21 36 46 126 Expected

count 7.6 7.6 21.2 38.7 51.0 126.0

% within gender 8.7% 9.5% 16.7% 28.6% 36.5% 100.0%

Female Count 5 4 24 46 62 141 Expected

Count 8.4 8.4 23.8 43.3 57.0 141.0

% within gender 3.5% 2.8% 17.0% 32.6% 44.0% 100.0%

Total Count 16 16 45 82 108 267 Expected

count 16.0 16.0 45.0 82.0 108.0 267.0

% within gender 6.0% 6.0% 16.9% 30.7% 40.4% 100.0%

200

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 9.226 4 0.056 Likelihood Ratio 9.451 4 0.051 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.386 1 0.012 N of Valid Cases 267

(ii) Number of holidays

At the 10 percent significance level we reject H0, and conclude that number of holidays is

not independent of the gender of the teacher. The results show that number of holidays is

of greater importance to male teachers than female teachers (Table 6.19). Twenty five

point four percent of male teachers responded that that number of holidays was ‘very

important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to 19.9 percent of female

teachers. The relationship continues with a further 41.3 percent of males ranking number

of holidays as having ‘some importance’ compared to 36.9 percent of females.

Table 6.19 Gender and Number of Holidays

Number of holidays

Gender Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Male Count 6 16 20 52 32 126 Expected

count 5.7 13.2 29.7 49.1 28.3 126.0

% within gender 4.8% 12.7% 15.9% 41.3% 25.4% 100.0%

Female Count 6 12 43 52 28 141 Expected

count 6.3 14.8 33.3 54.9 31.7 141.0

% within gender 4.3% 8.5% 30.5% 36.9% 19.9% 100.0%

Total Count 12 28 63 104 60 267 Expected

count 12.0 28.0 63.0 104.0 60.0 267.0

% within gender 4.5% 10.5% 23.6% 39.0% 22.5% 100.0%

201

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.419 4 0.077 Likelihood Ratio 8.591 4 0.072 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.603 1 0.437 N of Valid Cases 267

(iii) The support of students’ parents

At the 10 percent significance level we reject H0, and conclude that the support of students’

parents is not independent of the gender of the teacher. The results show that the support of

students’ parents is of greater importance to female teachers than male teachers (Table

6.20). Eighty three point six percent of female teachers responded that the support of

students’ parents was ‘very important’ or having ‘some importance’ in measuring their

level of job satisfaction compared to 72.2 percent of male teachers. In addition 7.9 percent

of males considered the support of students’ parents as being ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little

importance’ compared to only 2.9 percent of females.

Table 6.20 Support of Student’ Parents

The support of students' parents

Gender Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Male Count 4 6 25 51 40 126 Expected

count 1.9 4.7 20.8 60.2 38.4 126.0

% within gender 3.2% 4.8% 19.8% 40.5% 31.7% 100.0%

Female Count 0 4 19 76 41 140 Expected

count 2.1 5.3 23.2 66.8 42.6 140.0

% within gender 0.0% 2.9% 13.6% 54.3% 29.3% 100.0%

Total Count 4 10 44 127 81 266 Expected

count 4.0 10.0 44.0 127.0 81.0 266.0

% within gender 1.5% 3.8% 16.5% 47.7% 30.5% 100.0%

202

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 7.607 3 0.055 Likelihood Ratio 7.706 3 0.052 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.898 1 0.168 N of Valid Cases 266 The results show that for at least four of the factors that influence teacher satisfaction the

importance varies significantly between males and female teachers. Female teachers are

more concerned than male teachers about factors that impact them on a personal level of

contact, such as support from administration, support from the parents of students and the

level of stress they face in the job. Male teachers are more concerned than female teachers

about extrinsic factors, such as the number of holidays.

6.6.2 Hypothesis Testing by Age

Chi-squared analysis of independence allows the testing of independence between the age

of the teachers and the factors that affect teacher satisfaction. The null and alternative

hypotheses are as follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of age

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of age

The decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degree of freedom in

the sample. With a degree of freedom of six the decision rule is based on the value 12.59

and with a degree of freedom of nine it is 16.92. The decision rule at the five percent

significance level, with a degree of freedom of 12, is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 21.03.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 21.03.

203

If the null hypothesis is true, the factors selected are independent of the age of the teachers.

All of the factors were compared to age (Table 6.21)

Table 6.21 Age and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job Satisfaction

Summary Table

Statistics Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean under 30

Mean 30-39

Mean 40-49

Mean over 50

Level of salary 8.516 6 0.203 3.96 4.26 4.08 4.19 Job security 2.294 6 0.891 4.33 4.23 4.43 4.31 A low level of stress 4.035 9 0.909 3.76 3.98 3.93 4.03 Number of holidays 11.60 9 0.237 3.54 3.61 3.84 3.51 Hours of work 11.59 9 0.237 3.54 4.02 3.80 3.62 Support from administration 3.821 6 0.701 4.51 4.30 4.24 4.19

The attitude of peers 6.213 6 0.400 4.53 4.33 4.24 4.42 The attitude of students 10.07 6 0.122 4.38 4.07 4.37 4.47 The satisfaction of student achievement 5.060 6 0.536 4.64 4.35 4.49 4.55

The support of students' parents 1.852 6 0.933 4.13 4.04 3.97 4.00

The attitude of the general public 9.865 9 0.361 3.96 3.98 3.74 3.64

The support of your family 2.042 9 0.991 4.16 4.00 4.02 4.07

Interest in the subjects taught 2.745 6 0.840 4.64 4.51 4.57 4.62

The possibility of promotion 27.12 12 0.007 3.49 3.25 2.67 2.60

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

Only one factor had a Pearson Chi-square result that was significant at the five percent

level. That factor, which was also significant at the one percent level, was the possibility of

promotion with 27.12 (Table 6.21). In this case we reject H0, and conclude that the

importance of the possibility of promotion is not independent of the age of the teacher, in

measuring teacher satisfaction. The results show that the possibility of promotion is of

greatest importance to younger teachers than older teachers (Table 6.22). In the age band

204

under 30, 22.2 percent of teachers responded that the possibility of promotion was ‘very

important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to 15.8 percent in the 30–

39 age band, 7.7 percent in the 40-49 age band, and 4.1 percent aged 50 and over.

Table 6.22 Age and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

Age Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Under 30 Count 2 7 13 13 10 45 Expected

count 7.8 9.3 11.8 11.2 4.9 45.0

% within age 4.4% 15.6% 28.9% 28.9% 22.2% 100.0%

30-39 Count 9 5 15 19 9 57 Expected

count 9.9 11.8 15.0 14.1 6.2 57.0

% within age 15.8% 8.8% 26.3% 33.3% 15.8% 100.0%

40-49 Count 20 22 24 18 7 91 Expected

count 15.7 18.8 23.9 22.6 9.9 91.0

% within age 22.0% 24.2% 26.4% 19.8% 7.7% 100.0%

50 and over Count 15 21 18 16 3 73 Expected

count 12.6 15.1 19.2 18.1 8.0 73.0

% within age 20.5% 28.8% 24.7% 21.9% 4.1% 100.0%

Total Count 46 55 70 66 29 266 Expected

count 46.0 55.0 70.0 66.0 29.0 266.0

% within age 17.3% 20.7% 26.3% 24.8% 10.9% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 27.122 12 0.007 Likelihood Ratio 29.287 12 0.004 Linear-by-Linear Association 19.063 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 266

205

It could be expected that younger teachers would see promotion as a goal, whereas older

teachers may have already achieved it or decided to give up pursuing it as a goal, or at least

was not important to them in measuring their job satisfaction level.

At the 10 percent significance level there are no additional factors that are affected by age

(Table 6.21).

6.6.3 Hypothesis Testing by School System

The null and alternative hypotheses are as follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of school system.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of school

system.

The decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degree of freedom in

the sample. With a degree of freedom of four the decision rule is based on the value 9.49.

With a degree of freedom of six it is 12.59 and with a degree of freedom of eight it is 15.51.

For example for a degree of freedom of four the decision rule is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 9.49.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 9.49.

If the null hypothesis is true the factors selected are independent of the school system of the

teachers.

All of the factors were compared to the different school systems (Table 6.23).

206

Table 6.23 School Systems and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job

Satisfaction Summary Table

Statistics Chi-square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean public school

Mean Catholic systemic

Mean other private school

Level of salary 7.645 4 0.105 4.23 4.13 3.90 Job security 6.756 4 0.149 4.28 4.51 4.23 A low level of stress 10.24 6 0.115 3.98 4.16 3.57 Number of holidays 12.73 6 0.048 3.60 3.95 3.38 Hours of work 17.35 6 0.008 3.73 4.09 3.38 Support from administration 5.486 4 0.228 4.18 4.39 4.38 The attitude of peers 5.866 4 0.209 4.40 4.21 4.45 The attitude of students 10.99 4 0.027 4.29 4.47 4.28 The satisfaction of student achievement 2.779 4 0.595 4.54 4.44 4.52

The support of students’ parents 6.700 4 0.153 4.02 3.97 4.08

The attitude of the general public 20.77 6 0.002 4.00 3.76 3.40

The support of your family 9.290 6 0.158 4.05 4.24 3.83 Interest in the subjects taught 6.871 4 0.143 4.50 4.65 4.68

The possibility of promotion 10.57 8 0.227 2.73 2.92 3.30

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

Four factors were important at the five percent significance level. These factors were

number of holidays, hours of work, the attitude of students, and the attitude of the general

public. In these cases we reject H0, and conclude that the number of holidays, hours of

work, the attitude of students, and the attitude of the general public are not independent of

the school system of the teacher.

(i) School systems and number of holidays

The results show that the number of holidays is of greatest importance to teachers in

Catholic schools, than those in public and private school systems (Table 6.24). In the

207

Catholic school system 28.9 percent of teachers responded that number of holidays was

‘very important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to 22.0 percent in

public schools and 16.7 percent in private schools. In addition only 6.6 percent of teachers

in Catholic schools considered number of holidays as being ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little

importance’ compared to 25.0 percent of private school teachers and 15.2 percent of public

school teachers. The low rating of importance of holidays for private school teachers could

reflect their satisfaction with generally having more holidays than the other systems or their

preference for the extra financial compensations they receive for their duties in exchange

for less leisure (the substitution effect).

Table 6.24 School System and Number of Holidays

Number of holidays

School system

Very unimportant/little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Public Count 20 35 48 29 132 Expected count 19.7 31.0 51.2 30.0 132.0 % within school

type 15.2% 26.5% 36.4% 22.0% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 5 14 35 22 76 Expected count 11.3 17.9 29.5 17.3 76.0 % within school

type 6.6% 18.4% 46.1% 28.9% 100.0%

Other private Count 15 14 21 10 60 Expected count 9.0 14.1 23.3 13.7 60.0 % within school

type 25.0% 23.3% 35.0% 16.7% 100.0%

Total Count 40 63 104 61 268 Expected count 40.0 63.0 104.0 61.0 268.0 % within school

type 14.9% 23.5% 38.8% 22.8% 100.0%

208

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 12.726 6 0.048 Likelihood Ratio 12.978 6 0.043 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.601 1 0.438 N of Valid Cases 268

(i) School systems and hours of work

The Chi-square test results for hours of work are valid at a one percent significance level.

The results show that the hours of work is of greatest importance to teachers in Catholic

schools, than those in public and private school systems (Table 6.25).

Table 6.25 School System and Hours of Work

Hours of work

School system

Very unimportant/little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Public Count 19 22 59 32 132 Expected

count 18.7 24.1 55.2 34.0 132.0

% within school type 14.4% 16.7% 44.7% 24.2% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 4 12 33 27 76 Expected

count 10.8 13.9 31.8 19.6 76.0

% within school type 5.3% 15.8% 43.4% 35.5% 100.0%

Other private Count 15 15 20 10 60 Expected

count 8.5 11.0 25.1 15.4 60.0

% within school type 25.0% 25.0% 33.3% 16.7% 100.0%

Total Count 38 49 112 69 268 Expected

count 38.0 49.0 112.0 69.0 268.0

% within school type 14.2% 18.3% 41.8% 25.7% 100.0%

209

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 17.350 6 0.008 Likelihood Ratio 17.699 6 0.007 Linear-by-Linear Association 2.909 1 0.088 N of Valid Cases 268

In the Catholic school system 35.5 percent of teachers responded that hours of work was

‘very important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to 24.2 percent in

public schools and 16.7 percent in private schools. In addition only 5.3 percent of teachers

in Catholic schools considered hours of work as being ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little

importance’ compared to 25.0 percent of private school teachers and 14.4 percent of public

school teachers. The low rating of hours of work in private schools could reflect the

expectation of the system that teachers who work in private schools will be expected to do

extra duties (usually with financial compensation). The teachers who want to work in the

private school system may choose to do so because they do not consider the hours of work

as being particularly important in their overall job satisfaction.

(ii) School systems and the attitude of students

The results show that the attitude of students is of greatest importance to teachers in

Catholic schools, than those in public and private school systems (Table 6.26). In the

Catholic school system 53.3 percent of teachers responded that the attitude of students was

‘very important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to 52.3 percent in

public schools and 43.3 percent in private schools.

210

Table 6.26 School System and the Attitude of Students

The attitude of students

School system Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Public Count 3 0 22 38 69 132 Expected

count 2.0 0.5 15.3 47.5 66.7 132.0

% within school type

2.3% 0.0% 16.7% 28.8% 52.3% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 0 0 5 30 40 75 Expected

count 1.1 0.3 8.7 27.0 37.9 75.0

% within school type

0.0% 0.0% 6.7% 40.0% 53.3% 100.0%

Other private Count 1 1 4 28 26 60 Expected

count 0.9 0.2 7.0 21.6 30.3 60.0

% within school type

1.7% 1.7% 6.7% 46.7% 43.3% 100.0%

Total Count 4 1 31 96 135 267 Expected

count 4.0 1.0 31.0 96.0 135.0 267.0

% within school type

1.5% 0.4% 11.6% 36.0% 50.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value Dfa Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.991 4 0.027 Likelihood Ratio 11.303 4 0.023 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.083 1 0.773 N of Valid Cases 267

(a) The results for responses of very unimportant, of little importance and neutral were combined due to the low number of responses in each of these categories.

By including ‘some importance’ with ‘very important’ 93.3 percent of teachers in Catholic

schools considered the attitude of students in measuring their job satisfaction. The total by

including ‘some importance’ with ‘very important’ rose to 90.0 percent for private school

teachers and 81.1 percent for public school teachers.

211

(iii) School systems and the attitude of the general public

The Chi-square test results for the attitude of the general public are valid at a one percent

significance level. The results show that the attitude of the general public is of greatest

importance to teachers in public schools, compared to those in Catholic and private school

systems (Table 6.27).

Table 6.27 School System and the Attitude of the General Public

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.769 6 0.002 Likelihood Ratio 20.830 6 0.002 Linear-by-Linear Association 13.542 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 267

The attitude of the general public

School system Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Public Count 5 8 22 44 53 132 Expected

count 4.9 9.4 34.1 42.5 41.0 132.0

% within school type

3.8% 6.1% 16.7% 33.3% 40.2% 100.0%

Catholic systemic

Count 0 5 26 26 18 75

Expected count 2.8 5.3 19.4 24.2 23.3 75.0

% within school type

0.0% 6.7% 34.7% 34.7% 24.0% 100.0%

Other private Count 5 6 21 16 12 60 Expected

count 2.2 4.3 15.5 19.3 18.7 60.0

% within school type

8.3% 10.0% 35.0% 26.7% 20.0% 100.0%

Total Count 10 19 69 86 83 267 Expected

count 10.0 19.0 69.0 86.0 83.0 267.0

% within school type

3.7% 7.1% 25.8% 32.2% 31.1% 100.0%

212

In the public school system 40.2 percent of teachers responded that the attitude of the

general public was ‘very important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction compared to

24.0 percent in Catholic schools and 20.0 percent in private schools. By including ‘some

importance’ with ‘very important’ 73.5 percent of teachers in public schools considered the

attitude of the general public in measuring their job satisfaction as important. The total by

including ‘some importance’ with ‘very important’ only rose to 46.7 percent for private

school teachers and 58.7 percent for Catholic teachers.

As the media and politicians are generally more critical of public school teachers, this could

explain why the public school teachers are more concerned about the general public’s

perception of them.

6.6.4 Hypothesis Testing by Level of Academic Qualifications

Chi-squared analysis of independence allows the testing of independence between the

academic qualification of the teachers and the factors that affect teacher satisfaction. The

decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degree of freedom in the

sample. With a degree of freedom of four the decision rule is based on the value 9.49.

With a degree of freedom of six it is 12.59 and with a degree of freedom of eight it is 15.51.

If the null hypothesis is true the factors selected are independent of the level of academic

qualifications of the teachers.

213

All of the factors were compared to academic qualifications (Table 6.28). Only one factor

had a Pearson Chi-square result that was significant at the five percent level. That factor

was the possibility of promotion and was also significant at the one percent level (Table

6.29). In this case we reject H0, and conclude that the importance of the possibility of

promotion is not independent of the qualifications of the teacher, in measuring teacher

satisfaction.

Table 6.28 Level of Academic Qualifications and the Importance of Factors in

Determining Job Satisfaction Summary Table

Factors Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean diploma/other

Mean bachelors

degree

Mean masters

degree or higher

Level of salary 1.866 4 0.760 3.95 4.14 4.12 Job security 3.661 4 0.454 4.40 4.35 4.28 A low level of stress 6.497 6 0.370 4.15 3.96 3.81 Number of holidays 1.362 6 0.968 3.75 3.64 3.63 Hours of work 2.992 6 0.810 4.10 3.74 3.63 Support from administration 3.038 4 0.552 4.45 4.26 4.33

The attitude of peers 6.405 4 0.171 4.35 4.35 4.47 The attitude of students 0.467 4 0.977 4.45 4.31 4.35 The satisfaction of student achievement 3.525 4 0.474 4.65 4.49 4.51

The support of students' parents 2.534 4 0.639 3.90 4.00 4.14

The attitude of the general public 5.873 6 0.438 3.75 3.81 3.70

The support of your family 12.17 6 0.058 4.25 4.03 4.02 Interest in the subjects taught 7.721 4 0.102 4.50 4.58 4.65

The possibility of promotion 20.04 8 0.010 2.35 2.92 3.19

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

The results show that the possibility of promotion is of greatest importance to the more

qualified teachers rather than the least qualified teachers (Table 6.29). Of those teachers

214

with masters degrees or higher, 55.8 percent responded that the possibility of promotion

was ‘very important’ or of ‘some importance’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction

compared to 33.4 percent for the next most qualified group, those with bachelors degrees.

Only 20.8 percent of those with the lowest qualifications, diplomas and other, considered

that promotion was important in their measurement of job satisfaction. Indeed 54.2 percent

of teachers with a diploma or other qualification, as their highest qualification earned,

ranked promotion as ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little importance’ in their measurement of

job satisfaction.

Table 6.29: Level of Academic Qualifications and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

Qualification Very

unimportantLittle

importance NeutralSome

importance Very

important Total Count 7 6 6 3 2 24 Expected count 4.1 5.0 6.3 6.0 2.6 24.0

Diploma/other

% within qualification 29.2% 25.0% 25.0% 12.5% 8.3% 100.0%

Count 31 44 57 42 24 198 Expected count 33.6 41.1 52.3 49.3 21.7 198.0

Bachelors degree

% within qualification 15.7% 22.2% 28.8% 21.2% 12.1% 100.0%

Count 7 5 7 21 3 43 Expected count 7.3 8.9 11.4 10.7 4.7 43.0

Masters degree or higher

% within qualification 16.3% 11.6% 16.3% 48.8% 7.0% 100.0%

Count 45 55 70 66 29 265 Expected count 45.0 55.0 70.0 66.0 29.0 265.0

Total

% within qualification 17.0% 20.8% 26.4% 24.9% 10.9% 100.0%

215

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.04 8 0.010 Likelihood Ratio 18.55 8 0.017 Linear-by-Linear Association 4.905 1 0.027 N of Valid Cases 265

This result could actually reflect the situation that some teachers have undertaken extra

study to gain extra qualifications, which would lead them in turn to promotion. Having

invested in human capital by undertaking extra study, those teachers would expect a return

on their investment. Once a teacher has reached the top level (Step 13) of the salary scale

the only other source of extra salary inside the teaching profession would be through

promotion. As a result promotion would be a higher priority for this group in measuring

their job satisfaction.

At the 10 percent level of significance, support from the family is also linked to the level of

qualifications of the teachers (Table 6.30). The teachers with the lowest levels of

qualifications considered support from their families as being more important than the other

two more qualified groups. Ninety one point three percent of the diploma/other group

consider support of their families as being very important or of some importance, compared

to 67.8 percent of those with bachelors degrees and 74.4 percent of those with masters or

higher degrees.

216

Table 6.30 Level of Academic Qualifications and Support of Your Family

The support of your family

Qualification

Very unimportant/little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Diploma/other Count 0 2 13 9 24 Expected

count 1.8 4.8 7.2 10.2 24.0

% within qualification 0.0% 8.3% 54.2% 37.5% 100.0%

Bachelors degree Count 15 45 52 87 199 Expected

count 15.0 39.7 59.8 84.5 199.0

% within qualification 7.5% 22.6% 26.1% 43.7% 100.0%

Masters degree or higher

Count 5 6 15 17 43

Expected count 3.2 8.6 12.9 18.3 43.0

% within qualification 11.6% 14.0% 34.9% 39.5% 100.0%

Total Count 20 53 80 113 266 Expected

count 20.0 53.0 80.0 113.0 266.0

% within qualification 7.5% 19.9% 30.1% 42.5% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 12.171 6 0.058 Likelihood Ratio 13.497 6 0.036 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.911 1 0.340 N of Valid Cases 266

6.6.5 Hypothesis Testing by Location of the School

It is important to examine whether teacher satisfaction is affected by location of the school.

If it is, it may be necessary for school systems to adopt different policies to improve teacher

satisfaction based on geographical location. Chi-squared analysis of independence allows

the testing of independence between location of the school and the factors that affect

teacher satisfaction. The null and alternative hypotheses are as follows:

217

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of location of the

school.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of location of

the school.

The decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degree of freedom for

each factor. If the null hypothesis is true the factors selected are independent of the

location of the school of the teachers. All of the factors were compared to the location of

the school where the respondents were teaching (Table 6.31). The results show that there is

little difference in the importance of any of the factors between city and rural areas, as a

whole. No factors were significant at the five percent level. There were two factors that

were significant at the 10 percent level of significance. They were the attitude of peers and

the attitude of students. The results show that while there is little difference in the

importance of the attitude of peers between city and rural areas, as a whole, there is a

difference inside the Sydney region (Table 6.32).

218

Table 6.31 Location of Schoola and the Importance of Factors in Determining Job

Satisfaction Summary Table

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

Factors

Chi-square Dfb

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Sydney inner

city/east

Sydney north

Sydney south

Sydney west

Newcastle/ Wollongong country

Level of salary 6.756 10 0.748 4.23 3.68 4.19 4.18 4.10 4.06 Job security 14.41 10 0.155 4.42 4.14 4.58 4.34 4.35 4.16 A low level of stress 10.20 15 0.807 4.04 3.64 4.17 3.89 3.55 3.99

Number of holidays 9.580 15 0.845 3.88 3.64 3.75 3.71 3.60 3.54

Hours of work 19.31 15 0.200 4.08 3.39 4.02 3.68 3.25 3.80 Support from administration 15.12 10 0.128 4.24 4.07 4.43 4.62 3.95 4.23

The attitude of peers 16.01 10 0.099 4.00 4.36 4.43 4.68 4.30 4.28

The attitude of students 16.33 10 0.091 4.31 4.43 4.53 4.08 4.10 4.29

The satisfaction of student achievement

2.029 10 0.996 4.46 4.50 4.49 4.51 4.55 4.48

The support of students' parents

13.49 10 0.198 3.75 4.11 4.08 3.81 4.15 4.09

The attitude of the general public

22.19 15 0.103 3.50 3.79 4.04 3.89 3.35 3.84

The support of your family 9.821 15 0.831 3.90 3.93 4.21 4.30 4.00 3.91

Interest in the subjects taught 15.17 10 0.126 4.70 4.43 4.72 4.57 4.60 4.48

The possibility of promotion 17.26 20 0.636 3.05 3.15 2.98 3.24 2.80 2.91

(a) Some locations were combined to improve the validity of the results. They were Sydney inner city with Sydney east and the two regional cities Newcastle and Wollongong. (b)The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

The attitude of peers is of greatest importance to teachers working in the western suburbs of

Sydney and least important to those in the inner city/eastern suburbs and northern suburbs

of Sydney. Seventy three percent of teachers working in the western suburbs considered

that the attitude of peers was ‘very important’ in measuring their level of job satisfaction

compared to only 41.5 percent of teachers in the inner city/eastern suburbs of Sydney.

219

Table 6.32 Location and Attitude of Peers

The attitude of peers

Location Unimportant/neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Sydney - inner city/east Count 7 17 17 41 Expected

count 4.8 15.2 21.0 41.0

% within location 17.1% 41.5% 41.5% 100.0%

Sydney - north Count 5 6 17 28 Expected

count 3.3 10.4 14.4 28.0

% within location 17.9% 21.4% 60.7% 100.0%

Sydney - south Count 4 22 26 52 Expected

count 6.1 19.2 26.7 52.0

% within location 7.7% 42.3% 50.0% 100.0%

Sydney - west Count 2 8 27 37 Expected

count 4.3 13.7 19.0 37.0

% within location 5.4% 21.6% 73.0% 100.0%

Newcastle/Wollongong Count 2 13 11 26 Expected

count 3.0 9.6 13.3 26.0

% within location 7.7% 50.0% 42.3% 100.0%

Country Count 11 32 38 81 Expected

count 9.5 30.0 41.6 81.0

% within location 13.6% 39.5% 46.9% 100.0%

Total Count 31 98 136 265 Expected

count 31.0 98.0 136.0 265.0

% within location 11.7% 37.0% 51.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.01 10 0.099 Likelihood Ratio 16.47 10 0.087 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.003 1 0.958 N of Valid Cases 265

In addition 17.9 percent of teachers in the northern suburbs and 17.1 percent of teachers in

the inner city/eastern suburbs considered attitude of peers as being ‘very unimportant’ or of

‘little importance’ or ‘neutral’ compared to only 5.4 percent in the western suburbs. These

220

results could reflect the greater level of difficulty often associated with teaching in the

western suburbs and the overall younger median age of teachers in the western suburbs of

Sydney53. Younger teachers may require a greater level of support from their peers.

The second factor that was significant at the 10 percent level was the attitude of students

(Table 6.33). The attitude of students is of greatest importance to teachers working in the

southern suburbs of Sydney and least important to those in Newcastle/Wollongong and the

western suburbs of Sydney. Fifty six point six percent of teachers working in the southern

suburbs considered that the attitude of students was ‘very important’ in measuring their

level of job satisfaction compared to only 48.6 percent of teachers in the western suburbs of

Sydney and only 34.6 percent in Newcastle/Wollongong. In addition 27.0 percent of

teachers in the western suburbs and 11.5 percent of teachers in Newcastle/Wollongong

considered the attitude of students as being ‘very unimportant’ or of ‘little importance’ or

‘neutral’ compared to only 3.8 percent in the southern suburbs of Sydney.

It should be noted that the size of the sample for the regional analysis of location of schools

might limit the ability of the study to make judgments of the importance of various factors

on locations, except for a comparison between city and rural areas. The overall result of the

study showed that there was not any significant difference between rural and city areas in

terms of what teachers consider are important factors in measuring their level of job

satisfaction.

53 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 Census (2003c).

221

Table 6.33 Location and Attitude of Students

The attitude of students

Location Unimportant/neutralSome

importance Very

important Total Count 4 15 22 41 Expected count 5.5 14.6 20.8 41.0

Sydney - inner city/east

% within location 9.8% 36.6% 53.7% 100.0%

Count 3 10 15 28 Expected count 3.8 10.0 14.2 28.0

Sydney - north

% within location 10.7% 35.7% 53.6% 100.0%

Count 2 21 30 53 Expected count 7.2 18.9 26.9 53.0

Sydney - south

% within location 3.8% 39.6% 56.6% 100.0%

Count 10 9 18 37 Expected count 5.0 13.2 18.8 37.0

Sydney - west

% within location 27.0% 24.3% 48.6% 100.0%

Count 3 14 9 26 Expected count 3.5 9.3 13.2 26.0

Newcastle/Wollongong

% within location 11.5% 53.8% 34.6% 100.0%

Count 14 26 41 81 Expected count 11.0 28.9 41.1 81.0

Country

% within location 17.3% 32.1% 50.6% 100.0%

Count 36 95 135 266 Expected count 36.0 95.0 135.0 266.0

Total

% within location 13.5% 35.7% 50.8% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.33 10 0.091 Likelihood Ratio 16.70 10 0.081 Linear-by-Linear Association 2.449 1 0.118 N of Valid Cases 266

222

6.7 What is the Level of Job Satisfaction among High School Teachers in NSW?

NSW High school teachers were asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, their current level of

satisfaction with each of the 14 factors used in this study to measure their job satisfaction.

The 1-5 ratings scale was:

5 – very high;

4 – moderately high;

3 – neutral;

2 – moderately low;

1 – very low.

Overall the level of satisfaction of high school teachers in NSW is not very high. The

factors that the respondents ranked as giving them the highest current levels of satisfaction

(Table 6.34), based on the mean scores, were:

• interest in the subjects taught (4.29);

• the support of their family (4.12);

• job security (4.08);

• number of holidays (3.92);

• the attitude of peers (3.77);

• the satisfaction of student achievement (3.77); and

• the attitude of students (3.55).

223

A number of factors had a mean score rating the level of satisfaction on the low level of the

scale. These were:

• attitude of the general public (2.12);

• a low level of stress (2.23);

• level of salary (2.65);

• the possibility of promotion (2.69); and

• hours of work (2.94).

Many of the most satisfying factors for teachers related to largely intrinsic factors that come

from classroom activities and their relationships and support from family, students, and

peers. On the other hand many of the least satisfying factors are extrinsic in nature relating

to conditions of employment and the public’s perception of teachers. The extrinsic factors

are largely beyond the teachers’ control, so improvements in these areas are largely up to

the administrators of the various systems of education in NSW. The factor ‘attitude of the

general public’ suggests that teachers believe that the general public do not appreciate the

work of teachers or have a negative attitude towards teachers. The image portrayed of

teachers by certain sections of the media and the view that teachers are well paid and have

good working conditions and should not go on strike all probably contribute to this

perception.

224

Table 6.34 Levels of Teacher Satisfaction

Statistics Level of salary

Job security

Low level

of stress

Number of

holidays Hours

of work

Support from

admini-stration

The attitude

of peers

The attitude

of students

The satisfaction of student

achievement

The support

of students' parents

The attitude of the

general public

Support of your family

Interest in the

subjects taught

The possibility

of promotion

Number Valid 266 266 267 267 267 265 266 266 267 266 266 267 266 264 Missing 3 3 2 2 2 4 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 5

Mean 2.65 4.08 2.23 3.92 2.94 3.13 3.77 3.55 3.77 3.17 2.12 4.12 4.29 2.69 Std. error of mean 0.068 0.059 0.070 0.059 0.072 0.078 0.060 0.065 0.053 0.062 0.062 0.059 0.048 0.070 Median 3.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 Std. deviation 1.113 0.960 1.143 0.970 1.184 1.264 0.978 1.064 0.874 1.003 1.016 0.971 0.780 1.131 Skewness 0.070 -0.940 0.813 -0.507 0.062 -0.232 -0.712 -0.470 -0.492 -0.315 0.853 -0.970 -1.094 0.015 Std. error of skewness 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.150 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.149 0.150

Kurtosis -0.981 0.331 -0.010 -0.332 -0.898 -0.988 0.141 -0.488 -0.016 -0.438 0.452 0.491 1.298 -0.717 Std. error of kurtosis 0.298 0.298 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.298 0.298 0.298 0.297 0.298 0.298 0.297 0.298 0.299

225

6.8 How Does the Level of Job Satisfaction Vary with the Characteristics of

Teachers in NSW High Schools?

Cross tabulations were run on a number of characteristics to describe the levels of

teacher satisfaction in regard to the factors measured in the survey. These

characteristics include:

(i) gender;

(ii) school system;

(iii) age ;

(iv) level of academic qualifications; and

(v) location of the school.

6.8.1 Hypothesis Testing by Gender

All of the factors were compared to gender (Table 6.35). In only four of the 14

categories were male teachers more satisfied than female teachers. In the remaining 10

categories female teachers were more satisfied, suggesting that overall female teachers

are more satisfied with their job than male teachers. This may also assist in explaining

why the ratio of male teachers to female teachers in NSW high schools has been

declining (Figure 5.6).

226

Chi-squared analysis of independence allows the testing of independence between

gender and the level of teacher satisfaction. The null and alternative hypotheses are as

follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of gender.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of gender.

The decision rule at the five percent significance level is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 9.49.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 9.49.

The value 9.49 is from the Chi-squared distribution with a degree of freedom of 4.

If the null hypothesis is true the factors selected are independent of the gender of the

teachers.

The only factor that had a Pearson Chi-square, that was greater than 9.49, was

satisfaction of student achievement with 12.78 (Table 6.36). Hence we reject H0, and

conclude that satisfaction of student achievement is not independent of the gender of the

teacher. The results show that female teachers are more satisfied as a result of student

achievement than male teachers. Seventy five point two percent of female teachers

responded that their level of satisfaction of student achievement was ‘moderately high’

or ‘very high’ but only 57.6 percent of males classified it as ‘moderately high’ or ‘very

high’. In addition 10.4 percent of males considered their level of satisfaction of student

achievement was ‘very low’ or ‘moderately low’ compared to only 5.7 percent of

females.

227

Table 6.35: Gender and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

Factors Chi-Square df Asymp. Sig.

(2-sided) Male mean Female mean

Level of salary 0.936 4 0.919 2.62 2.69 Job security 2.941 4 0.568 4.11 4.05 A low level of stress 8.016 4 0.091 2.41 2.09 Number of holidays 4.645 4 0.326 3.94 3.90 Hours of work 5.958 4 0.202 3.10 2.79 Support from administration 3.824 4 0.430 3.07 3.18 The attitude of peers 5.471 4 0.242 3.70 3.83 The attitude of students 4.019 4 0.403 3.45 3.66 The satisfaction of student achievement 12.78 4 0.012 3.65 3.89

The support of students' parents 2.635 4 0.621 3.10 3.23

The attitude of the general public 7.252 4 0.123 2.10 2.14

The support of your family 2.383 4 0.666 4.08 4.17 Interest in the subjects taught 3.511 4 0.476 4.22 4.36 The possibility of promotion 9.226 4 0.056 2.53 2.83

Table 6.36 Gender and the Satisfaction of Student Achievement

The satisfaction of student achievement

Gender Very low Moderately

low Neutral Moderately

high Very high Total

Male Count 0 13 40 50 22 125 Expected

count 0.9 8.9 31.5 59.2 24.4 125.0

% within gender 0.0% 10.4% 32.0% 40.0% 17.6% 100.0%

Female Count 2 6 27 76 30 141 Expected

count 1.1 10.1 35.5 66.8 27.6 141.0

% within gender 1.4% 4.3% 19.1% 53.9% 21.3% 100.0%

Total Count 2 19 67 126 52 266 Expected

count 2.0 19.0 67.0 126.0 52.0 266.0

% within gender 0.8% 7.1% 25.2% 47.4% 19.5% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 12.78 4 0.012 Likelihood Ratio 13.63 4 0.009 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.299 1 0.021 N of Valid Cases 266

228

These results could reflect the situation that there is likely to be a relatively higher

proportion of male teachers teaching in male single sex schools and a higher proportion

of females in female single sex schools. In the NSW Higher School Certificate female

students have a higher success rate compared to male students56, so it could be expected

that female teachers may be more satisfied with their students’ achievements.

If the comparison is expanded to include the 10 percent significance level, then the

decision rule is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 7.78.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 7.78.

At the 10 percent significance level the other factors that had a Pearson Chi-square, that

were greater than 7.78, were:

(i) The possibility of promotion

At the 10 percent significance level we reject H0, and conclude that the satisfaction level

associated with the possibility of promotion is not independent of the gender of the

teacher. The results show that the satisfaction level of the possibility of promotion is

lower for male teachers than female teachers (Table 6.37). Forty eight percent of male

teachers responded that their level of satisfaction associated with the possibility of

promotion was ‘moderately low’ or ‘very low’ but only 30.7 percent of females

classified it as ‘moderately low’ or ‘very low’. Considering that there tends to be more

males in promotional positions in schools than females, the results would suggest that

male teachers are generally more concerned about promotion than female teachers.

56In 2003, 58.6 percent of the students who gained a university admission index of 90 or above were female (Universities Admission Centre 2003: 1-2).

229

Table 6.37 Gender and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

Gender Very low Moderately

low Neutral Moderately

high Very high Total

Male Count 29 30 39 20 5 123 Expected

count 24.8 22.9 47.7 21.0 6.5 123.0

% within gender 23.6% 24.4% 31.7% 16.3% 4.1% 100.0%

Female Count 24 19 63 25 9 140 Expected

count 28.2 26.1 54.3 24.0 7.5 140.0

% within gender 17.1% 13.6% 45.0% 17.9% 6.4% 100.0%

Total Count 53 49 102 45 14 263 Expected

count 53.0 49.0 102.0 45.0 14.0 263.0

% within gender 20.2% 18.6% 38.8% 17.1% 5.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 9.226 4 0.056 Likelihood Ratio 9.279 4 0.054 Linear-by-Linear Association 4.593 1 0.032 N of Valid Cases 263

(ii) Low level of stress

At the 10 percent significance level we reject H0, and conclude that the satisfaction level

associated with a low level of stress is not independent of the gender of the teacher. The

results show that the satisfaction level of a low level of stress is lower for male teachers

than female teachers (Table 6.38).

Even though both groups were overall not satisfied with the level of stress in teaching,

16.8 percent of male teachers responded that their level of satisfaction with a low level

of stress was ‘moderately high’ or ‘very high’ compared to only 10.6 percent of

females. Thirty six point nine percent of female teachers responded that their level of

satisfaction associated with a low level of stress was ‘very low’ compared to 23.2

230

percent of males. The results suggest that female teachers are more dissatisfied by

stress compared to male teachers.

Table 6.38 Gender and a Low Level of Stress

A low level of stress

Gender Very low Moderately

low Neutral Moderately

high Very high Total

Male Count 29 48 27 10 11 125 Expected

count 38.1 43.7 26.3 9.4 7.5 125.0

% within gender 23.2% 38.4% 21.6% 8.0% 8.8% 100.0%

Female Count 52 45 29 10 5 141 Expected

count 42.9 49.3 29.7 10.6 8.5 141.0

% within gender 36.9% 31.9% 20.6% 7.1% 3.5% 100.0%

Total Count 81 93 56 20 16 266 Expected

count 81.0 93.0 56.0 20.0 16.0 266.0

% within gender 30.5% 35.0% 21.1% 7.5% 6.0% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 8.016 4 0.091 Likelihood Ratio 8.133 4 0.087 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.290 1 0.021 N of Valid Cases 266

While the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at the five or ten percent level for the other

factors, it is still likely that some of these factors will not be independent of gender

especially those below a 25 percent significance level such as: hours of work, the

attitude of peers, and the attitude of the general public (see Table 6.35).

6.8.2 Hypothesis Testing by School System

In testing, if there are differences between school systems in the level of satisfaction of

teachers in regard to various factors influencing their overall satisfaction level, the null

and alternative hypotheses are as follows:

231

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of school system.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of school

system.

The decision rule at the five percent significance level is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 15.51.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 15.51.

The value 15.51 is from the Chi-squared distribution with a degree of freedom of 8.

The value becomes 12.59 with a degree of freedom of 6. If the null hypothesis is true,

the factors selected are independent of the school system of the teachers.

Table 6.39 School System and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary

Table

Factors Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean public school

Mean Catholic systemic

Mean other

private Level of salary 28.07 8 0.000 2.52 2.39 3.28 Job security 9.693 8 0.287 4.00 4.31 3.98 A low level of stress 4.167 8 0.842 2.19 2.29 2.25 Number of holidays 8.645 8 0.373 3.91 3.95 3.90 Hours of work 6.670 8 0.573 3.05 2.80 2.87 Support from administration 18.85 8 0.016 2.86 3.51 3.24

The attitude of peers 5.549 8 0.698 3.70 3.84 3.83 The attitude of students 34.22 6 0.000 3.25 3.84 3.87 The satisfaction of student achievement 20.16 6 0.003 3.59 3.91 4.00

The support of students' parents 23.15 6 0.001 2.88 3.35 3.57

The attitude of the general public 24.77 6 0.000 1.91 2.23 2.43

The support of your family 4.701 8 0.789 4.13 4.19 4.03 Interest in the subjects taught 4.564 6 0.601 4.20 4.35 4.42

The possibility of promotion 16.35 8 0.038 2.54 2.62 3.10

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

232

All of the factors were compared across the school systems (Table 6.39). In eight of the

14 categories teachers in private schools were the most satisfied. In four categories

teachers in Catholic systemic schools were most satisfied and only in two categories

were teachers in public schools most satisfied. This suggests that private school

teachers have the greatest overall level of satisfaction, followed by Catholic school

teachers, with public school teachers being the least satisfied.

There were significant differences in the satisfaction levels between school systems.

Seven factors had Pearson Chi-square results that were significant at the five percent

level; of these five were also significant at the one percent level. These factors were:

• level of salary (Table 6.40);

• support from administration (Table 6.41);

• the attitude of students (Table 6.42);

• the satisfaction of student achievement (Table 6.43);

• the support of students’ parents (Table 6.44);

• the attitude of the general public (Table 6.45); and

• the possibility of promotion (Table 6.46).

(i) School systems and level of salary

The results show that teachers in private schools are more satisfied with their levels of

salary compared to teachers in Catholic and public school systems (Table 6.40). In the

private school system 48.3 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction with

level of salary was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’ compared to 21.9 percent in public

schools and 17.6 percent in Catholic schools. In addition 53.8 percent of teachers in

233

public schools and 55.4 percent of Catholic schools considered their satisfaction with

their level of salary as being ‘very low’ or of ‘moderate low’ compared to only 20.0

percent of private school teachers.

Table 6.40 School System and Level of Salary

Level of salary

School system Very low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 26 45 32 25 4 132 Expected

count 23.3 38.2 35.2 31.3 4.0 132.0

% within school type 19.7% 34.1% 24.2% 18.9% 3.0% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 18 23 20 12 1 74 Expected

count 13.1 21.4 19.8 17.5 2.2 74.0

% within school type 24.3% 31.1% 27.0% 16.2% 1.4% 100.0%

Other private Count 3 9 19 26 3 60 Expected

count 10.6 17.4 16.0 14.2 1.8 60.0

% within school type 5.0% 15.0% 31.7% 43.3% 5.0% 100.0%

Total Count 47 77 71 63 8 266 Expected

count 47.0 77.0 71.0 63.0 8.0 266.0

% within school type 17.7% 28.9% 26.7% 23.7% 3.0% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 28.07 8 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 29.23 8 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 14.73 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 266

The greater level of satisfaction in private schools is not surprising as their salary levels

are generally higher than the other two school systems, which historically tend to have

similar salary scales to each other.

234

(ii) School systems and support from administration

The results show that teachers in the less centralised education systems in Catholic and

private schools are more satisfied with support from administration compared to

teachers in public schools (Table 6.41).

Table 6.41 School System and Support from Administration

Support from administration

School system Very Low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 29 25 28 35 15 132 Expected

count 18.4 23.4 31.9 39.4 18.9 132.0

% within school type 22.0% 18.9% 21.2% 26.5% 11.4% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 4 11 18 25 16 74 Expected

count 10.3 13.1 17.9 22.1 10.6 74.0

% within school type 5.4% 14.9% 24.3% 33.8% 21.6% 100.0%

Other private Count 4 11 18 19 7 59 Expected

count 8.2 10.5 14.2 17.6 8.5 59.0

% within school type 6.8% 18.6% 30.5% 32.2% 11.9% 100.0%

Total Count 37 47 64 79 38 265 Expected

count 37.0 47.0 64.0 79.0 38.0 265.0

% within school type 14.0% 17.7% 24.2% 29.8% 14.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 18.85 8 0.016 Likelihood Ratio 19.32 8 0.013 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.270 1 0.012 N of Valid Cases 265

The teachers most satisfied with support from administration were in the Catholic

school system where 55.4 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction with

support from administration was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’ compared to 37.9

percent in public schools and 44.1 percent in private schools. In addition 40.9 percent

235

of teachers in public schools and 25.4 percent of private schools considered their

satisfaction with support from administration as being ‘very low’ or of ‘moderate low’

compared to only 20.3 percent of Catholic teachers.

The issue of support from administration generating different levels of satisfaction

between systems will be considered in Chapter 8 of this thesis as a possible area of

policy response to increase teacher satisfaction and the quality and quantity of teachers.

(iii) School systems and the attitude of students

The results show that teachers in Catholic and private schools are more satisfied with

the attitude of students compared to teachers in public schools (Table 6.42).

Table 6.42 School System and the Attitude of Students

The attitude of students

School System Very low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 8 33 32 36 23 132 Expected

count 4.5 19.8 30.8 52.1 24.8 132.0

% within school type 6.1% 25.0% 24.2% 27.3% 17.4% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 0 5 18 35 16 74 Expected

count 2.5 11.1 17.2 29.2 13.9 74.0

% within school type .0% 6.8% 24.3% 47.3% 21.6% 100.0%

Other private Count 1 2 12 34 11 60 Expected

count 2.0 9.0 14.0 23.7 11.3 60.0

% within school type 1.7% 3.3% 20.0% 56.7% 18.3% 100.0%

Total Count 9 40 62 105 50 266 Expected

count 9.0 40.0 62.0 105.0 50.0 266.0

% within school type 3.4% 15.0% 23.3% 39.5% 18.8% 100.0%

236

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 34.22 6 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 36.43 6 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 17.21 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 266

The percentage of teachers most satisfied with the attitude of students were similar in

the private school and Catholic school systems where 75.0 percent and 68.9 percent of

teachers respectively responded that their satisfaction with the attitude of students was

‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’ compared to 44.7 percent in public schools. In

addition 31.1 percent of teachers in public schools considered their satisfaction with the

attitude of students as being ‘very low’ or of ‘moderate low’ compared to only 6.8

percent of Catholic teachers and 5.0 percent of private school teachers.

There are a number of factors that affect the issue of the attitude of students generating

different levels of satisfaction between systems. The public school system by its nature

has to accept all students, whereas the other systems have some choice in terms of

whom they accept or keep in the school. Students who are not accepted into private and

Catholic schools on religious, academic, behavioural or financial grounds will be

accepted in public schools. This may lower the quality of the student intake in the

public school system overall and as a result may lead to a lower level of satisfaction for

teachers in regard to the attitude of students.

(iv) School systems and the satisfaction of student achievement

The results show that teachers in private schools are more satisfied with student

achievement compared to teachers in Catholic and public schools (Table 6.43).

237

Table 6.43 School System and the Satisfaction of Student Achievement

The satisfaction of student achievement

School system Very low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 2 17 38 51 24 132 Expected

count 1.0 9.9 33.1 62.3 25.7 132.0

% within school type 1.5% 12.9% 28.8% 38.6% 18.2% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 0 1 20 39 15 75 Expected

count 0.6 5.6 18.8 35.4 14.6 75.0

% within school type 0.0% 1.3% 26.7% 52.0% 20.0% 100.0%

Other private Count 0 2 9 36 13 60 Expected

count 0.4 4.5 15.1 28.3 11.7 60.0

% within school type 0.0% 3.3% 15.0% 60.0% 21.7% 100.0%

Total Count 2 20 67 126 52 267 Expected

count 2.0 20.0 67.0 126.0 52.0 267.0

% within school type 0.7% 7.5% 25.1% 47.2% 19.5% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.16 6 0.003 Likelihood Ratio 22.27 6 0.001 Linear-by-Linear Association 10.35 1 0.001 N of Valid Cases 267

Eighty one point seven percent of teachers in private schools responded that their

satisfaction with student achievement was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’ compared to

72.0 percent in Catholic and 56.8 percent in public schools. In addition 14.4 percent of

teachers in public schools considered their satisfaction with student achievement as

being ‘very low’ or of ‘moderate low’ compared to only 1.3 percent of Catholic teachers

and 3.3 percent of private school teachers.

As mentioned previously, the overall quality of the students in public schools is likely to

be lower than those in Catholic and private schools. This could then reflect on the level

238

of student achievement and as a result lower teacher satisfaction in student achievement

by public school teachers.

(v) School systems and the support of students’ parents

The results again show that teachers in private schools overall have the highest levels of

satisfaction compared to teachers in Catholic and public schools (Table 6.44).

Table 6.44 School System and the Support of Students’ Parents

The support of students' parents

School system Very low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 15 33 42 37 5 132 Expected

count 7.9 24.8 45.2 45.7 8.4 132.0

% within school type 11.4% 25.0% 31.8% 28.0% 3.8% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 0 12 29 28 5 74 Expected

count 4.5 13.9 25.3 25.6 4.7 74.0

% within school type 0.0% 16.2% 39.2% 37.8% 6.8% 100.0%

Other private Count 1 5 20 27 7 60 Expected

count 3.6 11.3 20.5 20.8 3.8 60.0

% within school type 1.7% 8.3% 33.3% 45.0% 11.7% 100.0%

Total Count 16 50 91 92 17 266 Expected

count 16.0 50.0 91.0 92.0 17.0 266.0

% within school type 6.0% 18.8% 34.2% 34.6% 6.4% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 23.15 6 0.001 Likelihood Ratio 23.78 6 0.001 Linear-by-Linear Association 19.73 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 266

Fifty six point seven percent of teachers in private schools responded that their

satisfaction as a result of the support of students’ parents was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately

239

high’ compared to 44.6 percent in Catholic and 31.8 percent in public schools. In

addition 36.4 percent of teachers in public schools considered their satisfaction as a

result of the support of students’ parents as being ‘very low’ or of ‘moderate low’

compared to only 16.2 percent of Catholic teachers and 10.0 percent of private school

teachers.

If there is a lower level of support from parents in public schools, this could be a result

of the differences in selection criteria between school systems. Parents who are

outlaying funds for school fees may be more supportive of the education system. In

addition it could be argued that parents with a greater interest in their children’s

education may be more willing to pay fees and send their children to private schools.

The ‘free rider’ concept of public education may also create greater apathy from parents

towards public schools and their teachers.

(vi) School systems and the attitude of the general public

The results show that teachers in general are dissatisfied with the attitude of the general

public towards teachers (Table 6.45). The percentages of teachers most satisfied with

the attitude of the general public were similarly low in all three school systems. In the

private school and Catholic school systems only 10.0 percent and 8.2 percent of

teachers respectively responded that their satisfaction with the attitude of the general

public was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’ compared to 8.3 percent in public schools.

The largest level of dissatisfaction was in public schools where 80.3 percent of teachers

considered their satisfaction with the attitude of the general public as being ‘very low’

240

or ‘moderate low’. This compared to 64.8 percent of Catholic teachers and 51.7 percent

of private school teachers.

Table 6.45 School System and Attitude of the General Public

Attitude of the general public Total

School system Very Low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high

Public Count 54 52 15 6 5 132 Expected

count 40.7 51.1 28.8 6.9 4.5 132.0

% within school type 40.9% 39.4% 11.4% 4.5% 3.8% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 18 30 20 3 3 74 Expected

count 22.8 28.7 16.1 3.9 2.5 74.0

% within school type 24.3% 40.5% 27.0% 4.1% 4.1% 100.0%

Other private Count 10 21 23 5 1 60 Expected

count 18.5 23.2 13.1 3.2 2.0 60.0

% within school type 16.7% 35.0% 38.3% 8.3% 1.7% 100.0%

Total Count 82 103 58 14 9 266 Expected

count 82.0 103.0 58.0 14.0 9.0 266.0

% within school type 30.8% 38.7% 21.8% 5.3% 3.4% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 24.77 6 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 25.18 6 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 15.35 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 266

Teachers appear to have the impression that the general public has a poor image of

teachers and this reflects in the low levels of satisfaction of teachers in regard to this

issue across the three systems. While the attitude may be worse for public school

teachers, there is a general low level of satisfaction amongst teachers due to the attitude

of the general public. This attitude could have a major influence on the decisions of

potential teachers to enter the teaching profession. This will be discussed further in

regard to policy implications in Chapter 8.

241

(vii) School systems and the possibility of promotion

The results show that teachers in private schools are more satisfied with the possibility

of promotion compared to teachers in Catholic and public schools (Table 6.46).

Table 6.46 School System and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

School system Very low

Moderately low Neutral

Moderately high

Very high Total

Public Count 31 27 47 21 4 130 Expected

count 26.1 24.1 50.7 22.2 6.9 130.0

% within school type 23.8% 20.8% 36.2% 16.2% 3.1% 100.0%

Catholic systemic Count 14 15 34 7 4 74 Expected

count 14.9 13.7 28.9 12.6 3.9 74.0

% within school type 18.9% 20.3% 45.9% 9.5% 5.4% 100.0%

Other private Count 8 7 22 17 6 60 Expected

count 12.0 11.1 23.4 10.2 3.2 60.0

% within school type 13.3% 11.7% 36.7% 28.3% 10.0% 100.0%

Total Count 53 49 103 45 14 264 Expected

count 53.0 49.0 103.0 45.0 14.0 264.0

% within school type 20.1% 18.6% 39.0% 17.0% 5.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.35 8 0.038 Likelihood Ratio 16.09 8 0.041 Linear-by-Linear Association 8.93 1 0.003 N of Valid Cases 264

Thirty eight point three percent of teachers in private schools responded that their

satisfaction as a result of the possibility of promotion was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately

high’ compared to only 14.9 percent in Catholic and 19.3 percent in public schools. The

highest level of dissatisfaction was in public schools where 44.1 percent of teachers

considered their satisfaction with the possibility of promotion as being ‘very low’ or

242

‘moderate low’. This compared to 39.2 percent of Catholic teachers and 25.0 percent of

private school teachers. The differences reported here could reflect the relatively larger

number of positions of responsibility in private schools and similar promotional

structures in public and Catholic school systems. The policy implications of these

differences will also be considered in Chapter 8.

Overall the level of teacher satisfaction appears to be highest in the private school sector

and lowest in the public school sector. Some of the factors that cause this may be

beyond the scope of public policy such as socio-economic and other factors that

determine which school system students may go to or perhaps be excluded from. Some

other factors such as level of salary, support from administration and the possibility of

promotion are areas that policy makers in school systems can influence. There may

even be ways that policies can be adopted to improve the attitude of students, the

support of student’s parents, and the attitude of the general public towards teachers.

These possibilities will be considered in Chapter 8.

6.8.3 Hypothesis Testing by Age of Teachers

In testing, if there are differences in the level of satisfaction of teachers, based on their

age, in regard to various factors influencing their overall satisfaction level, the null and

alternative hypotheses are as follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of age.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of age.

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The decision rule at the five percent significance level varies with the degrees of

freedom57 in the sample. With six degrees of freedom the decision rule is based on the

value 12.59 and with nine degrees of freedom it is 16.92. The decision rule at the five

percent significance level, with 12 degrees of freedom is given as follows:

Reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is greater than 21.03.

Do not reject H0 if the Chi-squared value is less than 21.03.

If the null hypothesis is true, the factors selected are independent of the age of the

teachers.

Table 6.47: Age and the Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary Table

Factors Chi-

square df

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean under 30

years

Mean 30-39 years

Mean 40-49 years

Mean over 50 years

Level of salary 13.330 9 0.148 2.87 2.68 2.70 2.44 Job security 7.321 9 0.604 4.13 4.11 4.04 4.08 A low level of stress 22.106 12 0.036 2.35 2.16 2.29 2.15 Number of holidays 13.520 9 0.140 4.20 3.88 4.00 3.67 Hours of work 13.851 12 0.310 3.17 2.86 2.87 2.95 Support from administration 20.988 12 0.051 3.40 2.91 3.22 3.01

The attitude of peers 16.368 9 0.060 3.80 3.75 3.57 4.00 The attitude of students 5.582 12 0.936 3.49 3.61 3.57 3.52

The satisfaction of student achievement 4.553 9 0.871 3.80 3.72 3.71 3.86

The support of students' parents 10.509 12 0.571 2.96 3.14 3.25 3.21

The attitude of the general public 15.915 9 0.069 1.84 2.46 2.14 1.99

The support of your family 9.026 9 0.435 4.28 4.07 4.04 4.16

Interest in the subjects taught 3.389 6 0.759 4.24 4.19 4.34 4.34

The possibility of promotion 24.044 9 0.004 2.93 3.04 2.68 2.27

All of the factors were compared to the age of the teachers (Table 6.47). There were

significant differences in the satisfaction levels between the ages of teachers in regard to

57 The degrees of freedom vary as some data cells have been combined to ensure the validity of the results.

244

two factors that had Pearson Chi-square results that were significant at the five percent

level. These factors were:

• low level of stress (Table 6.48); and

• the possibility of promotion (Table 6.49).

(i) Age and low level of stress

The results show that teachers overall are not satisfied with the level of stress they face

and the dissatisfaction tends to rise with age (Table 6.48).

Table 6.48 Age and Low Level of Stress

Low level of stress

Age Very low Moderately

low Neutral Very/moderately

high Total Under 30 Count 8 24 7 7 46 Expected

count 14.1 16.0 9.6 6.2 46.0

% within age 17.4% 52.2% 15.2% 15.2% 100.0%

30-39 Count 17 19 18 3 57 Expected

count 17.5 19.9 12.0 7.7 57.0

% within age 29.8% 33.3% 31.6% 5.3% 100.0%

40-49 Count 29 26 22 14 91 Expected

count 27.9 31.7 19.1 12.2 91.0

% within age 31.9% 28.6% 24.2% 15.4% 100.0%

50 and over Count 28 24 9 12 73 Expected

count 22.4 25.4 15.3 9.9 73.0

% within age 38.4% 32.9% 12.3% 16.5% 100.0%

Total Count 82 93 56 36 267 Expected

count 82.0 93.0 56.0 36.0 267.0

% within age 30.7% 34.8% 21.0% 13.5% 100.0%

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Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 22.11 12 0.036 Likelihood Ratio 22.83 12 0.029 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.606 1 0.436 N of Valid Cases 267

Thirty eight point four percent of teachers in the age range 50 years and over responded

that their satisfaction with low level of stress was ‘very low’ compared to 31.9 percent

for the 40-49 years age group, 29.8 percent for the 30-39 years age group, and 17.4

percent for the under 30 years age group.

(ii) Age and the possibility of promotion

The results show that teachers under 39 years are more satisfied with the possibility of

promotion compared to teachers 40 years and over (Table 6.49). Twenty eight point

nine percent of teachers in the age group under 30 years responded that their satisfaction

with the possibility of promotion was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. The 30-39

years age group was also satisfied with the possibility of promotion with 35.1 percent

responding ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. However only 20.9 percent of the 40-49

years age group, and 15.9 percent of the 50 years and over age group responded that

their satisfaction levels were ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’.

There were also a significant percentage of older teachers who had a very low level of

satisfaction with the possibility of promotion. There was 11.1 percent in the age range

under 30 years who responded that their satisfaction with the possibility of promotion

was ‘very low’ compared to 10.5 percent for the 30-39 years age group, 18.7 percent for

the 40-49 years age group, and 35.2 percent for the 50 and over age group. Older

teachers are generally the more experienced teachers and this dissatisfaction with

246

promotion could lead to a lower performance. Policies to take advantage of this

experience by developing new promotion positions will be discusses in Chapter 8.

Table 6.49 Age and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

Age Very low Moderately

low Neutral Very/moderately

high Total Under 30 Count 5 9 18 13 45 Expected

count 9.0 8.4 17.6 10.1 45.0

% within age 11.1% 20.0% 40.0% 28.9% 100.0%

30-39 Count 6 8 23 20 57 Expected

count 11.4 10.6 22.2 12.7 57.0

% within age 10.5% 14.0% 40.4% 35.1% 100.0%

40-49 Count 17 20 35 19 91 Expected

count 18.3 16.9 35.5 20.3 91.0

% within age 18.7% 22.0% 38.5% 20.9% 100.0%

50 and over Count 25 12 27 7 71 Expected

count 14.3 13.2 27.7 15.9 71.0

% within age 35.2% 16.9% 38.0% 9.9% 100.0%

Total Count 53 49 103 59 264 Expected

count 53.0 49.0 103.0 59.0 264.0

% within age 20.1% 18.6% 39.0% 22.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 24.04 9 0.004 Likelihood Ratio 24.11 9 0.004 Linear-by-Linear Association 16.09 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 264

Three factors were significant at a 10 percent level. They were support from

administration, attitude of peers, and attitude of the general public.

247

(iii) Age and support from administration

The results show that younger teachers are more satisfied with the support they receive

from administration compared to older teachers (Table 6.50).

Table 6.50 Age and Support from Administration

Support from administration

Age Very lowModerately

low Neutral Moderately

high Very high Total

Under 30 Count 0 8 15 18 4 45 Expected

count 6.3 8.0 10.9 13.4 6.5 45.0

% within age 0.0% 17.8% 33.3% 40.0% 8.9% 100.0%

30-39 Count 8 15 14 12 7 56 Expected

count 7.8 9.9 13.5 16.7 8.0 56.0

% within age 14.3% 26.8% 25.0% 21.4% 12.5% 100.0%

40-49 Count 14 13 21 25 18 91 Expected

count 12.7 16.1 22.0 27.1 13.0 91.0

% within age 15.4% 14.3% 23.1% 27.5% 19.8% 100.0%

50 and over Count 15 11 14 24 9 73 Expected

count 10.2 12.9 17.6 21.8 10.5 73.0

% within age 20.5% 15.1% 19.2% 32.9% 12.3% 100.0%

Total Count 37 47 64 79 38 265 Expected

count 37.0 47.0 64.0 79.0 38.0 265.0

% within age 14.0% 17.7% 24.2% 29.8% 14.3% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.99 12 0.051 Likelihood Ratio 26.52 12 0.009 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.923 1 0.337 N of Valid Cases 265

Forty eight point nine percent of teachers in the age range under 30 years responded that

their satisfaction with support from administration was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’

compared to 33.9 percent for the 30-39 years age group, 47.3 percent for the 40-49

248

years age group, and 45.2 percent for the 50 years and over age group. Of greater

significance is the percentage of teachers who have a very low level of satisfaction with

support from administration. No teachers in the age range under 30 years responded

that their satisfaction with support from administration was ‘very low’ compared to 14.3

percent for the 30-39 years age group, 15.4 percent for the 40-49 years age group, and

20.5 percent for the 50 years and over age group.

(iv) Age and attitude of peers

The results show that the older teachers are more satisfied with the attitude of peers

compared to younger teachers (Table 6.51).

Table 6.51 Age and Attitude of Peers

The attitude of peers

Age Very/moderately

low Neutral Moderately

high Very high Total

Under 30 Count 4 10 22 9 45 Expected

count 5.2 9.1 20.5 10.2 45.0

% within age 8.9% 22.2% 48.9% 20.0% 100.0%

30-39 Count 8 11 24 14 57 Expected

count 6.6 11.6 25.9 12.9 57.0

% within age 14.0% 19.3% 42.1% 24.6% 100.0%

40-49 Count 13 27 33 18 91 Expected

count 10.6 18.5 41.4 20.5 91.0

% within age 14.3% 29.7% 36.3% 19.8% 100.0%

50 and over Count 6 6 42 19 73 Expected

count 8.5 14.8 33.2 16.5 73.0

% within age 8.2% 8.2% 57.5% 26.0% 100.0%

Total Count 31 54 121 60 266 Expected

count 31.0 54.0 121.0 60.0 266.0

% within age 11.7% 20.3% 45.5% 22.6% 100.0%

249

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 16.37 9 0.060 Likelihood Ratio 17.41 9 0.043 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.091 1 0.296 N of Valid Cases 266

Eighty three point five percent of teachers in the age range 50 years and over responded

that their satisfaction with the attitude of peers was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’

compared to 66.7 percent for the 30-39 years age group, 57.1 percent for the 40-49

years age group, and 68.9 percent for the under 30 years age group. The percentage of

teachers who had a very low or moderate low level of satisfaction with attitude of peers

was greatest in the middle years. There was 8.9 percent in the age range under 30 years,

compared to 14.0 percent for the 30-39 years age group, 14.3 percent for the 40-49

years age group, and 8.2 percent for the 50 years and over age group.

(v) Age and attitude of the general public

The results show that the teachers in the 30-39 years age group are most satisfied with

the attitude of the general public especially compared to the under 30 years group

(Table 6.52). Forty five point six percent of teachers in the age range 30-39 years

responded that their satisfaction with the attitude of the general public was ‘very high’

or ‘moderately high’ compared to 26.0 percent for the 50 years and over age group, 28.6

percent for the 40-49 years age group, and only 22.0 percent for the under 30 years age

group. The percentage of teachers who had a very low level of satisfaction with attitude

of the general public was smallest in the middle years. There was 37.8 percent in the

age range under 30 years, compared to 24.6 percent for the 30-39 years age group, 26.4

percent for the 40-49 years age group, and 37.0 percent for the 50 years and over age

group.

250

Overall the level of job satisfaction in three of the categories examined showed that the

younger teachers are more satisfied with the level of stress, the possibility of promotion,

and support from administration compared to the older teachers. Dissatisfaction

generally rises with the time spent in teaching. While there are some policies in place to

help new teachers adjust to the teaching profession, there is a need to look at policies to

assist older teachers to maintain their enthusiasm for teaching and job satisfaction.

These will be considered in Chapter 8.

In addition, the two factors, the attitude of the general public and attitude of peers,

require further research to discover if these patterns are common and why they occur.

Table 6.52 Age and Attitude of the General Public

Attitude of the general public

Age Very low Moderately

low Neutral Very/moderately

high Total Under 30 Count 17 18 10 0 45 Expected

count 13.9 17.4 9.8 3.9 45.0

% within age 37.8% 40.0% 22.2% 0.0% 100.0%

30-39 Count 14 17 16 10 57 Expected

count 17.6 22.1 12.4 4.9 57.0

% within age 24.6% 29.8% 28.1% 17.5% 100.0%

40-49 Count 24 41 18 8 91 Expected

count 28.1 35.2 19.8 7.9 91.0

% within age 26.4% 45.1% 19.8% 8.8% 100.0%

50 and over Count 27 27 14 5 73 Expected

count 22.5 28.3 15.9 6.3 73.0

% within age 37.0% 37.0% 19.2% 6.8% 100.0%

Total Count 82 103 58 23 266 Expected

count 82.0 103.0 58.0 23.0 266.0

% within age 30.8% 38.7% 21.8% 8.6% 100.0%

251

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 15.92 9 0.069 Likelihood Ratio 18.58 9 0.029 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.095 1 0.758 N of Valid Cases 266

6.8.4 Hypothesis Testing by Level of Academic Qualifications

In testing, if there are differences in the level of satisfaction of teachers, based on their

academic qualifications, in regard to various factors influencing their overall

satisfaction level, the null and alternative hypotheses are as follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of academic

qualifications.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of academic

qualifications.

All of the factors were compared to the academic qualifications of the teachers. There

were no significant differences in the satisfaction levels between the academic

qualifications of the teachers and any of the factors at the five percent significance level

(Table 6.53). At the 10 percent significance level there was one factor that was

significant, the possibility of promotion. Table 6.54 shows that the level of satisfaction

associated with the possibility of promotion increases with the level of qualifications.

Teachers with diplomas and ‘other’ qualifications had a satisfaction rating in the high or

moderately high categories of 4.2 percent. Those with a degree had a satisfaction rating

in the high or moderately high categories of 21.4 percent and those teachers with

masters or higher degrees had a rating of 37.2 percent. The higher levels of satisfaction

associated with those with higher qualification could reflect that the higher

qualifications have led to a higher proportion of those teachers gaining promotion.

252

Table 6.53 Level of Academic Qualifications and the Level of Teacher Job

Satisfaction Summary Table

Factors Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Mean diploma/

other

Mean bachelors

degree

Mean masters

degree or higher

Level of salary 7.024 8 0.534 2.54 2.69 2.51 Job security 4.502 8 0.809 3.88 4.12 4.02 A low level of stress 3.657 8 0.887 2.00 2.26 2.26 Number of holidays 9.176 8 0.328 4.00 3.90 3.93 Hours of work 9.854 8 0.275 3.00 2.89 3.09 Support from administration 7.808 8 0.452 3.46 3.12 3.00

The attitude of peers 10.43 8 0.236 3.50 3.77 3.86 The attitude of students 10.02 8 0.264 3.46 3.52 3.81 The satisfaction of student achievement 8.922 8 0.349 3.71 3.75 3.95

The support of students' parents 11.10 8 0.196 2.96 3.15 3.37

The attitude of the general public 4.744 8 0.785 2.04 2.13 2.14

The support of your family 9.818 8 0.278 4.17 4.17 3.86

Interest in the subjects taught 6.490 8 0.593 4.21 4.30 4.35

The possibility of promotion 10.71 6 0.098 2.37 2.68 2.91

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

Table 6.54 Qualifications and the Possibility of Promotion

The possibility of promotion

Qualification Very low

Moderately low Neutral

High/moderately high Total

Diploma/other Count 5 6 12 1 24 Expected

count 4.8 4.5 9.3 5.4 24.0

% within qualification 20.8% 25.0% 50.0% 4.2% 100.0%

Bachelors degree Count 40 36 78 42 196 Expected

count 39.5 36.5 76.0 44.0 196.0

% within qualification 20.4% 18.4% 39.8% 21.4% 100.0%

Masters degree or higher Count 8 7 12 16 43 Expected

count 8.7 8.0 16.7 9.6 43.0

% within qualification 18.6% 16.3% 27.9% 37.2% 100.0%

Total Count 53 49 102 59 263 Expected

count 53.0 49.0 102.0 59.0 263.0

% within qualification 20.2% 18.6% 38.8% 22.4% 100.0%

253

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.71 6 0.098 Likelihood Ratio 11.87 6 0.065 Linear-by-Linear Association 3.125 1 0.077 N of Valid Cases 263

At the ten percent level of significance the level of academic qualifications of the

teachers does not affect the level of teacher satisfaction in any of the other categories.

6.8.5 Hypothesis Testing by Location of the School

In testing, if there are differences in the level of satisfaction of teachers, based on the

location of the schools, in regard to various factors influencing their overall satisfaction

level, the null and alternative hypotheses are as follows:

The null hypothesis is given by H0: The factor is independent of the location of

the school.

Thus the alternative hypothesis is HA: The factor is not independent of the

location of the school.

All of the factors were compared to the locations of the schools of the teachers (Table

6.55). There were only two factors where there were significant differences in the

satisfaction levels between the locations of the schools of the teachers at the five percent

significance level. These were also significant at the one percent level. They were:

• support from administration (Table 6.56); and

• support from students’ parents (Table 6.57).

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Table 6.55 Location of Schoola and Level of Teacher Job Satisfaction Summary

Table

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

Factors

Chi-square Dfb

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Sydney inner

city/east

Sydney north

Sydney south

Sydney west

Newcastle/ Wollongong country

Level of salary 14.35 15 0.499 2.34 2.70 2.53 2.51 5.85 2.86

Job security 20.41 15 0.157 4.15 4.00 4.34 4.24 3.88 3.90 A low level of stress 11.25 15 0.735 2.20 2.22 2.40 2.13 2.15 2.21

Number of holidays 13.96 15 0.529 3.98 3.93 3.96 4.00 3.65 3.89

Hours of work 14.73 20 0.792 2.90 3.04 2.83 3.08 2.73 2.98 Support from administration 31.09 15 0.009 3.17 3.07 3.60 3.32 3.08 2.75

The attitude of peers 12.95 15 0.606 3.85 3.81 3.81 3.89 3.65 3.67

The attitude of students 23.71 15 0.070 3.98 3.56 3.70 3.35 3.54 3.33

The satisfaction of student achievement

17.52 15 0.289 4.05 3.81 3.81 3.74 3.73 3.62

The support of students' parents

32.95 15 0.005 3.49 3.33 3.40 2.89 3.42 2.83

The attitude of the general public

17.62 15 0.283 2.15 2.22 2.19 2.05 2.23 2.02

The support of your family 14.87 15 0.461 3.98 4.04 4.28 4.37 4.00 4.04

Interest in the subjects taught

16.93 15 0.323 4.54 4.30 4.28 4.27 4.19 4.23

The possibility of promotion 9.618 20 0.975 2.75 2.70 2.75 2.78 2.62 2.60

(a) Some locations were combined to improve the validity of the results. They were Sydney inner city with Sydney east and the two regional cities Newcastle and Wollongong. (b)The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

(i) Location of the school and support from administration

The results show that teachers working in the country regions of NSW years are

significantly less satisfied with the support from administration compared to the

teachers who live in the city region (Table 6.56). Throughout the State 14.4 percent of

teachers responded that their satisfaction with support from administration was ‘very

high’, whereas in country areas this response rate was only 8.8 percent.

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Table 6.56 Location of the School and the Support from Administration

Support from administration

Location Low/moderately

low NeutralModerately

high Very high Total

Count 7 10 8 2 27 Expected Count 8.5 6.5 8.1 3.9 27.0

Sydney - north

% within location 25.9% 37.0% 29.6% 7.4% 100.0%

Count 12 6 23 12 53 Expected Count 16.7 12.8 15.9 7.6 53.0

Sydney - south

% within location 22.6% 11.3% 43.4% 22.6% 100.0%

Count 12 14 7 8 41 Expected Count 12.9 9.9 12.3 5.9 41.0

Sydney - inner city/east

% within location 29.3% 34.1% 17.1% 19.5% 100.0%

Count 10 9 10 8 37 Expected Count 11.6 9.0 11.1 5.3 37.0

Sydney - west

% within location 27.0% 24.3% 27.0% 21.6% 100.0%

Count 7 10 8 1 26 Expected Count 8.2 6.3 7.8 3.7 26.0

Newcastle/Wollongong

% within location 26.9% 38.5% 30.8% 3.8% 100.0%

Count 35 15 23 7 80 Expected Count 25.2 19.4 23.9 11.5 80.0

Country

% within location 43.8% 18.8% 28.8% 8.8% 100.0%

Count 83 64 79 38 264 Expected Count 83.0 64.0 79.0 38.0 264.0

Total

% within location 31.4% 24.2% 29.9% 14.4% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 31.09 15 0.009 Likelihood Ratio 31.79 15 0.007 Linear-by-Linear Association 7.050 1 0.008 N of Valid Cases 264

Similarly throughout the State, 14.0 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction

with support from administration was ‘very low’, whereas in country areas this response

rate rose to 27.2 percent. Altogether 43.8 percent of country teachers considered their

level of satisfaction with support from administration as being ‘very low’ or

‘moderately low’.

256

Country teachers are overall not satisfied with support from administration. This could

be caused by a number of factors including regional shortages of teachers, problems of

distance and education policies that are not suitable for country schools. Education

authorities should look at the issue of teacher dissatisfaction with support from

administration in country schools.

(ii) Location of the school and support of students’ parents

The results show that teachers working in the country regions of NSW years are less

satisfied with the support of students’ parents compared to the teachers who live in the

city region (Table 6.57). In the entire Sydney region, with the exception of western

Sydney, more than 40 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction with support

of students’ parents was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. In the western region of

Sydney only 27 percent were satisfied with support of students’ parents by responding

‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. In the country region 30.9 percent of teachers

responded that their satisfaction levels were ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. The

levels of dissatisfaction were similarly higher in western Sydney and the country areas

of NSW. The average response rate from teachers throughout NSW was that 24.9

percent had a ‘very low’ or ‘moderately low’ level of satisfaction with support of

students’ parents. In the western region of Sydney this rose to 29.7 percent and in the

country region to 43.2 percent.

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Table 6.57 Location of the School and the Support from the Students’ Parents

The support of students' parents

Location Low/moderately

low NeutralModerately

high Very high Total

Count 3 13 10 1 27 Expected count 6.7 9.3 9.3 1.7 27.0

Sydney - north

% within location 11.1% 48.1% 37.0% 3.7% 100.0%

Count 9 17 23 4 53 Expected count 13.2 18.2 18.2 3.4 53.0

Sydney - south

% within location 17.0% 32.1% 43.4% 7.5% 100.0%

Count 5 14 19 3 41 Expected count 10.2 14.1 14.1 2.6 41.0

Sydney - inner city/east

% within location 12.2% 34.1% 46.3% 7.3% 100.0%

Count 11 16 8 2 37 Expected count 9.2 12.7 12.7 2.4 37.0

Sydney - west

% within location 29.7% 43.2% 21.6% 5.4% 100.0%

Count 3 10 12 1 26 Expected count 6.5 8.9 8.9 1.7 26.0

Newcastle/Wollongong

% within location 11.5% 38.5% 46.2% 3.8% 100.0%

Count 35 21 19 6 81 Expected count 20.2 27.8 27.8 5.2 81.0

Country

% within location 43.2% 25.9% 23.5% 7.4% 100.0%

Count 66 91 91 17 265 Expected count 66.0 91.0 91.0 17.0 265.0

Total

% within location 24.9% 34.3% 34.3% 6.4% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 32.95 15 0.005 Likelihood Ratio 33.01 15 0.005 Linear-by-Linear Association 8.737 1 0.003 N of Valid Cases 265

Teachers in the western region of Sydney and in the country region of NSW obviously

feel that they need greater support of students’ parents. This is another area of policy

that should be considered by educational authorities, ie to encourage more parental

involvement in the schools.

258

In addition there was one factor where there was a significant difference in the

satisfaction levels between the locations of the schools of the teachers at the 10 percent

level i.e., the attitude of students.

(iii) Location of the school and attitude of the students

The results show that teachers working in the country regions of NSW are significantly

less satisfied with the attitude of the students compared to the teachers who work in the

city region (Table 6.58). Throughout the State 58.1 percent of teachers responded that

their satisfaction with attitude of the students was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’,

whereas in country areas this response rate was only 48.2 percent. In the inner city/

eastern suburbs of Sydney location 75.6 percent of teachers responded that their

satisfaction with attitude of the students was ‘very high’ or ‘moderately high’. So there

is a significant difference between the locations.

Similarly throughout the State 18.5 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction

with attitude of the students was ‘very low’ or ‘moderately low’, whereas in country

areas this response rate rose to 29.6 percent. In the inner city/eastern suburbs of Sydney

location only 4.9 percent of teachers responded that their satisfaction with attitude of the

students was ‘very low’ or ‘moderately low’. The positive response in the inner

city/eastern suburbs location could reflect the relatively higher proportion of private

schools and selective schools in these areas, where students tend to achieve more

highly.

259

Table 6.58 Location of the School and the Attitude of the Students

The attitude of students

Location Very/moderately

low NeutralModerately

high Very high Total

Count 3 9 11 4 27 Expected count 5.0 6.3 10.6 5.1 27.0

Sydney - north

% within location 11.1% 33.3% 40.7% 14.8% 100.0%

Count 7 13 22 11 53 Expected count 9.8 12.4 20.8 10.0 53.0

Sydney - south

% within location 13.2% 24.5% 41.5% 20.8% 100.0%

Count 2 8 20 11 41 Expected count 7.6 9.6 16.1 7.7 41.0

Sydney - inner city/east

% within location 4.9% 19.5% 48.8% 26.8% 100.0%

Count 10 7 14 6 37 Expected count 6.8 8.7 14.5 7.0 37.0

Sydney - west

% within location 27.0% 18.9% 37.8% 16.2% 100.0%

Count 3 7 14 2 26 Expected count 4.8 6.1 10.2 4.9 26.0

Newcastle/Wollongong

% within location 11.5% 26.9% 53.8% 7.7% 100.0%

Count 24 18 23 16 81 Expected count 15.0 19.0 31.8 15.3 81.0

Country

% within location 29.6% 22.2% 28.4% 19.8% 100.0%

Count 49 62 104 50 265 Expected count 49.0 62.0 104.0 50.0 265.0

Total

% within location 18.5% 23.4% 39.2% 18.9% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 23.71 15 0.070 Likelihood Ratio 25.04 15 0.049 Linear-by-Linear Association 4.689 1 0.030 N of Valid Cases 265

There is significant evidence that teachers in country schools are least satisfied in regard

to support from administration, support from students’ parents, and attitude of students.

There is a need to address these issues and other that are affecting the level of teacher

satisfaction in country areas of NSW. Some of these considerations will be looked at in

the policy implications of this study in Chapter 8.

260

6.9 A Weighted Satisfaction Score for High School Teachers in NSW

So far the levels of teacher satisfaction in NSW have been measured in comparison to

certain factors that influence the overall level of teacher satisfaction and what factors

are most important to teachers in terms of measuring their levels of satisfaction. From

this information a weighted satisfaction score can be developed. The weighted

satisfaction score is constructed to find out which groups of teachers are the most and

least satisfied and their average level of satisfaction with teaching. The relative

importance of the different factors in measuring satisfaction is important to consider. In

order to increase the overall level of teacher satisfaction it is necessary to consider the

relative importance of different factors to different individuals. The weighted

satisfaction score will be used for descriptive analysis of teacher satisfaction based on

certain teacher and school characteristics. The score will be based on the original

samples with a 1-5 ratings scale with 1, being very low, the minimum score, and 5, very

high, the maximum score.

The rankings of each individual teacher in terms of the importance of the 14 factors

influencing teacher satisfaction in this survey will be multiplied by the actual levels of

satisfaction each teacher reported. The importance of each factor, Ij, is determined by

the individual teacher responses to question 17 in the teacher survey as discussed earlier

in this chapter (Section 6.5). The level of satisfaction reported for each factor, Sj, is

determined by the individual teacher responses to question 18 in the teacher survey as

discussed earlier in this chapter (Section 6.7). A weighted average for each individual,

Siw, is constructed to counteract individual levels of difference in terms of being overly

pessimistic or overly optimistic in their attitudes. This method provides a method that

can be updated over time. It provides a comparable measure of satisfaction even if the

261

factors or relative levels of importance change. Satisfaction is a relative, as well as an

absolute judgment, so it is important to understand how successful school systems, or

individual schools are at satisfying their teachers compared to each other. It is also

important to consider in what ways are some schools better at achieving higher levels of

teacher satisfaction and develop policies that may allow teacher satisfaction to be

increased in other schools.

The formula for an individual’s weighted satisfaction score is:

∑∑==

=m

jijij

m

jij

wi ISIS

11

where i is the individual. The values for i run from 1 the first individual’s survey

responses to n the last individual’s survey responses. The subject j runs from 1 the first

factor to 14 the final factor; hence m = 14.

For example consider two individuals, i =1,2, their responses to three factors are shown

below:

Factor (j) Individual 1 Individual 2

Importance Satisfaction Importance Satisfaction

1 5 2 4 5

2 4 3 4 2

3 3 1 2 1

The weighted satisfaction score for individual 1 would be ∑∑==

=3

1

3

11

jijij

jij

w ISIS

262

= 5(2) + 4(3) + 3(1) / 5 + 4 + 3 = 25/12 = 2.08.

For individual 2 this would be 4(5) + 4(2) + 2(1) / 4 + 4 + 2 = 30 / 10 = 3.00.

The formula for the aggregate weighted satisfaction score (across all individuals) is

∑∑∑∑====

=m

jij

n

iij

m

jij

n

i

w ISIS1111

For example the mean weighted satisfaction score for individuals, 1, 2, for the three

factors would be: ∑∑∑∑====

=3

1

2

1

3

1

2

1 jij

iij

jij

i

w ISIS

= 5(2) + 4(3) + 3(1) + 4(5) + 4(2) + 2(1) / 5 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 2 = 55 / 22 = 2.50.

The mean weighted satisfaction scores for teachers in NSW high schools are listed in

Table 6.59. The table shows the mean weighted satisfaction scores in a number of

teacher related and school related categories.

Table 6.59 Descriptive Statistics for Weighted Satisfaction Scores by Categories

Categories Mean Number Std.

deviation Minimum Maximum Range P value

sig.

Gender 0.708 Male 3.449 122 0.5031 2.125 4.985 2.860 Female 3.472 138 0.4933 1.980 4.597 2.617 Total 3.461 260 0.4971 1.980 4.985 3.004

Experience (years) 0.656 0-3 3.350 25 0.4027 2.559 4.200 1.641 4-9 3.490 40 0.4891 2.584 4.567 1.982 10-19 3.487 77 0.5071 2.125 4.597 2.472 20 or more 3.454 119 0.5131 1.980 4.985 3.004 Total 3.459 261 0.4971 1.980 4.985 3.004

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Table 6.59 Descriptive Statistics for Weighted Satisfaction Scores by Categories (continued)

Categories Mean Number Std.

deviation Minimum Maximum Range P value

sig.

Qualification 0.488 Diploma/other 3.365 24 0.3920 2.695 4.000 1.305 Bachelors degree 3.458 194 0.5278 1.980 4.985 3.004 Masters degree or higher 3.518 42 0.4013 2.672 4.299 1.626

Total 3.459 260 0.4980 1.980 4.985 3.004

School type 0.000 Public 3.338 132 0.5121 1.980 4.985 3.004 Catholic systemic 3.538 71 0.4540 2.652 4.597 1.946 Other private 3.640 58 0.4431 2.125 4.566 2.441 Total 3.459 261 0.4971 1.980 4.985 3.004

Location 0.144 Sydney - inner city 3.654 15 0.4853 2.842 4.476 1.634 Sydney - north 3.499 26 0.4796 1.980 4.538 2.558 Sydney - south 3.568 52 0.4734 2.652 4.597 1.946 Sydney - east 3.469 25 0.3779 2.883 4.150 1.267 Sydney - west 3.481 37 0.5514 2.365 4.985 2.620 Newcastle 3.550 5 0.3010 3.250 3.927 0.677 Wollongong 3.415 20 0.4627 2.500 4.250 1.750 Country 3.329 80 0.5304 2.125 4.567 2.442 Total 3.459 260 0.4979 1.980 4.985 3.004 Salary 0.014 Less than $35000 3.417 10 0.3551 2.984 4.036 1.053 $35000-$45000 3.369 42 0.4618 2.500 4.299 1.799 $45000-$55000 3.374 115 0.5320 1.980 4.985 3.004 Over $55000 3.600 92 0.4557 2.632 4.597 1.965 Total 3.457 259 0.4980 1.980 4.985 3.004

Non-English speaking 0.043

Less than 20% 3.394 142 0.5112 1.980 4.985 3.004 20% or more 3.522 111 0.4771 2.365 4.597 2.232 Total 3.450 253 0.4997 1.980 4.985 3.004

Classes taught 0.366 Years 7-10 3.366 40 0.4233 2.672 4.250 1.578 Years 11-12 3.451 40 0.4158 2.500 4.153 1.653 Years 7-12 3.489 176 0.5307 1.980 4.985 3.004 Total 3.464 256 0.4991 1.980 4.985 3.004

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Table 6.59 Descriptive Statistics for Weighted Satisfaction Scores by Categories (continued)

Categories Mean Number Std.

deviation Minimum Maximum Range P value

sig.

Main teaching field 0.249 English/Drama 3.462 50 0.5360 2.576 4.985 2.409 Mathematics 3.453 34 0.5084 1.980 4.476 2.496 Science 3.445 28 0.5633 2.365 4.597 2.232 Economics/Business Studies 3.640 26 0.4335 2.896 4.525 1.630

Other HSIE 3.495 33 0.5287 2.481 4.299 1.818 Computing 3.220 7 0.4696 2.672 3.817 1.145 Other TAS 3.328 15 0.2882 2.795 3.851 1.056 Art/Music 3.727 13 0.3771 3.151 4.410 1.259 Foreign languages 3.480 8 0.4519 2.827 4.054 1.227 Vocational studies 3.201 3 0.0784 3.154 3.292 0.138 PD/H/PE 3.414 14 0.6251 2.125 4.567 2.442 Religion 4.020 2 0.1891 3.886 4.154 0.267 Special Education/ESL 3.184 5 0.4221 2.559 3.644 1.085

English/other HSIE 3.277 11 0.5436 2.213 4.250 2.037 Other 3.348 11 0.2334 2.933 3.667 0.733 Total 3.461 260 0.4971 1.980 4.985 3.004

A summary for each of the characteristics and categories listed in Table 6.59 shows that

the mean weighted teacher satisfaction scores vary between the factors in the categories.

Overall the weighted mean satisfaction score is approximately 3.46.

The statistical significance of the results was tested by an independent samples t test for

the categories that had only two population means and by ANOVA for those with more

than two population means (Webster 1995). These tests produced the p value

significance statistics in Table 6.59.

The p value statistic shows the smallest level of significance at which the null

hypothesis may be rejected. The null hypothesis, H0 is that the means of the populations

are the same. H1, the alternative hypothesis, states that at least two means differ. We

265

can form our decision rule based on the p values reported in Table 6.59 for a 0.05 level

of significance. It can be stated as follows:

Reject H0 if the calculated p value is less than the significance level 0.05

Do not reject H0 if the calculated p value is greater than the significance level

0.05

A number of the characteristics had significant results. School type, salary, and the

proportion of students from non-English speaking backgrounds had levels of

significance less than 0.05. In these cases we can reject the null hypothesis and

conclude that the means for these characteristics are not equal in their various

categories. For the remaining characteristics we cannot reject the null hypothesis that

the means of the categories are the same.

The results show that for:

(i) Gender of the teacher

Female teachers (3.47) are slightly more satisfied than male teachers (3.45) but the

difference is not statistically significant.

(ii) Experience of the teacher

The least experienced teachers (0-3 years) are the least satisfied teachers (3.35).

Although the difference is not statistically significant, this illustrates the problems faced

by beginning teachers and is reflected in the higher resignation rates for less

experienced teachers. The most satisfied teachers are in the 4-19 years experienced

groups with a score of 3.49. The level of satisfaction declines after 20 years experience

266

(3.45), reflecting the need to develop policies to deal with the lower levels of teacher

satisfaction that occur for the most experienced teachers, as well as the least

experienced teachers (see Chapter 8).

(iii) Academic qualifications of the teacher

The level of teacher satisfaction increases with the level of qualification of the teacher,

although not significantly. The most satisfied teachers have masters degrees or higher

qualifications (3.52), followed by those with bachelors degrees (3.46), and the least

satisfied are teachers with diplomas and other qualifications (3.36). This could in part

reflect the differences in salary or promotion positions that are more likely to occur with

higher qualifications.

(iv) The school system of the teacher

The analysis of variance showed that the satisfaction levels varied significantly, with a

0.000 level of significance. Private school teachers (3.64) were overall the most

satisfied teachers, followed by Catholic teachers (3.54), with public school teachers

(3.34) the least satisfied. While higher wages may favour teachers in the private system

over the other two systems in terms of satisfaction, this does not explain the difference

between Catholic and public school teachers. Again differences in the quality of

students going to selective private schools may be a factor favouring higher levels of

satisfaction in private schools; this may not contribute greatly to the differences in

satisfaction levels for teachers in local public schools and local Catholic schools. There

267

must be other factors that are impacting on the levels of satisfaction. These will also be

explored in the possible policy responses in Chapter 8.

(v) Location of the school of the teacher

The most satisfied teachers were those working in the inner city of Sydney (3.65) and

the least satisfied were teachers working in the country region of NSW (3.32), although

the differences were not statistically significant. This again highlights the lower levels

of satisfaction felt by country teachers as discussed earlier in this chapter in regard to

particular factors affecting teacher satisfaction. Policies to deal with this issue will be

discussed in Chapter 8.

(vi) Salary of the teacher

The analysis of variance showed that the result for the category salary of teacher was

significant with a 0.014 level of significance. Teachers on the highest salaries, over

$55,000, were the most satisfied (3.60). While this might be expected it is important to

note that at the time of the study, the only teachers who were paid salaries in excess of

$55,000 would have been in promotion positions in the public and Catholic school

systems or teachers in private schools who were paid more than the State award. It

could be argued that teachers in promotion positions have more say and more control

over their working environment and these factors may increase their overall levels of

satisfaction.

268

(vii) Teachers in schools with differing levels of non-English speaking backgrounds

of students

The independent samples test showed that satisfaction varied significantly based on the

non-English speaking background of students with a 0.043 level of significance. It is

interesting to note that teachers in schools where more than 20 percent of the student

population came from non–English speaking backgrounds had higher levels of

satisfaction (3.52) than teachers in schools with a less than 20 percent ratio (3.39). This

suggests that having a school with students from a diverse cultural background may

actually be more satisfying to teachers than a narrower cultural background. This result

differs from studies in the USA (National Center for Education Statistics 1997) where

having a higher proportion of students from non-English speaking backgrounds was

associated with lower levels of teacher satisfaction in high schools.

(viii) Years of classes taught by the teacher

The most satisfied teachers, although not statistically significant, are those who teach

the full range of classes in high schools from years 7-12 (3.49). Those teachers with

lowest levels of satisfaction only teach classes in the year 7-10 range (3.37). This

restriction in classes to 7-10 may cause lower teacher satisfaction, as they are not given

the opportunity to teacher higher levels. The middle score (3.45) for teachers’ only

teaching years 11-12 could reflect the higher workload or pressure associated with the

Higher School Certificate.

269

(ix) Main teaching field of the teacher

There are small and statistically insignificant differences in the level of satisfaction

between teachers teaching in different subject areas. Allowing for a minimum sample

group size of 20, teachers of Economics and Business Studies (3.64) are the most

satisfied, followed by other Human Society and Environment (HSIE) teachers (3.50),

English/Drama teachers (3.46) and Mathematics teachers (3.45). The least satisfied

teachers are those teaching Computing and other Technical and Applied Studies (TAS)

subjects (3.29). The low level of satisfaction of TAS teachers is a concern as this is one

of the main key learning areas where there are reported teacher shortages in NSW.

NSW DET Accelerated Teacher Training Program may have limited effect in

alleviating the shortages, if lower levels of teacher satisfaction lead to lower retention

rates of TAS teachers.

6.10 A Regression Model of Teacher Satisfaction

A model of high school teacher satisfaction will be estimated using a multiple

regression equation. It is initially assumed that the weighted teacher satisfaction score

(as discussed in section 6.9) is a function of fourteen independent variables. Thus the

model is represented by the following equation:

Sw = β0 + β1W + β2 J+ β3 L + β4 H + β5 T + β6 A + β7P + β8 U + β9 R + β10 M + β11G +

β12F + β13 I + β14 K + e (6.1)

270

where Sw is the dependent variable, the weighted teacher satisfaction score. The

independent variables are:

• level of salary, W;

• job security, J;

• a low level of stress, L;

• number of holidays, H;

• hours of work, T;

• support and encouragement from administration, A;

• the attitude and support of peers, P;

• the attitude and support of students, U;

• the satisfaction of student achievement, R;

• the support of the students’ parents, M;

• attitude of the general public towards teachers, G;

• the support of your family, F;

• interest in the subjects taught, I;

• the possibility of promotion, K.

β0...β14 are the coefficients and e is the random error term. It is important to note that the

independent variables may actually be functions of other variables and will require

testing to verify or dismiss these possible relationships.

The data were processed through SPSS statistical analysis and data management system.

Table 6.60 displays the coefficients of the variables and the least square estimates of the

coefficients of the variables. In the column under the heading ‘B’. The standard errors

271

of the estimators are given in the column under ‘Std Error’. The T value for testing the

null hypothesis given by H0: Bi = 0 i = 0, 1, …14 is in the column headed ‘t’ on the

same line as B. The significance of the coefficients can also be tested by using the p-

values reported in the table under the column heading of ‘sig’. The F value is significant

at the 0.01 level.

Table 6.60 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Satisfaction Model (1a) Model 1a Unstandardised coefficients Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. VIF Constant 0.219 0.059 3.730 0.000 Level of salary 0.089 0.007 0.200 13.049 0.000 1.202 Job security 0.082 0.008 0.159 10.273 0.000 1.228 A low level of stress 0.075 0.007 0.170 10.794 0.000 1.279 Number of holidays 0.041 0.008 0.080 5.072 0.000 1.278 Hours of work 0.074 0.007 0.175 11.235 0.000 1.254 Support from administration 0.075 0.007 0.190 11.232 0.000 1.467 Attitude of peers 0.090 0.008 0.177 11.301 0.000 1.263 Attitude of students 0.086 0.010 0.185 8.440 0.000 2.475 The satisfaction of student achievement

0.100 0.011 0.178 9.011 0.000 1.995

The support of pupils' parents 0.057 0.009 0.115 6.046 0.000 1.861 Attitude of the general public 0.064 0.008 0.127 7.994 0.000 1.291 The support of your family 0.051 0.008 0.101 6.644 0.000 1.178 Interest in the subjects taught 0.077 0.010 0.120 7.652 0.000 1.262 The possibility of promotion 0.007 0.007 0.015 0.987 0.325 1.233 F value 349.871a Adjusted R2 0.950 Standard error of the estimate 0.111 Dependent variable: weighted satisfaction score. a Significant at the 0.01 level

The model could be further limited by multicollinearity. One way of testing for

multicollinerarity is by using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for each explanatory

variable If an independent variable is totally unrelated to another independent variable

the VIF is equal to one. As a general rule multicollinearity is not considered a

significant problem unless the maximum individual VIF or the sum of the VIF’s is

larger than 10. As can be seen in Table 6.60, the sum of the VIF is 20, suggesting

significant multicollinerarity.

272

In attempt to improve the validity of the model by reducing multicollinearity the least

useful independent variables were dropped. The value of the F-statistic for each

independent variable remaining in the model decides which variable to eliminate. The

model was improved by dropping all the independent variables except the attitude of

students, support for administration, level of salary, hours of work and the attitude of

peers. Table 6.61 shows model 1b with the new coefficients and regression statistics

after the elimination of the least useful variables. The total VIF has been reduced to less

than six and all variables have a VIF close to one. The adjusted R square is 0.798

showing that these five variables have considerable explanatory value.

Table 6.61 Coefficients of the High School Teacher Model (1b)

Model 1b Unstandardised coefficients Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. VIF Constant 1.328 0.073 18.261 0.000 Attitude of students

0.214 0.014 0.460 15.148 0.000 1.176

Support from administration

0.109 0.013 0.276 8.706 0.000 1.285

Level of salary 0.121 0.013 0.272 9.453 0.000 1.054 Hours of work 0.100 0.012 0.238 8.197 0.000 1.075 Attitude of peers 0.112 0.016 0.220 7.191 0.000 1.197 F value 204.642a Adjusted R2 0.798 Standard error of the estimate

0.224

Dependent variable: weighted satisfaction score. a Significant at the 0.01 level.

The estimated regression equation is:

Sw = 1.328 + 0.214 U + 0.109 A + 0.121 W + 0.100 H + 0.112 P (6.2)

(0.073) (0.014) (0.013) (0.013) (0.012) (0.016)

This equation shows the influence of the variables in regards to the level of teacher

satisfaction. The model shows that improvements in the attitude of students, support

from administration, levels of salary, hours of work and attitudes of peers are positively

273

and statistically significantly related to teacher satisfaction. In this model the attitude of

students has the biggest influence (0.214) on the level of teacher satisfaction. Overall

these five variables explain 80 percent of the variation in the level of teacher

satisfaction.

6.11 Conclusion

This chapter has shown the relative importance of wages and other factors in the

satisfaction of teachers in NSW high schools, based on surveys of those teachers. There

were considerable variations in the level of satisfaction of teachers in regard to those

factors. The importance of wages in measuring the level of teacher satisfaction was

only seen as an average factor among the 14 considered. Interest in the subjects taught,

the satisfaction of student achievement, the attitude of peers, the attitude of students, job

security, and support from administration were all seen as being more important to the

teachers in measuring their level of satisfaction.

The levels of job satisfaction and what factors were most important to them in

measuring job satisfaction also varied with the characteristics of the teachers and the

schools. The most significant differences occurred in regard to aspects such as:

• the gender of the teacher;

• the type of school system;

• the location of the school, especially in respect to country teachers; and

• the age and experience of the teacher.

274

The significant levels of differences in satisfaction between factors and between

characteristics of teachers and schools provide information that could be used by school

authorities to develop policies that could increase the level of teacher satisfaction and as

a result the quality and or quantity of teaching that takes place in NSW high schools.

This should also improve the education outcomes for students. These policy

implications will be examined in Chapter 8.

The results of this chapter provide an insight for improving the level of satisfaction

amongst teachers who are teaching in NSW high schools. The next chapter will

examine the factors that influence university students (potential future teachers) in

deciding whether to become teachers and to enter the high school teacher labour market

in NSW.

275

Chapter 7. What Factors Influence the Decisions of University

Students to Become Teachers?

7.1 Introduction

As discussed in Chapter 4, the main source of new teachers into the high school teacher

labour market in NSW is new university graduates. The problem facing education

authorities is that from 1983 to 2000 the proportion of higher education students

studying Education declined from 21.3 percent to 10.6 percent. Across Australia the

actual number of Education students fell from 74,314 in 1983 to 73,680 in 2000. While

the number of female students studying Education increased over the period by 13.8

percent, the number of male students declined by 28.8 percent (Department of

Education Science and Training 2003). There are a number of issues to be considered.

First, what can be done to increase the overall level of university graduates entering

teaching? Second, are there different factors that influence the decisions of male and

female university graduates to enter the teacher labour market? Third, what factors

influence the decisions of students to pursue careers in teaching compared to other

careers? Finally, what perceptions do students have of a career as a teacher?

7.2 Surveys of University Students

Two surveys were conducted to investigate the factors that influence first and third/final

year university students in pursing careers especially in relation to high school teaching.

The first year students were selected as they had recently made a decision to go to

university and had selected their course of study. In some cases this decision would still

make it possible for them to follow a teaching career, in other cases it would be much

276

more difficult, such as for those who selected nursing courses. Surveys of the third/final

year students were conducted, as this group was about to make their actual choices in

entering the workforce. They were also surveyed to see if their attitudes to entering the

teaching profession had changed while they were at university.

7.3 Methodology of the Study

The aim of the study was to survey university students in NSW to determine their

attitudes towards pursuing a career as a teacher and the importance of various factors in

making their career choices. The differences in factors and the relative level of

importance of those factors that influence students career choices are an important

consideration for administrators of school systems and schools in attempting to attract

new graduates into teaching. Requests were made to all universities in NSW to

participate in this study. The Deans of the faculties of Education, Arts, Sciences, and

Commerce/Economics57 were asked for permission to survey 30-40 first and third/final

year students at random, and for permission to ask the students, if they would be willing

to participate in the study. The number of students per faculty was selected to gain a

diverse sample of views on the issues to be surveyed and to provide information that

would be representative of the different students and the different geographical regions

of NSW. Individual participation in the surveys, by the students, was voluntary and

anonymous. The conduct of the survey involved a lecturer receiving 30-40 surveys in

individual envelopes with an information sheet, a survey and a reply paid envelope.

The students were asked to collect an envelope, if they wanted to participate in the

study. At some universities the students filled the surveys out in a lecture/tutorial and

these were returned to the lecturer. Six universities agreed to participate in the study.

57 These four faculties were chosen, as they were the ones most likely to generate entrants and graduates who potentially would be most likely to become high school teachers.

277

These included city and regional universities in NSW. Altogether a sample of 201 first

year students and 209 third/final year students were surveyed in this study. The time

frame for completion of the surveys ranged from the second half of 2002 to the first half

of 2003.

Overall I believe that the sample is valid. Students have volunteered to participate

across a range of tertiary institutions, faculties and locations. The range of gender, ages,

and courses studied provides a diverse sample and generally the sample numbers in

various categories do allow for a testing of the validity of the results.

The university student surveys designed for this study (Appendix C) classified students

based on:

• current year of university study;

• gender;

• age;

• University Admission Index and other forms of entry;

• area of academic qualifications of current course;

• place of residence;

• type of school attended; and

• their intention to become teachers.

The students were asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, the importance of the following factors58

in their choosing a career. Those factors were:

• level of salary;

58 The factors were based on the results of surveys of teachers in Chapter 6, along with studies by Dinham and Scott (1997) and in the USA by National Center for Education Statistics (1997). Some adjustments have been made to make the factors more generic for some other occupations.

278

• job security;

• a low level of stress;

• number of holidays;

• hours of work;

• the attitude and support of peers and friends;

• the attitude and support of the employer;

• attitude of the general public towards your career;

• the support of your family;

• interest in the work you do;

• job satisfaction;

• the possibility of promotion;

• desire to help others.

The students were also asked how they would rate the employment conditions for

teachers in NSW high schools on a 1-5 scale.

The students were also asked questions relating to:

• How certain factors influenced their decision to become a teacher?

• Whether higher teachers’ salaries would increase their likelihood to become

teachers and the required amount?

• If they became teachers, in what school system would they like to teach?

The final year students were also asked, if their attitude to becoming a teacher had

changed while at university. If so, they were asked in what ways and what factors had

caused a change in their attitude?

279

7.4 A Description of the Sample

The survey provided data on 410 respondents, comprising 201 first year students (49.0

percent), and 209 third/final year students (51.0 percent) (Table 7.1). The gender

balance was made up of 127 (40.2 percent) males and 141 (59.8 percent) females (Table

7.2). The highest percentage of students (46.3) was in the age group under 21 years,

followed closely by the 21-29 age group (42.2). There were less than three percent of

students over forty years of age (Table 7.3).

Table 7.1 Year of Study at University

Year Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent1st year 201 49.0 49.0 49.0 3rd Year 209 51.0 51.0 100.0

Valid

Total 410 100.0 100.0

Table 7.2 Gender of Students

Gender Frequency Percent Valid

percent Cumulative

percent

Actual percentage of higher education

students59 Valid Male 164 40.0 40.2 40.2 44.1 Female 244 59.5 59.8 100.0 54.9 Total 408 99.5 100.0 Missing System 2 0.5 Total 410 100.0

Table 7.3 Age Distribution of Students

Age Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Under 21 189 46.1 46.3 46.3 21-29 173 42.2 42.4 88.7 30-39 34 8.3 8.3 97.1 40-49 9 2.2 2.2 99.3 Over 49 3 0.7 0.7 100.0

Valid

Total 408 99.5 100.0 Missing System 2 0.5 Total 410 100.0

59 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 Census (2003c).

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The sample group demonstrated a range of university admission types. The majority

(80 percent) relied on the University Admission Index (UAI) although it is likely that at

least some of the students with UAI’s less than 50 would have relied on other forms of

entry such as TAFE or work experience to assist their entry. Twelve point nine percent

of all respondents had UAI’s in the top decile of 90–100, while a further 21.0 percent

had UAI’s ranging between 80-89 (Table 7.4). There was a spread of students residing

throughout locations in NSW with 76.9 percent living in Sydney and 23.1 percent in the

country and regional areas of Newcastle and Wollongong (Table 7.5).

Table 7.4 University Admission Index

UAI Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Under 40 26 6.3 6.9 6.9 40-49 2 0.5 0.5 7.5 50-59 10 2.4 2.7 10.1 60-69 41 10.0 10.9 21.1 70-79 111 27.1 29.6 50.7 80-89 86 21.0 22.9 73.6 90-100 53 12.9 14.1 87.7 Other 46 11.2 12.3 100.0

Valid

Total 375 91.5 100.0 Missing System 35 8.5 Total 410 100.0

Table 7.5 Residential Distribution

Residence Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Sydney - inner city 39 9.5 9.7 9.7

Sydney - north 85 20.7 21.1 30.8 Sydney - south 34 8.3 8.5 39.3 Sydney - east 31 7.6 7.7 47.0 Sydney - west 120 29.3 29.9 76.9 Newcastle 25 6.1 6.2 83.1 Wollongong 62 15.1 15.4 98.5 Country 6 1.5 1.5 100.0

Valid

Total 402 98.0 100.0 Missing System 8 2.0 Total 410 100.0

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There was also a range of fields of study in the survey sample (Table 7.6). The largest

group (34.1 percent) had double degrees. These were predominately

Education/Teaching degrees combined with Arts, although there were some,

Arts/Commerce combined with Law. The other main groups had qualifications in

Commerce/Business/Economics (22.9 percent), Arts (5.4 percent), Science/Mathematics

(16.6 percent), Nursing (8.0 percent), and Education (8.3 percent).

Table 7.6 Field of Study

Field of study Frequency Percent Valid

percent Cumulative

percent

Actual percentages of

higher education students60

Valid Education/Teaching 34 8.3 8.3 8.3 9.7 Arts, Humanities 22 5.4 5.4 13.7 21.8 Science, Maths 68 16.6 16.6 30.2 7.6 Commerce, Business,

Economics 94 22.9 22.9 53.2 27.5

Law, Legal Studies 2 0.5 0.5 53.7 (a) Computing 2 0.5 0.5 54.1 8.3 Art 2 0.5 0.5 54.6 6.0 Human Movement,

Health 6 1.5 1.5 56.1 (b)

Other 7 1.7 1.7 57.8 Double degrees61 140 34.1 34.1 92.0 (c) Nursing 33 8.0 8.0 100.0 10.8 Total 410 100.0 100.0 (a) Law, Legal Studies is classified under the same category as Arts, Humanities. (b) Human Movement and Health are included by DEST in the same category as nursing. (c) The DEST data takes into account the coding of combined courses (double degrees) into two fields of study. This may overstate the percentages in some categories.

The students had attended schools across the three education systems, with 44.5 percent

attending public schools, 36.6 percent Catholic schools, and 17.7 percent other private

schools (Table 7.7). The higher than normal percentage of respondents who attended

Catholic schools could reflect the fact that the Australian Catholic University was one

of the six universities that agreed to participate in the study. The final category of

60 Department of Education Science and Training (2003). 61 The majority of these were combined Education/Teaching and Arts degrees.

282

classification related to the respondents intentions to pursue a career as a teacher.

Thirty two point four percent of those surveyed responded ‘yes’, 46.3 percent responded

‘no’, while a further 20.2 percent were ‘unsure’ (Table 7.8).

Table 7.7 Type of School Attended

Type of School Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Public 179 43.7 44.5 44.5 Catholic systemic 147 35.9 36.6 81.1

Other private 71 17.3 17.7 98.8 More than 1 5 1.2 1.2 100.0

Valid

Total 402 98.0 100.0 Missing System 8 2.0 Total 410 100.0

Table 7.8 Student Intentions about Pursuing a Teaching Career

Teaching career Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Yes 130 31.7 32.4 32.4 No 190 46.3 47.4 79.8 Unsure 81 19.8 20.2 100.0

Valid

Total 401 97.8 100.0 Missing System 9 2.2 Total 410 100.0

7.5 A Regression Model Of The Factors Influencing University Students’

Intentions To Pursue Careers As Teachers

A model of university students’ intentions to teach will be estimated using a multiple

regression equation. It is initially assumed that the intentions of university students to

teach is a function of thirteen independent variables. Thus the model is represented by

the following equation:

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Ti = β0 + β1W + β2 J+ β3 L + β4 H + β5 B + β6 P + β7 E + β8 M + β9 G + β10 F + β11 I +

β12 K+ β13 D + e (7.1)

where Ti is the dependent variable, the university students’ intentions to teach. The

independent variables are:

• level of salary, W;

• job security, J;

• a low level of stress, L;

• number of holidays, H;

• hours of work, B;

• the attitude and support of peers, P;

• the attitude of the employer, E;

• attitude of the general public, G;

• the support of your family, F;

• interest in the work you do, I;

• job satisfaction, S;

• the possibility of promotion, K;

• the desire to help others, D.

β0...β13 are the coefficients and e is the random error term. It is important to note that the

independent variables may actually be functions of other variables and will require

testing to verify or dismiss these possible relationships.

284

The data were processed through SPSS statistical analysis and data management system.

Table 7.9 displays the coefficients of the variables and the least square estimates of the

coefficients of the variables in the column under the heading ‘B’. The standard errors of

the estimators are given in the column under ‘Std Error’. The T value for testing the

null hypothesis given by H0: Bi = 0 i = 0, 1, …13 is in the column headed ‘t’ on the

same line as B. The significance of the coefficients can also be tested by using the p-

values reported in the table under the column heading of ‘sig’.

The model could be further limited by multicollinearity. 0ne way of testing for

multicollinerarity is by using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for each explanatory

variable If an independent variable is totally unrelated to another independent variable

the VIF is equal to one. As a general rule multicollinearity is not considered a

significant problem unless the maximum individual VIF or the sum of the VIF’s is

larger than 10. As can be seen in Table 7.9, the sum of the VIF is 20, suggesting

significant multicollinerarity.

In attempt to improve the validity of the model by reducing multicollinearity the least

useful independent variables were dropped. The value of the F-statistic for each

independent variable remaining in the model decides which variable to eliminate. The

model was improved by dropping all the independent variables except support for level

of salary, job security, low level of stress, number of holidays, hours of work and desire

to help others. This produced the model (1b) with the highest adjusted R square value.

The total VIF has been reduced to 7.8 and all variables have a VIF closer to one. Table

7.10 shows the new coefficients and regression statistics after the elimination of these

least useful variables.

285

Table 7.9 Coefficients of the University Students’ Intentions to Teach Model (1a) Model 1a Unstandardised coefficients Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. VIF Constant 2.211 0.384 5.762 0.000 Level of salary

0.057 0.051 0.067 1.129 0.260 1.329

Job security -0.107 0.053 -0.121 -2.002 0.046 1.373 A low level of stress

0.111 0.044 0.157 2.522 0.012 1.449

Number of holidays

-0.043 0.046 -0.060 -0.930 0.353 1.548

Hours of work

-0.052 0.050 -0.066 -1.029 0.304 1.567

Attitude of peers and friends

0.008 0.049 0.011 0.156 0.876 1.896

The attitude and support of employer

0.030 0.060 0.036 0.503 0.616 1.933

Attitude of the general public

-0.020 0.037 -0.033 -0.550 0.583 1.372

The support of your family

0.044 0.045 0.059 0.981 0.327 1.336

Interest in the work you do

-0.071 0.082 -0.060 -0.867 0.387 1.808

Job satisfaction

0.034 0.078 0.032 0.440 0.660 1.930

Possibility of promotion

0.037 0.045 .0048 0.823 0.411 1.299

Desire to help others

-0.109 0.044 -0.156 -2.485 0.013 1.489

F value 1.964a Adjusted R2 0.033 Standard error of the estimate

0.714

Dependent variable: intention to teach. a Significant at the 0.05 level.

The estimated regression equation is:

Ti = 2.252 + 0.074 W – 0.087 J + 0.177 L - 0.049 H - 0.053 B - 0.095 D (7.2)

(0.278) (0.047) (0.050) (0.043) (0.044) (0.049) (0.038)

This equation shows the influence of the variables in regards to the intentions of

university students to pursue careers in teaching. The results suggest that higher wages

and a lower level of stress would increase the likelihood of pursuing a career as a

286

teacher. The intention to teach is reduced by job security, number of holidays, hours of

work and the desire to help others.

Table 7.10 Coefficients of the University Students’ Intentions to Teach (1b)

Model 1b Unstandardised coefficients Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. VIF Constant 2.252 0.278 8.109 0.000 Level of salary

0.074 0.047 0.087 1.568 0.118 1.162

Job security -0.087 0.050 -0.099 -1.734 0.084 1.234 A low level of stress

0.117 0.043 0.165 2.734 0.007 1.377

Number of holidays

-0.049 0.044 -0.069 -1.117 0.265 1.439

Hours of work -0.053 0.049 -0.069 -1.097 0.273 1.495 Desire to help others

-0.095 0.038 -0.137 -2.523 0.012 1.119

F value 3.824a Adjusted R2 0.045 Standard error of the estimate

0.710

Dependent variable: intention to teach. a Significant at the 0.01 level.

Overall the model only explains 4.5 percent of the variation in the decisions of

university students when they consider their intentions to teach.

7.6 How Would Higher Teacher Salaries Affect Students’ Career Choices?

There were two questions in the survey that looked at the issue of whether students

would become teachers, if teachers’ salaries were higher (Q.11), and what level of

salary increase would be required for a student to decide to become a high school

teacher (Q.12). The real issue in looking at the responses is whether the students, who

had said that they would not become teachers or were unsure about becoming teachers

(Q9), would become teachers due to a salary increase and what level of salary increase

would be required to achieve this.

287

The results showed that a salary increase of 10 percent would lead to 7.6 percent of

those who did not plan to become high school teachers to plan to become teachers

(Table 7.11). In addition 15.4 percent of those students who responded that they were

unsure would also plan to become high school teachers.

It is also interesting to note that the third/final year students had a stronger response to

the higher salaries in favouring a move to teaching than the first year students. While it

could be argued that responding to the survey is different from making a career change

in real life, it is still very likely that higher relative salaries would attract university

students away from other career choices to become high school teachers.

Table 7.11 Student Intentions towards Pursuing a Teaching Career and Teachers’ Salaries Pursue a career in teaching? Year of study Salary increase Total

10% 20% 40% 60%

More than 60%

No 1st year Count 3 11 19 10 14 57 % within year of

study 5.3% 19.3% 33.3% 17.5% 24.6% 100.0%

3rd Year Count 5 12 17 8 6 48 % within year of

study 10.4% 25.0% 35.4% 16.7% 12.5% 100.0%

Total Count 8 23 36 18 20 105 % within year of

study 7.6% 21.9% 34.3% 17.1% 19.0% 100.0%

Unsure 1st year Count 5 15 13 4 4 41 % within Year of

study 12.2% 36.6% 31.7% 9.8% 9.8% 100.0%

3rd Year Count 5 11 4 2 2 24 % within year of

study 20.8% 45.8% 16.7% 8.3% 8.3% 100.0%

Total Count 10 26 17 6 6 65 % within year of

study 15.4% 40.0% 26.2% 9.2% 9.2% 100.0%

288

Chi-Square Tests

Pursue a career in teaching Tests Value df

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

No Pearson Chi-Square 3.330 4 0.504 Likelihood Ratio 3.402 4 0.493 Linear-by-Linear Association 3.047 1 0.081

N of Valid Cases 105 Unsure Pearson Chi-Square 2.434 4 0.657

Likelihood Ratio 2.496 4 0.645 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.094 1 0.295

N of Valid Cases 65

The Chi-square test results show that the effect of a salary increase on the intention to

pursue a career in teaching is independent of the year group that was surveyed in all

categories of response.

7.7 What Factors Influence the Career Choices of University Students?

The university students were asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, the importance of 13 factors

in determining their decisions to pursue a particular career. The 1-5 ratings scale was:

5 -very important;

4 -some importance;

3 - neutral;

2 - little importance;

1 - very unimportant.

While all of the factors listed were of some importance to the students, the most

important factors in determining their decisions to pursue a particular career (Table

7.12), based on the mean scores, were:

• interest in the work (4.67);

• job satisfaction (4.59);

289

• job security (4.21);

• the attitude and support of the employer (4.20);

• desire to help others (4.04);

• level of salary (3.96);

• the support of their family (3.95); and

• the possibility of promotion (3.90).

The least important factors for students in deciding to pursue a particular career were:

• the attitude of the general public (3.13);

• number of holidays (3.34);

• hours of work (3.54); and

• a low level of stress (3.58).

290

Statistics

Level of

salary

Job security

A low level of stress

Number of

holidays

Hours of

work

The attitude of peers

and friends

The attitude

and support of employer

The attitude of the

general public

The support of your family

Interest in the

work you do

Job satisfaction

The possibility

of promotion

Desire to help others

Valid 400 391 385 380 386 381 385 379 383 394 395 381 381 N Missing 10 19 25 30 24 29 25 31 27 16 15 29 29

Mean 3.96 4.21 3.58 3.34 3.52 3.74 4.20 3.13 3.95 4.67 4.59 3.90 4.04 Median 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 Std. deviation 0.877 0.912 1.043 1.024 0.973 1.057 0.897 1.195 0.992 0.683 0.858 1.061 1.046 Skewness -1.076 -1.258 -0.475 -0.080 -0.401 -0.572 -0.986 -0.187 -0.676 -2.562 -0.916 0.661 -1.045 Std. error of skewness 0.122 0.123 0.124 0.125 0.124 0.125 0.124 0.125 0.125 0.123 0.123 0.125 0.125

Kurtosis 1.872 1.586 -0.182 -0.561 -0.107 -0.370 0.399 -0.843 -0.231 7.751 12.415 8.148 0.624 Std. error of kurtosis 0.243 0.246 0.248 0.250 0.248 0.249 0.248 0.250 0.249 0.245 0.245 0.249 0.249

Table 7.12 The Importance of Factors in Students’ Decisions to Pursue Particular Careers

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7.8 Factors Influencing the Career Choices of University Students Regarding

Teaching

It is most likely that the relative importance of the factors that influence a person in their

career choice will vary from person to person. It is important to consider, if there are

differences in the relative importance of these factors, between those who intend to

pursue a career as a teacher and those who are unsure or do not intend to pursue

teaching as a career.

The results in Table 7.13 show that there were considerable differences in the

importance of some factors between those who intended to pursue a career as a teacher

and those who were unsure or did not intend to pursue teaching as a career.

Table 7.13 Factors Influencing Career Choice and Intention to Teach Summary

Table

Factors Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Intend to teach

(mean)

Do not intend to

teach (mean)

Intention unsure (mean)

Level of salary 10.63 6 0.100 3.84 4.07 3.88 Job security 6.973 6 0.323 4.36 4.18 4.08 A low level of stress 6.429 8 0.599 3.51 3.57 3.77 Number of holidays 15.27 8 0.054 3.54 3.16 3.46 Hours of work 6.568 8 0.584 3.63 3.50 3.44 The attitude of peers and friends 3.176 8 0.919 3.81 3.70 3.74

The attitude of employer 4.294 8 0.830 4.26 4.16 4.17 The attitude of the general public 28.43 8 0.000 3.30 2.95 3.21

The support of your family 6.802 8 0.558 4.03 3.88 4.01 Interest in the work you do 7.925 4 0.094 4.80 4.61 4.58 Job satisfaction 8.740 8 0.365 4.69 4.57 4.46 The possibility of promotion 10.60 8 0.225 3.75 4.06 3.79

Desire to help others 30.16 8 0.000 4.39 3.82 3.95

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

292

There were highly significant differences in the importance of factors in making career

choices between the three categories of students in regard to two factors that had

Pearson Chi-square results that were significant at the one percent level (Table 7.13).

These factors were:

• attitude of the general public (Table 7.14); and

• the desire to help others (Table 7.15).

(i) Attitude of the general public

Table 7.14 Attitude of the General Public in Career Choice and Intention to Teach Summary Table

Attitude of the general public Pursue a career

in teaching? Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Yes Count 5 31 37 29 25 127 Expected

count 14.4 23.7 37.1 35.7 16.1 127.0

% within pursue a career

3.9% 24.4% 29.1% 22.8% 19.7% 100.0%

No Count 28 31 46 46 16 167 Expected

count 19.0 31.1 48.7 46.9 21.2 167.0

% within pursue a career

16.8% 18.6% 27.5% 27.5% 9.6% 100.0%

Unsure Count 9 7 25 29 6 76 Expected

count 8.6 14.2 22.2 21.4 9.7 76.0

% within pursue a career

11.8% 9.2% 32.9% 38.2% 7.9% 100.0%

Total Count 42 69 108 104 47 370 Expected

count 42.0 69.0 108.0 104.0 47.0 370.0

% within pursue a career

11.4% 18.6% 29.2% 28.1% 12.7% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 28.429 8 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 30.030 8 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.898 1 0.343 N of Valid Cases 370

293

The results show that students who intended to become teachers considered that the

attitude of the general public towards their career was more important than those who

did not intend to teach (Table 7.14). Nineteen point seven percent of students who

intended to become teachers considered that the attitude of the general public towards

their career was ‘very important’ compared to 9.6 percent of those who did not intend to

become teachers and 7.9 percent of those who were unsure. In addition only 3.9 percent

of students who intended to become teachers considered that the attitude of the general

public towards their career was ‘very unimportant’ compared to 16.8 percent of those

who did not intend to become teachers and 11.8 percent of those who were unsure. The

importance to the students, who intended to become teachers, of the attitude of the

general public towards their career could prove a problem when they enter teaching.

The research in Chapter 6 showed that overall teachers were not happy with the attitude

of the general public towards them (Table 6.45). This could discourage some of these

students when they become teachers and lead to lower satisfaction levels and perhaps

contribute to increased resignations.

(ii) The desire to help others

The results show that for students who intended to become teachers, the desire to help

others was more important, than for those who did not intend to teach (Table 7.15).

More than half (57.6 percent) of the students who intended to become teachers

considered that the desire to help others was ‘very important’ compared to 33.9 percent

of those who did not intend to become teachers and 33.3 percent of those who were

unsure. The desire to help others is an important distinguishing characteristic between

the groups. The students, who intended to teach, ranked desire to help others as more

important than the level of salary (means of 4.39 and 3.84 respectively). Teachers may

294

be prepared to accept lower relative wages in exchange for the satisfaction they expect

to receive from helping others. The group who did not intend to become teachers

considered the level of salary as a higher priority in their career choice not just in

comparison to those who intended to teach but as an overall level of importance

compared to the desire to help others (Table 7.13). The unsure group ranked desire to

help others slightly more important that the level of salary.

Table 7.15 Desire to Help Others in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

Desire to help others Pursue a career

in teaching? Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Yes Count 2 4 9 40 72 127 Expected

count 4.4 5.8 23.2 40.9 52.8 127.0

% within pursue a career

1.6% 3.1% 7.1% 31.5% 56.7% 100.0%

No Count 8 11 42 50 57 168 Expected

count 5.9 7.7 30.6 54.0 69.8 168.0

% within pursue a career

4.8% 6.5% 25.0% 29.8% 33.9% 100.0%

Unsure Count 3 2 17 30 26 78 Expected

count 2.7 3.6 14.2 25.1 32.4 78.0

% within pursue a career

3.8% 2.6% 21.8% 38.5% 33.3% 100.0%

Total Count 13 17 68 120 155 373 Expected

count 13.0 17.0 68.0 120.0 155.0 373.0

% within pursue a career

3.5% 4.6% 18.2% 32.2% 41.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 30.159 8 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 32.094 8 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 12.034 1 0.001 N of Valid Cases 373

295

There were also significant differences (at the 10 percent level) in the importance of

factors in deciding careers between the three categories of students in regard to three

other factors (Table 7.13). These factors were:

• level of salary (Table 7.16);

• number of holidays (Table 7.17); and

• interest in the work you do (Table 7.18).

(iii) Level of salary

As mentioned in the previous section there is a significant difference in the importance

of salary, between the three groups. The results show that students who intended to

become teachers considered that in choosing a career the level of salary was less

important than those who did not intend to teach (Table 7.16).

Table 7.16 Level of Salary in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

Level of salary

Pursue a career in teaching?

Very unimportant/Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Yes Count 9 25 65 28 127 Expected count 5.8 23.1 65.6 32.5 127.0 % within pursue

a career 7.1% 19.7% 51.2% 22.0% 100.0%

No Count 5 33 88 58 184 Expected count 8.5 33.4 95.1 47.1 184.0 % within pursue

a career 2.7% 17.9% 47.8% 31.5% 100.0%

Unsure Count 4 13 49 14 80 Expected count 3.7 14.5 41.3 20.5 80.0 % within pursue

a career 5.0% 16.3% 61.3% 17.5% 100.0%

Total Count 18 71 202 100 391 Expected count 18.0 71.0 202.0 100.0 391.0 % within pursue

a career 4.6% 18.2% 51.7% 25.6% 100.0%

296

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 10.634 6 0.100 Likelihood Ratio 10.682 6 0.099 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.409 1 0.523 N of Valid Cases 391

Seventy nine point three percent of the students who did not intend to become teachers

considered that the level of salary was ‘very important’ or of ‘some importance’

compared to 73.2 percent of those who intended to become teachers and 78.8 percent of

those who were unsure.

(iv) Number of holidays

The number of holidays is a more important factor and obviously an area of attraction

for those who intend to become teachers (Table 7.17). The results show that more than

half (52.0 percent) of the students who intend to become teachers considered that the

number of holidays was of ‘some importance’ or ‘very important’ compared to 36.3

percent of those who did not intend to become teachers and 46.1 percent of those who

were unsure.

Changes in the relative numbers of holidays or the timing of holidays could have a

considerable impact on the numbers of students who pursue careers in teaching. An

obvious advantage for students who become teachers is the ability to have holidays at

the same time as their children, should they have any. In addition teachers have more

holidays than most other occupations. It could be considered that some of those who

become teachers trade-off the larger number of holidays in exchange for a higher salary

in another occupation.

297

Table 7.17 Number of Holidays in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

Number of holidays Pursue a career

in teaching? Very

unimportant Little

importance Neutral Some

importance Very

important Total Yes Count 3 19 39 39 27 127 Expected

count 4.1 21.2 46.2 37.0 18.5 127.0

% within pursue a career

2.4% 15.0% 30.7% 30.7% 21.3% 100.0%

No Count 8 35 64 44 17 168 Expected

count 5.4 28.1 61.1 48.9 24.5 168.0

% within pursue a career

4.8% 20.8% 38.1% 26.2% 10.1% 100.0%

Unsure Count 1 8 32 25 10 76 Expected

count 2.5 12.7 27.7 22.1 11.1 76.0

% within pursue a career

1.3% 10.5% 42.1% 32.9% 13.2% 100.0%

Total Count 12 62 135 108 54 371 Expected

count 12.0 62.0 135.0 108.0 54.0 371.0

% within pursue a career

3.2% 16.7% 36.4% 29.1% 14.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 15.272 8 0.054 Likelihood Ratio 15.363 8 0.052 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.112 1 0.292 N of Valid Cases 371

(v) Interest in the work

Interest in the work is also a more important factor for those who intend to become

teachers compared to the other two groups (Table 7.18). The results show that 82.8

percent of the students who intend to become teachers considered interest in the work

was ‘very important’ compared to 73.2 percent of those who did not intend to become

teachers and 69.6 percent of those who were unsure. In Chapter 6 teachers’ responses

showed that interest in the subjects they taught was a very important consideration in

their level of job satisfaction. This seems to also apply to those who intend to become

298

teachers. It is possible that if teachers are teaching outside their field of interest that this

could reduce their levels of satisfaction and lead to resignations.

Table 7.18 Interest in the Work in Career Choice and Intention to Teach

Interest in the work you do Pursue a career in

teaching? Neutral Some

importance Very important Total Yes Count 3 19 106 128 Expected count 8.3 22.9 96.8 128.0 % within pursue a

career 2.3% 14.8% 82.8% 100.0%

No Count 14 34 131 179 Expected count 11.6 32.0 135.4 179.0 % within pursue a

career 7.8% 19.0% 73.2% 100.0%

Unsure Count 8 16 55 79 Expected count 5.1 14.1 59.8 79.0 % within pursue a

career 10.1% 20.3% 69.6% 100.0%

Total Count 25 69 292 386 Expected count 25.0 69.0 292.0 386.0 % within pursue a

career 6.5% 17.9% 75.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 7.925 4 0.094 Likelihood Ratio 8.773 4 0.067 Linear-by-Linear Association 7.082 1 0.008 N of Valid Cases 386 Overall it appears students who intend to be teachers are prepared to trade-off certain

conditions of employment, such as relative salary for other nonwage amenities,

especially, the desire to help others, holidays and interest in the work. In turn, those

who do not intend to become teachers have different preferences (and as a result

indifference curves) and salary is a more important consideration than desire to help

others, holidays, the attitude of the general public, and interest in the job.

299

7.9 How Did the Students Rate Employment Conditions in NSW High Schools?

The university students were also asked to rate, on a 1-5 scale, their perceptions of the

employment conditions of teachers in NSW high schools based on 12 factors. The 1-5

ratings scale was:

5 - well above average;

4 - above average;

3 - average;

2 - below average;

1 - well below average.

Students’ perceptions of the employment conditions of teachers varied considerably

between factors but the overall perception of the students was that the conditions were

slightly above average, as shown with a job satisfaction rating of 3.34. This figure may

over-estimate the level of job satisfaction as 32.4 percent of the sample group reported

their intention to become a high school teacher, when the actual percentage of

Education graduates who go on to teach is approximately 10 percent. The employment

conditions of teachers that the university students considered were the most favourable,

(Table 7.19) based on the mean scores, were:

• number of holidays (4.12);

• job security (3.88);

• hours of work (3.47);

• attitude of peers (3.36); and

• the support of their employer (3.26).

300

The employment conditions of teachers that the university students considered were the

least favourable were:

• level of salary (2.73);

• possibility of promotion (2.75);

• attitude and support of the students (2.90); and

• attitude of the general public (2.95).

The level of stress for teachers was considered above average (3.51), which would also

be seen as a negative factor.

The only factor that the university students showed considerable difference in their

assessment of high school teacher working conditions in NSW, compared to the

teachers themselves (Table 6.34), was in regard to the attitude and support of students.

Teachers themselves found the attitude and support of students favourable (3.55), while

university students rated this less favourable (2.90).

The overall perception that teachers had lower than average wages and lower than

average possibilities for promotion would generally discourage university graduates that

considered these factors as important in their career choices.

301

Table 7.19 University Student Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions

Statistics Level of salary

Job security

Level of stress

Number of

holidays

Hours of work

The attitude

of peers

The attitude

of students

The support

of employer

The support

of pupils' parents

The attitude of the

general public

The possibility

of promotion

Job satisfaction

Valid 382 380 379 383 380 370 376 370 368 372 373 378 Number Missing 28 30 31 27 30 40 34 40 42 38 37 32

Mean 2.73 3.88 3.51 4.12 3.47 3.36 2.90 3.26 3.00 2.95 2.75 3.34 Std. error of mean 0.051 0.042 0.053 0.049 0.050 0.043 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.050 0.048 0.054 Median 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 Std. deviation 1.004 0.810 1.035 0.955 0.973 0.835 0.922 0.883 0.837 0.970 0.923 1.051 Skewness 0.291 -0.324 -0.572 -0.967 -0.219 -0.006 0.269 0.080 0.107 0.072 0.176 -0.188 Std. error of skewness 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.127 0.126 0.127 0.127 0.126 0.126 0.125 Kurtosis -0.003 -0.116 0.000 0.420 -0.145 0.183 -0.016 0.257 0.188 -0.308 0.020 -0.289 Std. error of kurtosis 0.249 0.250 0.250 0.249 0.250 0.253 0.251 0.253 0.254 0.252 0.252 0.250

302

7.10 How Do University Students’ Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions Vary

Depending on their Intention to Teach?

It could be expected that students who intend to teacher would have more positive views

about the working conditions of teachers than those who do not intend to teach or are

unsure. It is important to consider, if there are differences in the views of the three

groups in regard to the working conditions of teachers, as this could influence the

likelihood of students training to become teachers or pursuing a career as a teacher.

The results in Table 7.20 show that there were considerable differences in the

impressions that the students had in regard to the levels of conditions of some factors

between those who intended to pursue a career as a teacher and those who were unsure

or did not intend to pursue teaching as a career.

Table 7.20 University Student Views on Teachers’ Working Conditions and

Intention to Teach Summary Table

Working conditions Chi-

square dfa

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Intend to teach

(mean)

Do not intend to

teach (mean)

Intention unsure (mean)

Level of salary 40.32 8 0.000 2.42 2.84 2.96 Job security 8.499 6 0.204 3.85 3.87 3.95 Level of stress 7.021 8 0.534 3.57 3.40 3.64 Number of holidays 33.70 6 0.000 3.91 4.28 4.12 Hours of work 22.56 8 0.004 3.58 3.42 3.40 The attitude of peers 12.78 8 0.120 3.42 3.32 3.36 The attitude of students 4.612 8 0.798 2.92 2.87 2.91 The support of employer 14.82 8 0.063 3.40 3.14 3.31 The support of pupils’ parents

10.49 8 0.233 2.94 3.01 3.09

The attitude of the general public

18.24 8 0.020 2.72 3.07 3.04

The possibility of promotion

8.659 8 0.369 2.73 2.72 2.74

Job satisfaction 15.10 8 0.057 3.57 3.20 3.34

(a) The degrees of freedom have been adjusted where necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results.

303

There were highly significant differences, at the one percent level, in the impressions of

the three categories of students in regard to the levels of teachers’ working conditions

for three of the factors (Table 7.20). These factors were:

• level of salary (Table 7.21);

• number of holidays (Table 7.22); and

• hours of work (Table 7.23).

(i) Level of salary

It is interesting to note that the students who intend to become teachers consider that

teachers’ salaries are considerable lower than those who do not intend to teach or are

unsure (Table 7.21).

Table 7.21 Level of Salary and Intention to Teach

Level of salary

Pursue a career in teaching?

Well below

average Below

average Average Above

average

Well above

average Total Yes Count 25 43 48 5 7 128 Expected count 14.2 36.8 55.4 13.5 8.1 128.0 % within pursue a

career 19.5% 33.6% 37.5% 3.9% 5.5% 100.0%

No Count 9 52 83 16 13 173 Expected count 19.2 49.8 74.9 18.3 11.0 173.0 % within pursue a

career 5.2% 30.1% 48.0% 9.2% 7.5% 100.0%

Unsure Count 8 14 33 19 4 78 Expected count 8.6 22.4 33.8 8.2 4.9 78.0 % within pursue a

career 10.3% 17.9% 42.3% 24.4% 5.1% 100.0%

Total Count 42 109 164 40 24 379 Expected count 42.0 109.0 164.0 40.0 24.0 379.0 % within pursue a

career 11.1% 28.8% 43.3% 10.6% 6.3% 100.0%

304

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 40.324 8 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 38.467 8 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 16.126 1 0.000 N of Valid Cases 379

More than half (53.1 percent) of the students who intended to become teachers

considered that the salary of teachers was ‘well below average’ or ‘below average’

compared to 35.3 percent of those who did not intend to become teachers and 28.2

percent of those who were unsure. This difference could reflect the view of those who

intend to become teachers that they consider that teachers are lowly paid for the work

they do, or on the other hand, the other groups consider the teachers’ salaries are

average for what they do. It could also suggest a difference in knowledge of the salaries

of teachers. It could be expected that those who intend to become teachers may be more

aware of the actual salaries of teachers. Those who intend to become teachers are

actually closest to the results of the teachers in expressing their below average level of

satisfaction with their salary (see Table 6.33).

(ii) Number of holidays

Again the students who intend to become teachers did not rate the number of holidays

as highly as those who do not intend to teach or were unsure (Table 7.22). Only 25.8

percent of the students who intended to become teachers considered that the number of

holidays was ‘well above average’ compared to 55.1 percent of those who did not

intend to become teachers and 44.2 percent of those who were unsure. This positive

attitude towards the number of holidays that teachers have could be useful in attempting

to encourage the ‘no’ group and the ‘unsure’ group to pursue a teaching career.

305

Advertising campaigns promoting good teacher working conditions could encourage

more teachers. This consideration will be explored further in Chapter 8.

Table 7.22 Number of Holidays and Intention to Teach

Number of holidays

Pursue a career in teaching?

Well below/below

average Average Above

average

Well above

average Total Yes Count 6 33 56 33 128 Expected count 8.4 21.2 43.3 55.1 128.0 % within pursue a

career 4.7% 25.8% 43.8% 25.8% 100.0%

No Count 14 17 48 97 176 Expected count 11.5 29.1 59.6 75.8 176.0 % within pursue a

career 8.0% 9.7% 27.3% 55.1% 100.0%

Unsure Count 5 13 25 34 77 Expected count 5.1 12.7 26.1 33.1 77.0 % within pursue a

career 6.5% 16.9% 32.5% 44.2% 100.0%

Total Count 25 63 129 164 381 Expected count 25.0 63.0 129.0 164.0 381.0 % within pursue a

career 6.6% 16.5% 33.9% 43.0% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 33.699 6 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 34.521 6 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.328 1 0.021 N of Valid Cases 381

(iii) Hours of work

A higher proportion of the students who did not intend to become teachers or were

unsure considered that teachers’ hours of work were ‘below average’ or ‘well below

average’ compared to those who intended to become teachers (Table 7.23). Only 3.2

percent of the students who intended to become teachers considered that the hours of

work were ‘below average’ or ‘well below average’ compared to 17.7 percent of those

who did not intend to become teachers and 16.0 percent of those who were unsure.

306

Table 7.23 Hours of Work and Intention to Teach

Hours of work

Pursue a career in teaching?

Well below

average Below

average Average Above

average

Well above

average Total Yes Count 2 2 61 46 17 128 Expected count 4.1 11.9 52.5 38.9 20.7 128.0 % within pursue a

career 1.6% 1.6% 47.7% 35.9% 13.3% 100.0%

No Count 9 22 63 48 33 175 Expected count 5.6 16.2 71.8 53.2 28.2 175.0 % within pursue a

career 5.1% 12.6% 36.0% 27.4% 18.9% 100.0%

Unsure Count 1 11 31 21 11 75 Expected count 2.4 6.9 30.8 22.8 12.1 75.0 % within pursue a

career 1.3% 14.7% 41.3% 28.0% 14.7% 100.0%

Total Count 12 35 155 115 61 378 Expected count 12.0 35.0 155.0 115.0 61.0 378.0 % within pursue a

career 3.2% 9.3% 41.0% 30.4% 16.1% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 22.557 8 0.004 Likelihood Ratio 26.443 8 0.001 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.952 1 0.162 N of Valid Cases 378

While a proportion of the students who did not intend to become teachers or were

unsure considered the hours of work of teachers were less than average, there was also a

considerable proportion that considered that the hours of work were ‘well above

average’. Eighteen point nine percent of those who did not intend to become teachers

and 14.7 percent of those who were unsure considered the hours of work as well above

average compared to 13.3 percent of those who intended to become teachers.

Obviously for some of these students the perceived hours of work of teachers are seen

as a negative feature of the career.

307

There was also a significant difference in regard to the attitude of the general public

between the three categories of students in regard to teachers. The Pearson Chi-square

results show that this factor was significant at the five percent level (Table 7.20).

(iv) Attitude of the general public

Again the students who intend to become teachers rated the attitude of the general

public lower than those who do not intend to teach or are unsure (Table 7.24).

Table 7.24 Attitude of the General Public and Intention to Teach

Attitude of the general public

Pursue a career in teaching?

Well below

average Below

average Average Above

average

Well above

average Total Yes Count 13 44 43 20 7 127 Expected count 7.9 32.5 52.7 26.7 7.2 127.0 % within pursue a

career 10.2% 34.6% 33.9% 15.7% 5.5% 100.0%

No Count 5 38 77 40 10 170 Expected count 10.5 43.5 70.6 35.7 9.6 170.0 % within pursue a

career 2.9% 22.4% 45.3% 23.5% 5.9% 100.0%

Unsure Count 5 13 34 18 4 74 Expected count 4.6 18.9 30.7 15.6 4.2 74.0 % within pursue a

career 6.8% 17.6% 45.9% 24.3% 5.4% 100.0%

Total Count 23 95 154 78 21 371 Expected count 23.0 95.0 154.0 78.0 21.0 371.0 % within pursue a

career 6.2% 25.6% 41.5% 21.0% 5.7% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 18.238 8 0.020 Likelihood Ratio 18.469 8 0.018 Linear-by-Linear Association 7.128 1 0.008 N of Valid Cases 371

Forty four point eight percent of the students who intended to become teachers

considered that the attitude of the general public toward teachers was ‘below average’

308

or ‘well below average’ compared to 25.3 percent of those who did not intend to

become teachers and 24.4 percent of those who were unsure. The more positive

responses from those who did not intend to teach or were unsure towards the attitude of

the general public could be useful in attempting to encourage the ‘no’ group and the

‘unsure’ group towards pursuing a teaching career. The negative responses from those

who expressed an intention to teach could be a factor that would discourage them from

actually entering the teaching profession at a later time or could increase the pressure to

resign, if they did become high school teachers.

7.11 Do University Students’ Attitudes to Pursuing a Teaching Career Vary

between Genders?

Chapter 5 showed that there was an increasing proportion of females in high school

teaching compared to men. In addition the survey of university students showed that

more female students were likely to become teachers than male students (Table 7.25).

Table 7.25 Gender and Intention to Teach

Pursue a career in teaching?

Gender Yes No Unsure Total Male Count 46 78 36 160 % within

gender 28.8% 48.8% 22.5% 100.0%

% of total 11.5% 19.5% 9.0% 40.1% Female Count 84 111 44 239 % within

gender 35.1% 46.4% 18.4% 100.0%

% of total 21.1% 27.8% 11.0% 59.9% Total Count 130 189 80 399 % within

gender 32.6% 47.4% 20.1% 100.0%

% of total 32.6% 47.4% 20.1% 100.0%

309

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 2.111 2 0.348 Likelihood Ratio 2.119 2 0.347 Linear-by-Linear Association 2.059 1 0.151 N of Valid Cases 399

Thirty five point one percent of the female students surveyed said that they intended to

pursue a career as a high school teacher compared to 28.8 percent of male students

surveyed. There was, however, a higher proportion of male students who were unsure

about becoming high school teachers, 22.5 percent compared to 18.4 percent of females.

It should be noted though that the Chi-square tests show that the results are not

significant at the 10 percent level. We can conclude only at a 35 percent level of

significance that the decision to pursue a career in teaching is not independent of the

gender of the students.

Another consideration raised in Chapter 5 related to the influence of salaries on the

decisions of male and female teachers in pursuing careers in teaching. The results

showed that the proportion of males in teaching was declining, accompanying a larger

decline in wage relativities, compared to females. In addition research by Lewis and

Butcher (2002), in Catholic high schools in Sydney, showed that male high school

students were more influenced by the level of salaries compared to females in

considering careers in teaching.

It could be expected that higher salaries may attract more males into teaching compared

to females. The university student survey results (Table 7.26) show that a 20 percent

increase in salaries could encourage 64.5 percent of male university students, who were

unsure about their intention to become teachers, to decide to become teachers. A

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similar salary increase would only encourage 45.5 percent of the female students who

expressed ‘unsure’ intentions to become teachers, to decide to become teachers. A

salary increase of more than 40 percent would have minimal effect on increasing the

number of ‘unsure’ male students to become teachers (12.9 percent) but would have a

greater effect on the number of ‘unsure’ female students (24.3 percent). For those

students who responded that they did not intend to become teachers, a salary increase of

20 percent would encourage only 27 percent of male students and 31.4 percent of

female students to change their intentions. A salary increase of at least 40 percent

would be required to cause 64.8 percent of male students and 64.2 percent of female

students in the ‘no’ category to change their intentions and to intend to become teachers.

Table 7.26 Gender and Intention to Teach Related to Salary Increase

Gender Pursue a career in

teaching? Salary increase Total

10% 20% 40% 60%

More than 60%

Male No Count 3 7 14 5 8 37 Expected

count 4.9 13.0 9.9 4.2 4.9 37.0

% within pursue a career

8.1% 18.9% 37.8% 13.5% 21.6% 100.0%

Unsure Count 5 15 7 3 1 31 Expected

count 4.1 10.9 8.3 3.5 4.1 31.0

% within pursue a career

16.1% 48.4% 22.6% 9.7% 3.2% 100.0%

Female No Count 5 16 22 13 11 67 Expected

count 8.7 18.6 20.7 10.3 8.7 67.0

% within pursue a career

7.5% 23.9% 32.8% 19.4% 16.4% 100.0%

Unsure Count 5 10 10 3 5 33 Expected

count 4.3 9.2 10.2 5.1 4.3 33.0

% within pursue a career

15.2% 30.3% 30.3% 9.1% 15.2% 100.0%

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Chi-Square Tests

Gender Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-

sided) Pearson Chi-Square 13.060 8 0.110 Likelihood Ratio 14.206 8 0.077 Linear-by-Linear Association

0.704 1 0.401

Male

N of Valid Cases 105 Female Pearson Chi-Square 7.023 8 0.534

Likelihood Ratio 7.422 8 0.492 Linear-by-Linear Association

0.993 1 0.319

N of Valid Cases 162

The Chi-square test results also confirm that male university students (11 percent level

of significance) are more strongly influenced by changes in salary than female students

(53 percent level of significance) when considering their decisions to become high

school teachers.

7.12 Do University Students’ Attitudes to Pursuing a Teaching Career Vary across

Discipline Areas?

It is possible that the students’ attitudes towards teaching vary across discipline areas. It

might be expected that those students choosing subjects that have a wider range of

alternative career options, such as Business/Commerce/Economics, may be less likely to

choose teaching that those choosing subjects with a more limited range of job

opportunities, such as Arts/Humanities. While these differences may not affect the

overall number of teachers it does consider the issue of teacher shortages in particular

subject areas, which is already a problem in some NSW high schools. The results show

that there are considerable differences between fields of study and intentions to pursue a

career as a teacher (Table 7.27).

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Table 7.27 Field of Study and Intention to Teach

Pursue a career in teaching?

Field of study Yes No Unsure Total Education/Teaching Count 32 0 2 34 Expected count 11.2 16.1 6.7 34.0 % within field of study 94.1% 0.0% 5.9% 100.0% Arts, Humanities Count 5 9 6 20 Expected count 6.6 9.5 3.9 20.0 % within field of study 25.0% 45.0% 30.0% 100.0%

Science, Mathematics Count 8 43 17 68 Expected count 22.4 32.2 13.4 68.0 % within field of study 11.8% 63.2% 25.0% 100.0%

Commerce, Business, Economics

Count 9 71 10 90

Expected count 29.7 42.6 17.7 90.0 % within field of study 10.0% 78.9% 11.1% 100.0%

Double degrees Count 71 32 34 137 Expected count 45.2 64.9 26.9 137.0 % within field of study 51.8% 23.4% 24.8% 100.0% Nursing Count 1 26 6 33 Expected count 10.9 15.6 6.5 33.0 % within field of study 3.0% 78.8% 18.2% 100.0%

Total Count 126 181 75 382 Expected count 126.0 181.0 75.0 382.0 % within field of study 33.0% 47.4% 19.6% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 159.088 10 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 175.308 10 0.000 Linear-by-Linear Association 0.036 1 0.849 N of Valid Cases 382

The Chi-square tests show that the results are significant at the one percent level. While

it might be expected that those who pursue qualifications in Education/Teaching would

predominantly intend to pursue a teaching career (94.1 percent) and those enrolled in

Nursing courses would not be likely to pursue a teaching career (78.8 percent), the other

courses would have the scope to allow the pursuit of teaching as a career. The results

show that a smaller percentage of students intended to pursue a teaching career, whose

academic qualifications were broadly sought after in the community. In the area of

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Commerce/Business/Economics only 10.0 percent of students expressed an intention to

pursue a teaching career, compared to 11.8 percent for Science/Mathematics and 25.0

percent for Arts/Humanities. If the students who responded ‘yes’ and ‘unsure’ are

included, the percentages rise for Commerce/Business/Economics to 22.1 percent of

students, compared to 36.8 percent for Science/Mathematics and 55.0 percent for

Arts/Humanities. These results suggest that the level of alternative employment

opportunities does impact on the likelihood of students pursuing teaching careers. This

also suggests that teacher vacancies in areas with greater non-teaching employment

options may be more difficult to fill compared to those with fewer non-teaching

employment options.

7.13 How Did Certain Extrinsic Factors Influence the Students’ Decisions to

Pursue a Career in Teaching?

The students were questioned about the influence of four extrinsic factors on their

decisions to pursue careers as teachers (Q.10 and Q.14). The four factors were:

i. the attitude of teachers at their school towards teaching;

ii. the attitude of their parents;

iii. their own experience of school; and

iv. their own experience at university.

Research carried out by Lewis and Butcher (2002) in schools in Sydney showed that the

first three factors did influence students’ career choices. The survey respondents were

asked to rank the type of influence of the first three factors in regard to their decision to

become a teacher on a 1-5 scale:

5 – very positive;

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4 – positive;

3 – neutral;

2 – negative;

1 – very negative.

(i) The influence of the attitude of teachers at their school on students’ decisions to

become teachers

The results show that there is a clear link between the attitudes of the students’ own

teachers towards teaching and the students’ intentions to teach (Table 7.28). The

students have obviously been influenced by the positive or negative attitudes of their

own teachers. The results show with a one percent level of significance that students

whose teachers had influenced the students in a positive manner in regard to teaching

were more likely to pursue a career in teaching than those whose teachers were

negative. Out of the students who intended to pursue a teaching career 62.9 percent

expressed the view that their teachers attitudes to teaching had influenced their decision

to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. Of those students who did not intend

to become teachers only 43.5 percent expressed the view that their teachers’ attitudes

had influenced their decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. While

for those students who were unsure 51.3 percent expressed the view that their teachers’

attitudes had influenced their decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner.

These results suggest that the attitudes of teachers not only affect their own teaching but

may also have a long-term influence on the decisions of their students to become

teachers in the future. Policies to deal with this issue would need to begin by creating a

more positive attitude towards teaching in the teachers themselves.

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Table 7.28 The Attitude of Teachers and Intention to Teach

Attitude of teachers Pursue a career in

teaching? Very

negative Negative Neutral Positive Very

positive Total Yes Count 3 10 34 36 44 127 Expected count 5.3 13.9 41.6 36.6 29.5 127.0 % within pursue

a career 2.4% 7.9% 26.8% 28.3% 34.6% 100.0%

No Count 10 23 54 45 22 154 Expected count 6.5 16.8 50.5 44.4 35.8 154.0 % within pursue

a career 6.5% 14.9% 35.1% 29.2% 14.3% 100.0%

Unsure Count 2 6 29 22 17 76 Expected count 3.2 8.3 24.9 21.9 17.7 76.0 % within pursue

a career 2.6% 7.9% 38.2% 28.9% 22.4% 100.0%

Total Count 15 39 117 103 83 357 Expected count 15.0 39.0 117.0 103.0 83.0 357.0 % within pursue

a career 4.2% 10.9% 32.8% 28.9% 23.2% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 22.157 8 0.005 Likelihood Ratio 22.067 8 0.005 Linear-by-Linear Association 4.817 1 0.028 N of Valid Cases 357 (ii) The influence of the attitude of their parents on students decisions to become

teachers

The results also show that there is a clear link between the attitudes of the students’

parents towards teaching and the students’ intentions to teach (Table 7.29). Some

students had obviously been influenced by the positive or negative attitudes of their

parents. The results show with a one percent level of significance that students whose

parents had influenced then in a positive manner in regard to teaching were more likely

to pursue a career in teaching than those whose parents were negative. Out of the

students who intended to pursue a teaching career 54.9 percent expressed the view that

their parents attitudes had influenced their decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very

positive’ manner. Of those students who did not intend to become teachers only 32.0

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percent expressed the view that their parents’ attitudes had influenced their decision to

teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. While for those students who were

unsure 46.8 percent expressed the view that their parents’ attitudes had influenced their

decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. While it is likely some of

these respondents may not have considered teaching as a career at all and as a result the

option may not have been discussed with their parents, the attitude of parents towards

teaching does seem overall to have an influence on the attitudes of their children and the

career decisions that their children make. A more positive attitude towards teaching as

a career from the parents could increase the number of teachers in schools. This is an

issue education authorities may need to address.

Table 7.29 The Attitude of Parents and Intention to Teach

Attitude of parents Pursue a career in

teaching? Very

negative Negative Neutral Positive Very

positive Total Yes Count 4 10 40 41 30 125 Expected count 6.0 12.7 51.4 31.0 23.9 125.0 % within pursue

a career 3.2% 8.0% 32.0% 32.8% 24.0% 100.0%

No Count 11 22 71 25 24 153 Expected count 7.3 15.5 62.9 37.9 29.3 153.0 % within pursue

a career 7.2% 14.4% 46.4% 16.3% 15.7% 100.0%

Unsure Count 2 4 35 22 14 77 Expected count 3.7 7.8 31.7 19.1 14.7 77.0 % within pursue

a career 2.6% 5.2% 45.5% 28.6% 18.2% 100.0%

Total Count 17 36 146 88 68 355 Expected count 17.0 36.0 146.0 88.0 68.0 355.0 % within pursue

a career 4.8% 10.1% 41.1% 24.8% 19.2% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 22.942 8 0.003 Likelihood Ratio 23.470 8 0.003 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.856 1 0.173 N of Valid Cases 355

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(iii) The influence of their own experience of school on students’ decisions to

become teachers

As might be expected, the students own experiences of school had an influence on their

decisions to teach (Table 7.30). The results show with a one percent level of

significance that students who had less positive experiences of school were less likely to

pursue a career in teaching than those who had more positive experiences. Out of those

students who did not intend to become teachers only 44.8 percent expressed the view

that their own experiences of school had influenced their decision to teach in a

‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. Of the students who intended to pursue a teaching

career 62.5 percent expressed the view that their own experiences of school had

influenced their decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ manner. While for

those students who were unsure, 63.7 percent expressed the view that their own

experiences of school had influenced their decision to teach in a ‘positive’ or ‘very

positive’ manner.

For students who had ‘very negative’ or ‘negative’ experiences of school their

intentions not to teacher were much higher. Of those students who did not intend to

become teachers 24.0 percent expressed the view that their own experiences of school

had influenced their decision to teach in a ‘negative’ or ‘very negative’ manner. Of the

students who intended to pursue a teaching career only 10.9 percent expressed the view

that their own experiences of school had influenced their decision to teach in a

‘negative’ or ‘very negative’ manner. While for those students who were unsure, 18.2

percent expressed the view that their own experiences of school had influenced their

decision to teach in a ‘negative’ or ‘very negative’ manner. The positive aspect of this

in regards to students pursuing careers as teachers is that overall 55.1 percent of the

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university students surveyed had ‘positive’ or ‘very positive’ attitudes to becoming

teachers from their own experiences of school.

Table 7.30 Experience of School and Intention to Teach

Own experiences Pursue a career

in teaching? Very

negative Negative Neutral Positive Very

positive Total Yes Count 4 10 34 42 38 128 Expected count 6.1 17.1 34.2 43.1 27.5 128.0 % within pursue a

career 3.1% 7.8% 26.6% 32.8% 29.7% 100.0%

No Count 10 27 48 45 24 154 Expected count 7.3 20.6 41.2 51.9 33.0 154.0 % within pursue a

career 6.5% 17.5% 31.2% 29.2% 15.6% 100.0%

Unsure Count 3 11 14 34 15 77 Expected count 3.6 10.3 20.6 26.0 16.5 77.0 % within pursue a

career 3.9% 14.3% 18.2% 44.2% 19.5% 100.0%

Total Count 17 48 96 121 77 359 Expected count 17.0 48.0 96.0 121.0 77.0 359.0 % within pursue a

career 4.7% 13.4% 26.7% 33.7% 21.4% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests

Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.165 8 0.010 Likelihood Ratio 20.368 8 0.009 Linear-by-Linear Association 2.685 1 0.101 N of Valid Cases 359

It is likely that the teachers who taught them influenced the students’ experiences of

school. A more positive teaching environment would most likely improve the

experiences of students at school and increase their likelihood to become teachers. This

issue is linked to policies to improve the level of satisfaction of teachers and the overall

quality of their teaching.

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(iv) How has the experience at university influenced the students’ attitudes towards

teaching as a career?

The third/final year students were also asked the question whether their attitude to

becoming a teacher had changed since they began university (Q.14). They were also

asked, if their attitude had changed, whether it was more positive or more negative

(Q15.) and the factors that had caused it to change (Q.16). Forty three point five

percent of the students responded that their attitude had changed. Of these 67 percent

had a more positive attitude towards pursuing a career as a teacher and 33 percent a

more negative attitude. The factors that had contributed to a more positive attitude

towards pursuing a teaching career were:

• positive experiences during the teaching practicum;

• the quality of teaching at university;

• greater career opportunities, such as a shortage of Mathematics teachers;

• job security;

• having trained at university they feel ‘better equipped and motivated’ to cope as a

teacher; and

• the positive influence of other students who want to be teachers in order to help

others.

The factors that had contributed to the students having a more negative attitude towards

pursuing a teaching career were:

• negative experiences during the teaching practicum relating to the students, e.g.

classroom management and discipline;

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• negative experiences during the teaching practicum relating to the teachers who

were supervising them or other teachers in the school, especially in regard to a lack

of support and ‘disgruntled teachers’;

• negative attitudes towards teaching in a school from university lecturers (some of

whom were also current school teachers);

• complaints from teachers about salaries and conditions;

• practicum experiences showed that teaching was ‘too hard’;

• lack of resources in schools;

• high expectations places on teachers and little support in schools;

• child protection legislation is a concern as it creates a fear in teachers in how they

can deal with students;

• lack of reward for the work of teachers as reflected in poor salaries;

• negative media perceptions of teachers; and

• the declining funding of public schools and the governments’ attitudes towards

public education.

The attitude of a number of the respondents is reflected in the following survey

response.

I feel reluctant to become a teacher and join a ‘sinking ship.’

Conditions are getting worse and worse in our schools, especially for

teachers. They are not respected or valued by government, society,

or students. I have done well in my studies. I deserve better.

The issue of being able to support a family on the salary of a teacher was a concern

expressed by a number of respondents. A number said that, while they wanted to be

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teachers, they would resign and pursue a higher paying career, if they could not properly

support their families.

Overall the factor that had greatest influence on the students who initially intended to

become teachers when they started university was the teaching practicum. Positive

experiences on the practicum made the student more likely to become teachers, while

many of the students who had negative experiences on the practicum had decided

against pursuing a teaching career. While some of these potential teachers may not

have been suited to teaching others were negatively affected by the lack of support from

teachers during their practicum. This is an issue that will be pursued in regard to policy

implications in Chapter 8.

7.14 Conclusion

University students have a variety of reasons for choosing a particular career or

specifically choosing to, or not to, become a high school teacher. Despite this the

survey results showed that a salary increase of 10 percent could lead to 7.6 percent of

those who would not have become teachers to become high school teachers. In addition

15.4 percent of those students who responded that they were unsure, would also have

become high school teachers. A salary increase of at least 20 percent could have led to

an increase in the number of teachers far beyond the likely requirements of the high

school systems in NSW. Past the 20 percent salary increase, the marginal benefits of

the increased salaries in terms of increased numbers of university students entering the

high school teacher labour market declines.

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Those students who intended to become teachers had different values in regard to the

factors they considered most important in pursuing a career, compared to those who

were unsure and those who had no intention to teach. Those who intended to become

teachers ranked ‘the desire to help other’ much higher than the other two groups. This

factor would be seen by those who intend to teach as a positive nonwage amenity. In

order to increase the number of teachers in NSW high schools it would be necessary to

improve the factors that were important to those who have responded that they would

not teach or were unsure. The ‘unsure’ group is the one with responses most similar to

the responses of those who intend to teach. To increase the proportion of the ‘unsure’

group who would become teachers, improvements in working conditions would be

needed to compensate for the lower importance that they placed on ‘the desire to help

others’. Some areas where this could occur include improvements in the level of salary

and the possibility of promotion. The perception of the attitude of the students was also

looked upon as being negative and the responses were considerably lower than those

that were actually expressed by the teachers themselves. An improvement in this

perception and that of the attitude of the parents could increase the likelihood of some

of the ‘unsure’ group becoming teachers.

Improvements in the attitude of high school teachers themselves towards a teaching

career would most likely increase the number of students who would enter the teaching

profession. The results also show that support from the university students’ parents

towards teaching and their own positive experience of school also contribute to the

likelihood of someone becoming a teacher.

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The attitude of university students towards pursuing a career in teaching changed for

many of them, while at university. While for two thirds of the group it was more

positive, one third were more negative and a number decided not to continue with

teaching. The main factor affecting those who were training to be teachers was the

teaching practicum. Positive practicum experiences increased the likelihood of students

becoming teachers while negative experiences either as a result of the behaviour or

response of students or the negative reactions of current teachers lessened the likelihood

of becoming teachers and in some cases ended their intentions to become teachers.

The next chapter will look at some policy options to deal with these issues.

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Chapter 8. Conclusions and Policy Implications of the Study

8.1 Conclusions of the Study

The nature of the teacher labour market is complex and countries have a variety of

institutional structures and approaches to wage determination and allocation of teaching

staff. Trained teachers will largely base their decisions of whether they make themselves

available for employment as teachers based on the rewards available. These rewards are

generally made up of wage and nonwage amenities. NCES (1996, 1997) research showed

that teachers in private schools in the USA were prepared to accept lower rates of pay

compared to teacher in public schools in exchange for higher levels of job satisfaction

associated with their working environment. They also showed that teachers in flexible

labour markets change schools based on perceived differences in wages and nonwage

amenities.

Economic theories underpinning behaviour in the teacher labour market were reviewed in

Chapter 2. Traditional theories such as the neo-classical theory argue that workers have

different individual indifference curves, reflecting the trade-off between income and

leisure. As a result the number of hours individuals will be willing to work at a particular

wage rate will vary. The hedonic wage theory goes further and suggests that workers with

identical levels of human capital will be willing to work for different wage levels

depending on the nonwage amenities available and their individual preferences for

nonwage amenities compared to wages. A situation of fewer nonwage amenities but a

relatively higher wage will attract some workers. This is most relevant in regards to teacher

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shortages in isolated schools (discussed in Chapter 4). These schools tend to have less

social amenities for teachers compared to those existing in regional centers and large cities.

Furthermore, the cost of providing a similar level of amenities to isolated schools would be

prohibitive. The hedonic wage model suggests that higher relative wages in school areas

that are fairly isolated or considered undesirable for other reasons would be a trade-off for

the lower level of nonwage amenities.

The main employer of teachers in NSW high schools is the NSW Government. They are

also partly responsible for the funding of Catholic and independent schools in NSW. The

Government is faced with a constrained budget. Their ability to fund teachers’ wages is

constrained by their budget and the political repercussions of increases in taxation or cuts in

government expenditure in other areas to fund teacher wage increases. There is also the

issue of flow-on effects to other workers in the public service, which would put further

pressure on the Government’s budget. An alternative, at least in part, to wage increases is

improved nonwage amenities for teachers. Some of those nonwage amenities have a

relatively low cost to implement and may increase teacher retention and entry rates if

adopted. There is also evidence that male and female teachers have different preferences

for wages and nonwage amenities. This is an issue that should also be considered. These

issues will be discussed in the consideration of policy options later in this chapter.

Chapter 3 demonstrated that while the overall demand for teachers is fairly predictable and

consistent, the level of ‘new’ teachers required each year is not. The demand for teachers is

related to the cumulative demand of the three school systems that operate in NSW. Making

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accurate predictions or projections of the demand for teachers is not possible without this

cumulative result. The DET does have information on a wide variety of teacher separation

factors that influence demand but the same cannot be said for the non-government sector.

This lack of information makes the projections largely unreliable as teachers can move

back and forward betwen the three systems over time. There is a need for a central registry

of data for all schools in NSW that will include teacher numbers dealing with various

aspects of net teacher separations, including age, resignations, and leave. (This issue is

considered further in the policy implications later in this chapter.) The adoption of such a

registry of data will allow the Government and other education providers to develop

policies that may ensure that the quantity of supply of available teachers will be suitable to

the quantity that is demanded.

In Chapter 4 we argued that the quantity of high school teachers that will be supplied in any

particular year is more difficult to predict than the demand for teachers. The supply of high

school teachers in NSW depends on a large number of variables, including the number of

new graduates and the proportion who wish to become teachers; the number of teachers

returning from leave; the number of former teachers returning to teaching; the pool of relief

and casual teachers; the net movement of teachers into NSW from another state or from

overseas; and the overall state of the alternate job market for teachers. Even in times of an

apparently balanced or slightly oversupplied teacher labour market, there are still shortages

of teachers in particular discipline areas and geographical areas. The National and State

Skill Shortage Lists for Australia (2003) show there is a nation wide shortage of high

school teachers in:

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• Manual Arts/Technical Studies;

• Mathematics;

• Physics/Chemistry; and

• General Science.

In addition there are shortages of high school teachers in other states in the areas of:

• Music;

• Languages;

• Home Economics;

• Information Technology;

• Senior English;

• Special Needs;

• Agricultural Science; and

• Physical Education.

The limited availability of data on the quantity of teachers in the State is a serious concern.

In the public schools sector there is little accurate data on casual teacher and limited term

employed teacher availability and movements into and out of teaching positions. In the

non-government sector the problem is even worse with no central data on staff turnover,

patterns of leave, or even the age of teaching staff. This makes projections of the likely

supply of teachers at any point of time problematical at best.

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The three factors that have the greatest influence on the high school teacher labour supply

in NSW, at the present time, are the aging teacher population, the low proportion of new

teaching graduates and the decline in the proportion of males seeking to become teachers.

All of these factors create an environment whereby it is most likely that there will be a

shortage of high school teachers in NSW, initially in some discipline areas and locations.

There is already evidence of this at the start of 2005 and it is likely to worsen in the

foreseeable future. While there is evidence that the State Government has taken some steps

to deal with that issue, namely advertising campaigns such as ‘Teach and Make a

Difference’, the Accelerated Teacher Training Program, and the Pre-service Teacher

Education Scholarship Program, these may not be sufficient to deal with projections of a

growing high school teacher shortage in the period 2005-2010. Some of these programs

such as the Accelerated Teacher Education Program and the employment of some overseas

teachers through Australia’s immigration program also have raised issues about teacher

quality. Policies to deal with the issue of imbalance between demand and supply of high

school teachers in NSW are considered later in the policy implications section of this

chapter.

In Chapter 5 an attempt was made to apply a traditional labour market model to evaluate

the relative significance of a number of variables that should generally influence the supply

of teachers in a particular location. Those variables were:

• the relative wage of teachers compared to all people in the location;

• the distance of the location from the coast;

• the distance of the location from the major cities; and

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• the unemployment rate in the location.

ABS 2001 Census data (2003c) was used to estimate a teacher supply model but the results

showed that the use of traditional labour market models to measure the importance of wage

relativities and other factors on the teacher labour market in NSW high schools is limited.

This is due to a number of factors, not least of which is the role and institutional control of

the NSW Department of Education and Training, the major employer of teachers in NSW.

The DET determines the placement of teachers throughout the NSW public school system.

Teachers cannot move freely inside the public school system and this limits their ability to

move between locations in response to changes in wages and conditions and their personal

preferences. The wage fixing system is also highly centralised with teachers in public and

Catholic systemic high schools following the same salary schedule, with only relatively

minor differences applying in the private school system. The absence of an aggregate

shortage of teachers at the time of the census survey also limits the measurement of teacher

labour supply in a location as the supply is largely in response to the demand for teachers in

a particular location. The measurement of teacher labour supply is also limited as there is

no data available on the quality of the teachers who are working or willing to work. There

is considerable anecdotal evidence that lower relative wages may not initially reflect a

lower supply of teachers but rather a lowering of the quality of teachers. There are some

relevant variables that cannot be observed by the model, such as marital status and family

structure and differences in living and working conditions between schools and locations.

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If the results of the static models are accepted as valid, then there is the implication that

lower relative wages will lead to an increase in the quantity of teachers per student. The

time-series data from 1976 to 2002 has shown that in the case of male high school teachers

in NSW, that this is not true. As the earning relativities of male teachers, compared to male

average weekly earnings, declined (20 percent) in the period so did the quantity of male

teachers in NSW high schools. The time-series data showed that there had been an increase

in the proportion and quantity of female high school teachers in NSW despite a small

decline (5.9 percent) in relative earnings, compared to female average weekly earnings over

the 27-year period.

The benchmarking study showed that teachers could earn relatively higher wages in other

occupations with similar levels of responsibilities and qualifications. Some teachers have

moved to these more financially rewarding occupations but many still stay in teaching.

Wage relativities do have some influence but are not necessarily the main factor that

determines teachers’ decisions to teach or not to teach. The relative importance of wages

compared to nonwage amenities will be discussed in the next section. This provides a

greater insight into the factors that influence teachers in NSW high schools and the relative

importance of these factors in the decision of being a teacher.

The factors that influence teacher satisfaction in NSW high schools were analysed in

Chapter 6. There is considerable evidence that higher levels of teacher satisfaction lead to

improved teacher retention rates. Surveys of university students reported in Chapter 7 also

showed that the positive attitudes of their school teachers had positive influences on the

students’ decisions to pursue careers as teachers. Higher levels of teacher satisfaction could

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attract more university graduates to the teaching profession. There is also evidence that

greater job satisfaction can lead to increased teacher effectiveness, which ultimately affects

student achievement.

Survey results of 269 high school teachers covering the three teaching systems in NSW

showed the importance of various factors in determining their levels of job satisfaction and

also their current levels of satisfaction in 14 areas. The results showed that even though

wages (salaries) were not among the most important factors in determining job satisfaction,

many teachers had extra sources of employment to supplement their income from teaching.

The survey reported that 43.8 percent of teachers had supplemented their teaching salary

from at least one other source (Table 6.6). Of these 3.5 percent earned income from other

school related work; 50.4 percent from other education related employment; 30.4 percent

from non-education related employment and 15.7 percent from more than one of these

sources (Table 6.7). Some respondents earned additional income from all three sources.

The level of additional income earned varied considerably. Twenty six point six percent of

those earning additional income received less than $1000 annually; 45.3 percent earned

between $1000 and $3000; 15.8 percent earned $3001-$6000 and 12.2 percent earned in

excess of $6000 (Table 6.8). In addition a much greater percentage of male teachers (54.4)

earn additional sources of income compared to female teachers (34.5) (Table 6.9). This

supports the evidence from Chapter 5 that the proportion of males in teaching is declining

because of lower relative wages. More males are seeking further income to supplement the

lower relative wages that they receive. This is also supported by the survey result that

showed that while both male and female teachers largely had similar negative attitudes to

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the level of teachers’ salaries, a higher percentage of males tended to find the level of

salaries unsatisfactory or poor, 56.7 percent, compared to 48.2 percent of female teachers

(Table 6.12).

The most important factors in measuring the job satisfaction of teachers in NSW high

schools (Table 6.15), based on the mean scores shown in parenthesis, were:

• interest in the subjects taught (4.58);

• the satisfaction of student achievement (4.51);

• the attitude of peers (4.36);

• the attitude of students (4.34);

• job security (4.34);

• support from administration (4.29); and

• level of salary (4.13).

The least important factors for teachers in measuring their job satisfaction were:

• the possibility of promotion (2.91);

• the hours of work (3.75);

• the attitude of the general public (3.80); and

• the low level of stress (3.94).

The fact that almost half the factors were seen as being more important to the teachers in

measuring their level of satisfaction than wages (level of salaries) demonstrates that teacher

satisfaction can be increased in ways other than wages by focusing on particular nonwage

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amenities that will increase teacher satisfaction. This conclusion is also supported by the

NCES (1996, 1997) studies in the USA discussed in Chapter 1.

The survey also asked teachers to rank their overall level of satisfaction in terms of the 14

factors that influence teacher satisfaction. The results showed that teachers were most

satisfied (Table 6.34), based on the mean scores shown in parenthesis, with the following

factors:

• interest in the subjects taught (4.29);

• the support of their family (4.12);

• job security (4.08);

• number of holidays (3.92);

• the attitude of peers (3.77);

• the satisfaction of student achievement (3.77); and

• the attitude of students (3.55).

A number of factors had a mean score rating the level of satisfaction on the low level of the

scale. These were:

• the attitude of the general public (2.12);

• a low level of stress (2.23);

• level of salary (2.65);

• the possibility of promotion (2.69); and

• the hours of work (2.94).

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Many of the most satisfying factors for teachers related to largely intrinsic factors that come

from classroom activities and their relationships and support from family, students, and

peers. On the other hand many of the least satisfying factors are extrinsic in nature relating

to conditions of employment and the public’s perception of teachers.

The survey results showed that there were also considerable differences in levels of

satisfaction in the various factors based on gender, type of school system, location of the

school and age and experience of the teacher.

In only four of the 14 categories were male teachers more satisfied than female teachers

(Table 6.35). Males were more satisfied in the areas of:

• job security;

• a low level of stress;

• the hours of work; and

• number of holidays.

In the remaining 10 categories female teachers were more satisfied, suggesting that overall

female teachers are more satisfied with their job than male teachers. This may also assist in

explaining why the ratio of male teachers to female teachers in NSW high schools has been

declining.

The survey results also showed considerable variation in regard to the different school

systems (Table 6.39). In eight of the 14 categories teachers in other private schools were

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the most satisfied. In four categories teachers in Catholic systemic schools were most

satisfied and only in two categories were teachers in public schools most satisfied. This

suggests that private school teachers have the greatest overall level of satisfaction, followed

by Catholic school teachers, with public school teachers being the least satisfied.

The factors where there were significant differences between the school systems were

(Tables 6.40-6.46):

• level of salary;

• support from administration;

• the attitude of students;

• the satisfaction of student achievement;

• the support of pupils’ parents;

• the attitude of the general public; and

• the possibility of promotion .

There were significant differences in the satisfaction levels between the ages of teachers in

regard to two factors. These factors were (Tables 6.47-6.48):

• a low level of stress; and

• the possibility of promotion.

The results show that teachers overall are not satisfied with the level of stress they face and

the dissatisfaction tends to rise with age. The results also show that teachers under 39 years

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are more satisfied with the possibility of promotion compared to the teachers 40 years and

over.

Teachers in country schools were generally less satisfied than teachers working in the main

cities. There were two particular factors where there were significant differences in the

satisfaction levels between the locations of the schools of the teachers. The results show

that teachers working in the country regions of NSW years are significantly less satisfied

with the support from administration compared to the teachers who live in the city region

(Table 6.56). The results also show that teachers working in the country regions of NSW

years are less satisfied with the support of pupils’ parents compared to the teachers who

live in the city region (Table 6.57).

These teacher responses on what factors were important in measuring their level of

satisfaction and the current levels of satisfaction in regard to the 14 factors were used to

calculate a weighted satisfaction score of teacher satisfaction. A regression model based on

the weighted satisfaction score demonstrated that 80 percent of the variations in the levels

of teacher satisfaction were due to the attitude of students, support from administration,

levels of salary, hours of work and the attitude of their peers (Table 6.10).

There were overall significant differences in the weighted satisfaction score in regard to:

• the gender of the teacher;

• the type of school system;

• the location of the school, especially in respect to country teachers; and

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• the age and experience of the teacher.

Overall, based on the mean scores:

• female teachers (3.47) are slightly more satisfied than male teachers (3.45);

• the least experienced teachers (0-3 years) are the least satisfied teachers;

• the level of teacher satisfaction increases with the level of qualification of the

teacher;

• teachers on the highest salaries were the most satisfied;

• the most satisfied teachers were those working in the inner city of Sydney (3.65)

and the least satisfied were teachers working in the country region of NSW (3.32);

and

• private school teachers (3.64) were overall the most satisfied teachers, followed by

Catholic teachers (3.54), with public school teachers (3.34) the least satisfied.

The significant levels of differences in satisfaction between factors and between

characteristics of teachers and schools provide information that could be used by school

authorities to develop policies to increase the level of teacher satisfaction and as a result the

quality and or quantity of teaching that takes place in NSW high schools. This should in

turn improve the education outcomes for students. These policy implications will be

examined in the next section of this chapter.

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8.2 Policy Implications

This study shows that there are a number of issues facing education authorities at the

federal and state levels of government, between education systems and in teaching training

institutions. The study shows that there is a projected teacher shortage from 2005 onwards,

at least in some subject areas in some NSW high schools. There is already evidence that

this is occurring. The proportion of university graduates becoming teachers has been in

decline since the mid-eighties and there are a high proportion of high school teachers who

will retire in the next ten years, which will contribute to this anticipated shortage. In

addition there is anecdotal evidence that the quality of teachers being employed, in some

instances, is declining.

The level of teacher job satisfaction is low in regard to a number of areas including the

level of salary, the possibility of promotion, the level of stress of the job and the attitude of

the general public towards teachers. This satisfaction not only affects the teachers but can

also impact on students both currently at that school and past students who are now at

university. Negative attitudes of teachers discouraged both school students and university

students from pursuing careers as teachers. In addition research showed that dissatisfied

teachers were more likely to resign or performed their work at a lower standard, thus

lowering the quality of the students’ education.

There are a number of implications of this study for policy makers. The implications will be

considered on a number of levels, namely:

• national issues;

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• state issues;

• system issues; and

• individual school issues.

8.2.1 National Issues

8.2.1.1 Limited Statistical Data

A limitation faced by educational authorities and researchers in Australia is the lack of

information available in regard to schools and teachers in Australia. While the Australian

Bureau of Statistics does produce the Schools, Australia series, it basically provides

information only on the numbers of teachers and students in schools in each state by

educational systems. It does not inform us of subject or geographical areas of teacher

shortage or surplus, which are important in catering for the needs of schools in Australia.

There is no national measurement of levels of teacher satisfaction and the factors that

influence it or reasons as to why teachers leave teaching. These issues are important in

trying to improve both the quantity and quality of teachers and overall education outcomes.

Policy recommendation 1

The Australian Government should set up a national body that collects and reports statistics

and information showing the condition of education in Australia.

The Australian Government should set up a national body similar to the National Center for

Educational Statistics (NCES) in the USA. This body is part of the US Department of

Education. The NCES collects and reports statistics and information showing the condition

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of education in the USA and measures the progress of education in order to promote and

accelerate an improvement in education in the USA. Some of the programs that the NCES

has that could be adopted in Australia include:

• In the area of student performance and outcomes the NCES collects and reports

information on the academic performance of the nation's students as well as the literacy

level of the adult population. The National Assessment of Educational Progress

(NAEP) is NCES’ primary assessment of what American elementary/secondary

students know and can do in academic subjects. This NCES program also assesses the

proficiency of adults in performing basic literacy and mathematical tasks through the

National Assessments of Adult Literacy (NAAL).

• The NCES survey program at the elementary/secondary education level provides

information on the condition of public and private education. Through the Common

Core of Data (CCD) Survey, national, state, and local data on public elementary and

secondary education is collected. The NCES' data collection programs include the

Schools and Staffing Survey, the Private School Universe Survey, and the National

Household Education Survey. These surveys provide insights into the factors that

influence student and teacher performance. They also consider factors affecting where

teachers work, their level of satisfaction, and why they leave teaching.

• The NCES also gains insights into the effectiveness of the educational practices and

outcomes of the United States by comparing them with those of other countries. This is

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achieved through the International Activities Program at NCES, which provides

statistical information comparing the educational experiences and trends in other

countries to those of the United States. International assessment studies provide

answers to questions of how other countries educate their children and with what

success (National Center for Education Statistics 2004).

8.2.1.2 The Supply of Trainee Teacher Places at Universities

In an attempt to increase the number of students who become teachers the NSW

Government implemented the Teach NSW program with their marketing slogan ‘Teach and

make a difference.’ This program appears to have had some initial success with the number

of applications for teacher education courses rising in 2004. Because the number of teacher

education places is set by a quota for each university by the Australian Government,

increased applications had the effect of increasing the cut-off marks to get into teaching

courses but did not increase the number of trainee teacher places at the universities. The

problem is that while this may increase the quality of teachers going into the schools it will

not necessarily increase the numbers of teachers.

Policy recommendation 2

The Australian Government should increase the number of secondary trainee teacher places

at universities. These should not only be in areas of current curriculum shortage but in

areas of likely future curriculum shortages.

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The Australian Government needs to increase the number of secondary trainee teacher

places at universities to lessen the likely impact of teacher shortages, especially in the

subject areas that already have the greatest shortages, such as Mathematics, Science, and

Technological and Applied Studies. The places should not only be in the areas of current

shortage as there will be other areas of shortages developing in the next few years. The

Australian Government needs to consult with State and Territory Governments and other

education authorities in Australia, such as Catholic Education Commission and universities,

to clarify these subject areas and the numbers of university places that should be allocated.

The Australian Government will also need to develop an accurate forecasting model to

predict areas of shortage and the numbers of positions to allocate. An accurate forecasting

model could also be used to allocate teacher-training positions based on supply and demand

to avoid over-supply and under-supply in particular disciplines.

8.2.1.3 The Higher Cost of University Training for Some Subject Areas

While teachers are paid the same salaries, irrespective of the subjects that they teach and

are qualified in, the cost of gaining these qualifications varies depending on the subjects the

teachers study. Human Capital Theory tells us that individuals will decide to invest in

education based on their private rate of return on their investment in education (Ehrenberg

and Smith 2000, Kaufman and Hotchkiss 2000, Norris 2000). Not only do teachers,

especially males, have a lower than average private rate of return (as discussed in Chapter

5) but teachers in some subject areas such as Economics, Business, Mathematics, Science

and Computing pay higher HECS fees than teachers with qualifications in general

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Humanities subjects, such as History and English, and Foreign Languages and Visual and

Performing Arts (Band 1 subjects) as shown in Table 8.160.

Table 8.1 HECS Costings for Students in 2005, without additional fees Subject Level of HECS $ per annum Law 6414 Economics/Business 5479 Computing 5479 Mathematics, Science 5479 Humanities 3847 Languages 3847 Visual and Performing Arts 3847 Education 3847 Source: DEST 2003

Not only are teachers of the higher band subjects disadvantaged by higher HECS fees but

they cannot expect to receive as high an expected future income as similar graduates who

go into non-teaching occupations such as being computer professionals, economists, or

marketing managers. The teachers are also further disadvantaged by undertaking one year

of extra study in Education rather than going directly into employment. The teachers in

these subject areas would have gained much larger private rates of return on their education

investments, if they had not entered teaching but pursued other employment after they had

completed their degree. There is a need to reduce this burden, as well as the inequity and

disincentive to become teachers caused by the differences in HECS bands.

Policy recommendation 3 The Australian Government should adopt a policy that all university graduates who become

teachers should be subject to the same Higher Education Contributions. The graduates who

60 These exclude the 25 percent additional fee charge that most universities introduced in 2005.

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become teachers should have all their subjects charged at the Education (Band 1) rate and

only be liable for contributions for a period of four years of higher education.

The adoption of such a policy, to reduce the inequity of the HECS burden for some

teachers, does bring up some issues that need to be considered, depending on whether the

teachers pay ‘up-front’ or ‘defer’ their payment. For the teachers who delay the payment,

then all units in a teaching degree could be charged at the Education (Band 1) rate. For

those who pay up-front, they could also be billed at the Education rate. If they changed

their minds later and decided not to become a teacher, then they would be subject to the

higher rate. If they decided to become teachers after completing a degree, then the payment

could be reimbursed, if they over paid their HECS bill61. For some students this could

mean the Diploma of Education would pay for itself, and be an incentive to complete the

Diploma and become a teacher. For other students the HECS burden would be lower to

become a teacher than pursue an alternative career and therefore prove to be an incentive to

pursue a teaching career.

8.2.2 State Issues

8.2.2.1 Inflexibility of the Teacher Labour Market

There is growing evidence of a shortage of teachers in some disciplines and in particular

locations. Webster et al. (2004:2) consider that the “entrenched inflexibilities in the

payments system have contributed towards chronic shortages of qualified teachers in

61 This policy may require a minimum period of teaching, such as five years, to gain access to this scheme. Anyone teaching less than five years would be subject to the full HECS liability.

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specialised teacher labour markets and poor incentives for excellent teachers to remain in

teaching.” One of the ways that the State Government is attempting to deal with this is the

introduction of teacher scholarships62 in the discipline areas of greatest shortages, namely

Technological and Applied Studies, Mathematics, Science, and English. One of the issues

associated with this is that the graduate teachers only have to remain in teaching for three

years. At the end of this period they may leave the Department and pursue a career in a

more highly paid position in a private school or a non-teaching career. While this scheme

may help to alleviate some of the shortage, an alternative approach would be to have a

more flexible teacher labour market similar to that in the USA, where salaries could be

adjusted to attract teachers to areas of shortages in disciplines or in geographical areas of

shortage (as discussed in Chapter 1). There is a need to increase the flexibility of the

teacher labour market in NSW. The same basic salary scales largely determine teachers’

salaries. There is little or no flexibility in public and Catholic systemic high schools to set

salary levels that reflect market forces. It was shown in Chapter 1 that problems of teacher

shortages in particular subject areas in schools in the USA were overcome by offering

higher wages to attract staff. There were also differences in salary levels between schools

based on location and other factors.

Policy recommendation 4

The NSW State Government and other education system administrators should encourage

increased labour market flexibility by:

62 In 2005 200 teacher education scholarships will be awarded. They include the payment of HECS fees associated with the training along with an incidental allowance of $1500 per year of full time study. The graduate teachers have to commit themselves to teach with the Department for three years in the subject areas and locations agreed to.

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• allowing schools to offer higher salaries to attract teachers in areas of shortage;

• allowing paid overtime for current staff to fill shortages; and

• paying bonuses and performance loadings to the best performing teachers.

There are a number of ways that increased labour market flexibility could increase the

availability and quality of staff in high schools in NSW. First, schools in NSW should be

given finances that reflect their particular circumstances. Schools in more socially

disadvantaged areas, that have difficulty attracting teachers, should be given greater

funding per pupil to improve resources and to pay higher salaries for teachers to teach in

those school. School principals should have the financial resources to attract staff by

offering higher salaries to teachers in areas of geographical and discipline shortages.

Second, in areas where there are teacher shortages, teachers could receive paid overtime to

take extra classes. It is better for a specialist in an area to take a class than someone

teaching out of their field. This may require some restructuring of the traditional school

day of 9am to 3pm to one of 8am to 4pm. There is already considerable evidence that

many teachers work in outside employment to earn additional income (Chapter 6). Many

would probably welcome the opportunity to earn additional income from teaching rather

than in outside employment such as cleaners or waiters. This would be budget neutral as

the teachers are replacing other less qualified teachers who would have been employed to

take the classes. This would not only be a benefit to the teachers but also to the pupils.

Third, so as to improve the retention rate of the most capable teachers, bonuses and

performance loadings could be paid to the best performing teachers. While measurements

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of teacher productivity are very difficult to make and generally controversial, teacher

appraisals similar to those applying in many organisations in Australia would be possible.

These appraisals are generally carried out by a supervisor and are measured based on set

performance criteria and outcomes. These could include some element of peer appraisal

and even parental and student appraisal in measuring the teacher’s performance. The use

of parental appraisal could improve the attitude of parents to teachers, and the work the

teachers do, and the remunerations the teachers receive. The use of performance loadings

has achieved improved outcomes in business organisations and it is likely that such

policies would improve the performance of teachers and the educational outcomes for the

students. The higher remuneration would also be an incentive to remain in teaching.

It should be noted that teacher unions, who traditionally have supported an approach of

higher salary levels for all teachers, might oppose some of these recommendations that

encourage market-determined salaries paid to teachers. In addition, while the unions

generally support paid overtime for teachers, the unions consider that this should apply for

all types of work beyond normal teaching duties and hours.

8.2.2.2 High Resignation Rate of New Teachers

Many teachers leave teaching in their first few years of teaching (Chapter 4). It is often

difficult for a new teacher to adapt to a full working load and all the responsibilities of

being a teacher. The lack of experience and in some circumstances the lack of support the

new teacher receives contributes to a low level of job satisfaction (Chapter 6) and a higher

resignation rate. In some circumstances the new teachers go into a school and receive the

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classes that no one else wants. These are often the most difficult classes to teach and

magnify the problems of adjustment faced by the new teachers.

Policy recommendation 5 The Department of Education and Training and other school administrators in NSW should

adopt a number of initiatives that would assist new teachers in their early years of teaching.

These include:

(a) a formal induction process;

(b) a mentor teacher; and

(c) reduced face-to-face teaching time in the first year of teaching.

Some of these are already in place in some schools, but not in all schools or systems.

(a) A formal induction process

An induction process for teachers can take many forms in some instances it may not be

much more than introductions to colleagues and being shown around the school. Ewing

and Smith (2003) reported in their study of 196 beginning teacher graduates from the

University of Sydney that the most often reported mentoring or induction, if any, was

categorised as 'informal support'. Only 12 percent of the respondents reported systematic

and regular sessions for the whole year. A further 13 percent reported regular sessions in

the first two terms63. None of the respondents reported any continuation of induction

sessions beyond the first year of teaching. In many cases the induction process was very

brief lasting just one day or a few sessions. Beginning teachers need continual assistance as

63 In NSW there is a four-term school year, so this would involve about 20 weeks of actual school time.

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they face new challenges and as they begin to develop their skills. A more formal and

ongoing induction process is required for beginning teachers. This induction process

should include the provision of a mentor.

(b) A mentor teacher

Schools need to have mentor teachers who can assist not only the beginning teachers but

also the teachers in training who are placed in the school for practicums. While mentoring

of beginning teachers is officially encouraged, by the major teaching authorities in NSW,

Ewing & Smith (2003) reported that almost 40 percent of the beginning teachers surveyed

reported that they did not have a mentor teacher. It was also reported that half the

respondents also did not have a supervisor. Thus, for over half of the study's respondents,

there was no teacher who was assigned to have a special responsibility for assisting the

beginning teacher. Ewing & Smith stated that one of the reasons for this weakness

stemmed from the lack of recognition or recompense for the role of the mentor. A

promotional position of mentor teacher should be established. This person would have to

complete training to learn how to be an effective mentor and they would be evaluated to see

how well they carried out the mentoring process. This would provide a promotional

position for experienced teachers who have much to offer as classroom teachers but who do

not wish to become or are prevented from being administrators. The mentor teacher would

have a formal weekly meeting with the beginning teacher to discuss issues in the teacher’s

development and adjustment to teaching. The mentor would also review the classes of the

beginning teacher and offer assistance in improving their teaching performance. The cost

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of such a program would vary from year to year depending on the number of new mentors

and the number of retiring mentors. It could be expected that between five and ten percent

of staff in a school could be mentors. They could be paid an allowance equal to half the

rate of a teacher in charge of a key learning area in a DET school, this would be equal to

$1523 per annum as at 1/1/2005. The additional cost to the teaching wage bill would only

be between 0.125 and 0.25 of a percent64.

(c) Reduced face-to-face teaching in the first year

The first year is generally the most difficult year for the beginning teacher, as they learn to

adapt to the expectations of being a high school teacher. The normal load for a teacher in

high schools in NSW is 20 hours of face-to-face teaching a week. This is quite a load for a

new teacher who has to prepare new work for all their teaching subjects as well as learn

how to adjust to the other demands of teaching. One way to alleviate this pressure would

be to reduce the amount of face-to-face teaching for a beginning teacher to 16 hours a week

in the first year. This would allow more time for preparation of lessons, marking etc. and

time to seek assistance from their mentor teacher in developing their teaching. The

estimated cost of such a program would vary from year to year depending on the number of

first year teachers employed in high schools. Again the lack of available data on this is a

problem. MCEETYA (2003) estimate that approximately 5.2 percent of public high school

teachers in NSW left teaching completely in 2001 and needed to be replaced. They

estimate that approximately 70 percent of the replacements came from new graduates.

Based on these figures, a four-hour reduction for new graduate teachers would increase the

64 This assumes that the average salary for a high school teacher as at 1/1/2005 would be approximately $60,000 and between five and ten percent of teachers would be mentor teachers.

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teaching wage bill for NSW public high schools by less than 0.75 percent. The cost for

non-government schools in NSW would most likely be slightly higher as they have a higher

annual percentage of replacement teachers.

The overall cost of the recommendation to adopt a mentor teacher program and reduce

face-to-face teaching for new graduates is likely to add only about one percent to the cost of

teacher employment in NSW high schools. The possible benefits in terms of more satisfied

beginning and experienced teachers and lower teacher resignation rates could easily

outweigh the cost.

8.2.2.3 Lower Levels of Teacher Satisfaction in Rural Areas

There is significant evidence that teachers in country schools are the least satisfied,

especially in regard to support from administration, support from pupils’ parents, and the

attitude of students (Chapter 6).

Policy recommendation 6

The NSW Government should provide greater support for teachers in rural areas. The first

stage would require research to be funded to find ways to improve the relationships

between rural teachers and administrators, parents and the general community.

It is likely the attitudes of the students towards teachers and school reflect their parents’

attitudes and those in the general community. Positive promotional campaigns about the

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work teachers do in the schools and the value of education should be undertaken to improve

the attitudes of both parents and students towards teachers and education in general. There

is, however, also a need for greater research into the reasons for lower levels of satisfaction

among teachers in rural areas and the low level of satisfaction that they have in regard to

support from administration. The isolated nature of many schools could contribute to this

so a greater effort may be needed or new policies to break down these barriers between

teachers and the administrators of schools.

8.2.2.4 Declining Percentage of Male High School Teachers

This research suggests that the decline in the proportion of male high school teachers is at

least in part a result of the decline in the wage of male teachers relative to male average

weekly earnings. Male teachers are also more influenced by the level of wages compared

to female teachers. If it is considered desirable or necessary to increase the proportion of

male teachers in high schools, then increased relative wages may be one way.

Policy recommendation 7

School administrators should introduce policies that encourage more males to enter

teaching. These policies include:

• more flexible salary/employment packages, and

• equal numbers of teacher scholarships for males and females.

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While an increase in the relative wage of all teachers is likely to lead to an increase in the

numbers of teachers, it is not necessarily going to improve the male/female teacher ratio.

No doubt a policy that advocates salary increases for male teachers only, even though their

earnings have been declining more in comparison to their male counterparts, would be

considered as gender discrimination and illegal. An alternative approach is the

development of salary/employment packages that suit the individual preferences of the

teachers. For some this may involve longer periods of paid parental leave being traded off

for salaries. Other teachers may be willing to trade off a part of their holidays for

additional remuneration and visa versa. Policy recommendation 4, introduced earlier in this

chapter, advocating paid overtime, is more likely to benefit male teachers as they are

already working on average longer hours in teaching, and a higher proportion of males seek

additional income in other employment. This policy could act as an incentive to increase

the proportion of male teachers in high schools.

In an attempt to increase the number of male primary school teachers, Sydney Catholic

Education Office offered the same number of male and female teacher scholarships (to

overcome anti-discrimination legislation). A similar policy could be implemented in regard

to teacher scholarships in secondary education.

8.2.3 System Issues

There are considerable differences in levels of teacher satisfaction between the school

systems. Private schools have the most satisfied teachers and public schools the least

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satisfied. The areas that public school teachers are least satisfied include (Tables 6.40-

6.46):

• level of salary;

• support from administration;

• the attitude of students;

• the satisfaction of student achievement;

• the support of pupils’ parents;

• the attitude of the general public; and

• the possibility of promotion.

While there is little that can be done about some of the factors, due to the universal nature

of the public school system, such as the attitude of students and the satisfaction of student

achievement, there are other areas that can be changed. The level of salary is generally

higher in private schools so improvements in this area would require an increased

allocation of funds from the State Government to the public school system. Some

recommendations for improvements in salary have already been discussed in the previous

section. It is likely however that the gap between the two systems over wages would

continue as the private schools offer the higher wages to attract better staff and are likely to

match increase in the salaries of public school teachers. There is, however, scope for

improvements in the areas of:

• support from administration;

• the support of pupils’ parents;

• the attitude of the general public; and

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• the possibility of promotion.

8.2.3.1 Low Levels of Satisfaction in the Relationships between Teachers and the

Administration, General Public, and Parents in Public Schools

Some of the lower relative satisfaction levels in public schools in regards to administration,

the support of parents, and the general public could be related to the generally negative

media coverage public schools receive in comparison to Catholic and other private schools.

Some of this is a result of conflicts over wages and working conditions between public

school teachers and the State Government. For example in the 2004 teachers ‘work value’

industrial case in NSW, the State Government opposed the level of teacher wage rises

where as the Catholic employers were supportive. The independent schools tend to offer

individual workplace contracts or negotiate individual enterprise agreements. This not only

suggests to public school teachers that the Government does not think that they are worth

higher wages but also may suggest to the general public and parents that public school

teachers are demanding more money than they are worth. In addition industrial conflict

often contributes to a worsening of the relationship between the employer and employees.

Policy recommendation 8

Administrators should introduce policies that encourage more cooperation between teachers

and the administrators of schools and provide more support for teachers. These policies

could include:

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• positive advertising campaigns dealing with the value of teachers to the community;

• improved industrial relations processes;

• more autonomy to public school principals and greater consultation between school

administrators and teachers; and

• greater flexibility for teachers to move between schools.

First, positive advertising campaigns regarding the work and value of teachers to the

community could not only encourage more university graduates to enter teaching but may

also produce a more positive attitude from parents and the general public. If teachers feel

that they are appreciated by their students, parents and the community in general, their

overall level of satisfaction and utility associated with teaching will be enhanced

Second, industrial relations disputes by their nature tend to be areas of conflict. There

needs, however, to be more positive comments about the value of teachers in these

disputes, while recognising the need to balance this with the budgetary constraints of the

employer. In this environment the importance of nonwage amenities as a trade-off for

higher wages is crucial.

Third, the issue of administration is more complex in the public school system. In the

Catholic school system, and even more so in independent schools, the main administration

impacting on teachers is school based. The principal is responsible for most, if not all,

areas of employment and promotional appointments and administration in the school. The

principal and staff have closer contact and decisions are generally made in consultation

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with each other. This tends to improve relationships between administration and teachers.

The public school system should give greater autonomy to school principals to employ staff

and decide on promotional appointments. More decision-making should also be made in

consultation with the school community and not predominately at Departmental level. The

possibility of community based school boards similar to those that exist in the USA, and in

many private schools in NSW, could also improve the relationship with staff, parents and

the public, if all three groups were represented on the boards.

Fourth, some conflict between school administration and individual teachers is always

likely to occur. In the Catholic and independent school system, if teachers do not like the

administration of the school or the school working environment then they can apply for a

job at another school. The ability to change schools may increase the level of satisfaction

of teachers and also reduce conflict in a school. It is more difficult to change between

public schools. A teacher has to apply for transfer through a central registry and, if they are

granted a transfer, they must remain in the school for a minimum of three years. Increased

flexibility in the transfer system could increase teacher satisfaction. The current system is

set up to ensure that teachers will be available in all schools in NSW, but it does not

consider whether the teachers are teaching in their subject areas or whether they are happy

to be teaching in that school. Greater flexibility in the transfer system accompanied by

increased wage flexibility could ensure sufficient qualified teaching staff and more satisfied

and productive teachers.

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8.2.3.2 Increased Flexibility in Trade-offs between Wages and Nonwage Amenities

The individual utility of a teacher is determined by the individual preferences for wages and

nonwage amenities. For some individuals higher wages give greater utility than increased

nonwage amenities. For others they may increase their utility by trading-off wages for

longer holidays or shorter working hours.

Policy recommendation 9

School system administrators should increase nonwage amenities for teachers and improve

trade-offs between salaries and nonwage amenities.

Improvements in utility for workers and thus the movement to higher indifference curves

could also occur as a result of greater flexibility in nonwage benefits. These may be

achievable with little or no increase in school budgets. Many organisations have set

benefits that apply to all workers. Greater utility could be achieved for some workers, if

they were able to trade-off some of those benefits for increased wages and visa versa. If

organisations consider the marginal cost of providing benefits, then they could have lower

relative costs by offering certain benefits. For example, a retail firm may give its workers

discounts on merchandise; schools could offer free education for children of teachers in a

particular education system. The teachers who accept this benefit would trade-off wages or

another benefit to have free education for their children. The marginal cost for a school of

having an additional student would be low compared to the trade-off in salary that could be

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saved by the school. While this would be limited in the public school system in NSW, it

would be a potential benefit for both teachers and administrators in the Catholic and

independent systems, as an incentive to work in that system and also to send their children

to school in that system. If the schools had excess capacity, the cost of the extra student

would only be equal to the marginal cost to the school. The teachers could be offered this

as an alternative trade-off to higher money wages being paid to them.

Job sharing arrangements for parents with children are another common example of a trade-

off that has already been implemented in a number of schools that has provided a more

satisfying working relationship for those teachers. Provisions such as salary sacrificing,

trade-offs between work hours/holidays and wages, and maternity/paternity leave

provisions could all improve teacher satisfaction, retention rates, and the educational

outcomes achieved by students.

8.2.4 Individual School Issues

In all systems there are some schools where teachers are relatively more satisfied,

independent of any geographic or socio-economic factors, than in others. It often relates

back to the administrative and human resource management styles of the principals and the

other teachers in positions of special responsibility. Many teachers have progressed in their

career based on years of experience or capabilities as a classroom teacher. The skills

required for teaching a group of students are not identical to those required to manage a

school or a department. In many cases teachers have limited amounts of extra training to

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manage these positions. In addition in some schools there is little evaluation of the

effectiveness of the administration or the management structure of the school.

Policy recommendation 10

Principals and teachers in positions of authority should undergo training in school

administration and human resource management. In schools where the principal lacks the

ability or time to administer the financial or business aspects of the school a business

manager should be appointed to assist the principal.

It is normal business practice that the chief executive officer of an organisation would not

be responsible for the day-to-day management of all aspects of the business. That

responsibility is passed on to section managers or executives. The benchmarking exercise

conducted by Horsley and Stokes (2005) found that the job requirements of a high school

principal far exceeded the requirements of other job positions on similar salary levels.

Some of the responsibilities of principals should be passed onto other administrators in a

school, such as a business manager.

Individual schools should also take more responsibility for the welfare of their staff,

especially relatively inexperienced teachers, where there is the highest resignation rate.

Policy recommendation 5 has already presented some ways that this could be applied.

They include:

(a) a formal induction process;

(b) a mentor teacher; and

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(c) reduced face-to-face teaching time in the first year of teaching.

In addition new teachers should not be given the left over classes on the timetable that the

other teachers do not want to have. They should be given a balanced load considering their

limited level of experience.

Trainee teachers on their practicum should also be given sufficient support and mentoring,

and encouraged to become competent teachers. Schools should see the opportunity of

having trainee teachers as a chance for teachers to share their experience with new teachers

and also an opportunity to perhaps learn some new approaches to teaching from the

trainees. Staff should be allocated to this process because of their ability and enthusiasm,

not just for the extra income that can be earned.

8.3 Conclusion

The NSW high school teacher labour market is highly regulated in terms of the allocation

of staff to schools, salary scales, and the administration of schools. There is a need for

greater decentralisation of the administrative processes and increased flexibility in

remunerations and nonwage amenities available to teachers. Policies to improve levels of

teacher satisfaction are required to retain the teachers currently in the system and to attract

new teachers to the profession. Increased levels of teacher satisfaction are associated with

a higher quality of teaching and improved educational outcomes.

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There are many challenges facing the high school teacher labour market in NSW, not the

least of which is the likelihood of increased shortages of teachers at least in some discipline

and geographical areas. There is a need for a co-ordinated response to the challenges

facing the teach labour market and the quality of education in high schools, not only in

NSW but also throughout Australia. As the National Center for Education Statistics in the

USA states "a high quality teaching staff is the cornerstone of a successful education

system...(and that)…attracting and retaining high quality teachers is, thus, a primary

necessity for education.”(1997:1) The policy recommendations of this thesis provide

direction in achieving these outcomes.

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APPENDIX

A

TEACHER SURVEY

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Teacher Survey

The following survey is intended for full time teachers in secondary schools in order to gauge the importance of various factors in their decision to continue their career as a teacher. Please fill in the relevant spaces with a tick or a number where appropriate.

1. Sex - Male .......... Female .......... 2. Age Under 30 .......... 30 - 39 .......... 40 - 49 .......... 50 - 59 .......... Over 59 .......... 3. Years of teaching experience 0 - 3 .......... 4 - 9 .......... 10 - 19 .......... 20 or more .......... 4. Highest qualification earned Diploma .......... Bachelors degree .......... Masters Degree or higher .......... Other (please specify)............................. .......... 5. Formal Education (teaching) qualification(s) (list as many as applicable) Masters Degree .......... Bachelors Degree .......... Graduate Diploma .......... Other Diploma .......... 6. Area of academic qualification(s) (list as many as applicable) Arts, Humanities .......... Science/Mathematics .......... Commerce/ Business/Economics .......... Law, Legal Studies .......... Computing ..........

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Technical .......... Art .......... Music .......... Human Movement /Health .......... Religion .......... Other (please specify).................................. .......... 7. Salary Less than $25,000 .......... $25000 - $35000 .......... $35000 - $45000 .......... $45000 - $55000 .......... Over $55000 .......... 8. Do you supplement your basic salary with any other source of income? Yes .......... No (please go to question 10) .......... 9. What other income source(s) do you have? (Tick as many as applicable) Other school income .......... Other employment related to education .......... Income from non-education employment .......... 10. Is the total amount of additional income per year Under $1000 .......... $1000 - $3000 .......... $3001 - $6000 .......... Over $6000 .......... 11. The location of the school where you are currently teaching is Sydney - Inner city .......... North .......... South .......... East .......... West .......... Newcastle .......... Wollongong .......... Country ..........

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12. Your place of residence is Sydney - Inner city .......... North .......... South .......... East .......... West .......... Newcastle .......... Wollongong .......... Country .......... 13. School type Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private .......... 14. Percentage of students in your school from non-English speaking backgrounds less than 20% .......... 20% or more .......... 15. Main teaching field English/drama .......... Mathematics .......... Science .......... Economics/Business Studies .......... Other HSIE .......... Computing .......... Other TAS .......... Art or Music .......... Foreign languages .......... Vocational studies .......... PD/H/PE .......... Religion .......... Special Education or ESL .......... Other .......... 16. Main classes taught Years 7-10 .......... Years 11-12 .......... Years 7-12 ..........

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17. How important are the following in measuring your job satisfaction? Rate 1-5 with: 5 - very important, 4 - some importance , 3 - neutral, 2 - little importance, 1 - very unimportant level of salary .......... job security .......... a low level of stress .......... number of holidays ......... hours of work .......... support and encouragement from administration .......... the attitude and support of peers .......... the attitude and support of students .......... the satisfaction of student achievement .......... the support of the pupils’ parents .......... attitude of the general public towards teachers .......... the support of your family .......... interest in the subjects taught .......... the possibility of promotion .......... 18. As a teacher, how would you rate your current level of satisfaction with each of the following. Rate 1 – 5 with: 5 - very high, 4 - moderately high, 3 - neutral, 2 - moderately low, 1 - very low. level of salary .......... job security .......... a low level of stress .......... number of holidays ......... hours of work ..........

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support and encouragement from administration .......... the attitude and support of peers .......... the attitude and support of students .......... the satisfaction of student achievement .......... the support of the pupils’ parents .......... attitude of the general public towards teachers .......... the support of your family .......... interest in the subjects taught .......... the possibility of promotion .......... 19. How long do you plan to remain in teaching? As long as I am able .......... Until I am eligible for retirement .......... I’ll continue teaching until something better comes along .......... I definitely plan to leave teaching in the next 5 years .......... Undecided at this time .......... 20. If you had the opportunity to choose a career again, would you still become a teacher? Definitely .......... Probably would .......... Unsure .......... Probably would not .......... Definitely would not .......... 21. Do you consider that teachers’ salaries are very good .......... good .......... satisfactory .......... unsatisfactory .......... poor ..........

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22. Would you leave teaching to go to an occupation that provided you with a 10% higher salary? Definitely .......... Probably would .......... Unsure .......... Probably would not .......... Definitely would not .......... 23. How difficult do you think it would be for you to change careers? very easy .......... fairly easy .......... unsure .......... fairly difficult .......... very difficult .......... 24. Have you changed from one education system to another? Yes .......... No (Please go to Q 28) .......... 25. Which system did you change from? Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private .......... 26. Which system did you change to? Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private .......... 27. Which of the following do you consider as important in your decision to change school systems? Rate 1-5 with: 5 - very important, 4 - some importance , 3 - neutral, 2 - little importance, 1 - very unimportant level of salary .......... job security .......... a low level of stress .......... number of holidays .........

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hours of work .......... support and encouragement from administration .......... the attitude and support of peers .......... the attitude and support of students .......... the satisfaction of student achievement .......... the support of the pupils’ parents .......... attitude of the general public towards teachers .......... the support of your family .......... interest in the subjects taught .......... the possibility of promotion .......... change of residence .......... 28. Do you have any other comments to make in regard to this survey? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Thank you very much for your co-operation in filling out this survey.

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APPENDIX

B

ADDITIONAL TEACHER SURVEY DATA

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Table B1 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Highest Qualification

Highest qualification Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Diploma 20 7.4 7.5 7.5 Bachelors degree 201 74.7 75.0 82.5 Masters degree or higher 43 16.0 16.0 98.5 Other 4 1.5 1.5 100.0 Total 268 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0 Table B2 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Education Qualifications

Education qualifications Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Masters degree 38 14.1 14.2 14.2 Bachelors degree 175 65.1 65.3 79.5 Graduate diploma 46 17.1 17.2 96.6 Other diploma 9 3.3 3.4 100.0 Total 268 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0 Table B3 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Area of Academic Qualification

Academic qualification Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Arts, Humanities 123 45.7 45.9 45.9 Science, Mathematics 58 21.6 21.6 67.5 Commerce, Business,

Economics 6 2.2 2.2 69.8

Computing 5 1.9 1.9 71.6 Technical 10 3.7 3.7 75.4 Art 4 1.5 1.5 76.9 Music 2 0.7 0.7 77.6 Human Movement, Health 16 5.9 6.0 83.6 Other 16 5.9 6.0 89.6 Double degrees 28 10.4 10.4 100.0 Total 268 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0

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Table B4 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Salary

Salary Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Less than $25000 2 0.7 0.7 0.7 $25000-$35000 9 3.3 3.4 4.1 $35000-$45000 42 15.6 15.7 19.9 $45000-$55000 117 43.5 43.8 63.7 Over $55000 97 36.1 36.3 100.0 Total 267 99.3 100.0 Missing System 2 0.7 Total 269 100.0 Table B5 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Place of Residence

Place of residence Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Sydney - inner city 15 5.6 5.6 5.6 Sydney - north 36 13.4 13.4 19.0 Sydney - south 61 22.7 22.8 41.8 Sydney - east 14 5.2 5.2 47.0 Sydney - west 29 10.8 10.8 57.8 Newcastle 8 3.0 3.0 60.8 Wollongong 20 7.4 7.5 68.3 Country 85 31.6 31.7 100.0 Total 268 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 0.4 Total 269 100.0 Table B6 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Non-English Speaking Background of Students

Non-English speaking Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Less than 20% 146 54.3 56.2 56.2 20% or more 114 42.4 43.8 100.0 Total 260 96.7 100.0 Missing System 9 3.3 Total 269 100.0

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Table B7 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on their Main Teaching Field

Main teaching field Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid English/Drama 50 18.6 18.7 18.7 Mathematics 35 13.0 13.1 31.8 Science 29 10.8 10.9 42.7 Economics/Business studies

27 10.0 10.1 52.8

Other HSIE 34 12.6 12.7 65.5 Computing 7 2.6 2.6 68.2 Other TAS 17 6.3 6.4 74.5 Art/Music 13 4.8 4.9 79.4 Foreign languages 8 3.0 3.0 82.4 Vocational studies 3 1.1 1.1 83.5 PD/H/PE 15 5.6 5.6 89.1 Religion 2 .7 .7 89.9 Special education/ESL 5 1.9 1.9 91.8 English/other HSIE 11 4.1 4.1 95.9 Other 11 4.1 4.1 100.0 Total 267 99.3 100.0 Missing System 2 0.7 Total 269 100.0 Table B8 Distribution of Teachers Surveyed Based on Main Classes Taught

Main classes taught Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent Valid Years7-10 41 15.2 15.6 15.6 Years 11-12 41 15.2 15.6 31.2 Years 7-12 181 67.3 68.8 100.0 Total 263 97.8 100.0 Missing System 6 2.2 Total 269 100.0

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APPENDIX

C

UNIVERSITY STUDENT SURVEYS

(i) First year students (ii) Third/final year students

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University Student Survey – First Year

The following survey is intended for university students in order to gauge their attitude towards pursuing a career as a high school teacher in NSW. Please fill in the relevant spaces with a tick or a number where appropriate.

1. Sex - Male .......... Female .......... 2. Age - Under 21 .......... 21 -29 .......... 30 - 39 .......... 40 - 49 .......... Over 49 .......... 3. Tertiary Entrance Rank / University Admissions Index (cross out whatever is not applicable) Under 40 .......... 40 - 49 .......... 50 - 59 .......... 60 - 69 .......... 70 - 79 .......... 80 - 89 .......... Over 90 .......... Other form of entry – please list …………………………………… 4. Area of academic qualifications of your current course (list as many as applicable) Education/Teaching ……..

Arts, Humanities .......... Science/Mathematics .......... Commerce/ Business/Economics .......... Law, Legal Studies .......... Computing .......... Technical .......... Art .......... Music ..........

Nursing .......... Human Movement /Health ..........

Religion …….. Other (please specify).................................. ..........

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5. Your place of residence is Sydney - Inner city .......... North .......... South .......... East .......... West .......... Newcastle .......... Wollongong .......... Country .......... 6. The type of school that you attended Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private .......... 7. Which of the following do you consider as important in your decision to pursue a particular career? Rate 1-5 with: 5 - very important, 4 - some importance, 3 - neutral, 2 - little importance, 1 - very unimportant level of salary .......... job security .......... a low level of stress .......... number of holidays .......... hours of work .......... the attitude and support of peers and friends .......... the attitude and support of the employer .......... attitude of the general public towards your career .......... the support of your family .......... interest in the work you do ..........

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job satisfaction .......... the possibility of promotion .......... desire to help others .......... 8. How would you rate the following employment conditions for teachers in NSW high schools? Rate 1-5 with: 5 – well above average, 4 – above average, 3 - average, 2 - below average, 1 – well below average level of salary .......... job security .......... level of stress .......... number of holidays .......... hours of work .......... the attitude and support of peers .......... the attitude and support of students .......... the attitude and support of the employer .......... the support of the pupils’ parents .......... attitude of the general public towards teachers .......... the possibility of promotion ..........

job satisfaction ..........

9. Do you intend to pursue a career as a high school teacher? Yes …..... No …….. Unsure ….….

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10. How did the following factors influence your decision in regard to becoming a teacher?

Rate 1-5 with: 5 – very positive, 4 – positive, 3 - neutral, 2 - negative, 1 – very negative.

the attitude of teachers at your school towards teaching …….. the attitude of your parents …….. your own experience of school …….. 11. Would higher salaries for teachers make you more likely to become a teacher? Yes …….. No (go to question 14) …….. Unsure …….. 12. What salary increase would lead you to become a high school teacher? At least 10% ……… 11-20% ………

21-40% ……… 41-60% ………

More than 60% ……… 13. If you became a teacher, what type of school would you like to teach in? Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private …….. Any …….. 14. Do you have any other comments to make in regard to this survey? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Thank you very much for your co-operation in filling out this survey.

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University Student Survey – 3rd Year

The following survey is intended for university students in order to gauge their attitude towards pursuing a career as a high school teacher in NSW. Please fill in the relevant spaces with a tick or a number where appropriate.

1. Sex - Male .......... Female .......... 2. Age - Under 21 .......... 21 -29 .......... 30 - 39 .......... 40 - 49 .......... Over 49 .......... 3. Tertiary Entrance Rank / University Admissions Index (cross out whatever is not applicable) Under 40 .......... 40 - 49 .......... 50 - 59 .......... 60 - 69 .......... 70 - 79 .......... 80 - 89 .......... Over 90 .......... Other form of entry – please list …………………………………… 4. Area of academic qualifications of your current course (list as many as applicable) Education/Teaching ……..

Arts, Humanities .......... Science/Mathematics .......... Commerce/ Business/Economics .......... Law, Legal Studies .......... Computing .......... Technical .......... Art .......... Music .......... Human Movement /Health .......... Religion .......... Other (please specify).................................. ..........

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5. Your place of residence is Sydney - Inner city .......... North .......... South .......... East .......... West .......... Newcastle .......... Wollongong .......... Country .......... 6. The type of school that you attended Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private .......... 7. Which of the following do you consider as important in your decision to pursue a particular career? Rate 1-5 with: 5 - very important, 4 - some importance, 3 - neutral, 2 - little importance, 1 - very unimportant level of salary .......... job security .......... a low level of stress .......... number of holidays .......... hours of work .......... the attitude and support of peers and friends .......... the attitude and support of the employer .......... attitude of the general public towards your career .......... the support of your family .......... interest in the work you do .......... job satisfaction ..........

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the possibility of promotion .......... desire to help others .......... 8. How would you rate the following employment conditions for teachers in NSW high schools? Rate 1-5 with: 5 – well above average, 4 – above average, 3 - average, 2 - below average, 1 – well below average level of salary .......... job security .......... level of stress .......... number of holidays .......... hours of work .......... the attitude and support of peers .......... the attitude and support of students .......... the attitude and support of the employer .......... the support of the pupils’ parents .......... attitude of the general public towards teachers .......... the possibility of promotion ..........

job satisfaction ..........

9. Do you intend to pursue a career as a high school teacher? Yes …..... No …….. Unsure ….….

10. How did the following factors influence your decision in regard to becoming a teacher?

Rate 1-5 with: 5 – very positive, 4 – positive, 3 - neutral, 2 - negative, 1 – very negative.

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the attitude of teachers at your school towards teaching …….. the attitude of your parents …….. your own experience of school …….. 11.Would higher salaries for teachers make you more likely to become a teacher? Yes …….. No (go to question 14) …….. Unsure …….. 12. What salary increase would lead you to become a high school teacher? At least 10% ……… 11-20% ………

21-40% ……… 41-60% ………

More than 60% ……… 13. If you became a teacher, what type of school would you like to teach in? Public .......... Catholic Systemic .......... Other Private …….. Any …….. 14. Has your attitude towards becoming a teacher changed since you started university?

Yes ……..(Go to Q15) No ……..(Go to Q17)

15. In what way has your attitude changed? More positive …….. More negative …….. 16. What factors have caused your attitude to change? ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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17. Do you have any other comments to make in regard to this survey? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Thank you very much for your co-operation in filling out this survey.