THE INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPAL'S TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP ON TEACHERS' SELF-EFFICACY AND ICT USE IN TEACHING

Chee Kin Siong

Doctor of Philosophy 2012

Pusat kiuumat Maklumat Akadenuk UNIVERSIT[ MALAYSIA SARAWAK

THE INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPALS' TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP ON TEACHERS' SELF-EFFICACY AND ICT USE IN TEACHING

CHEE KIN SIONG

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2012

Acknowledgements

My sincere thanks go to my principal supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Hong Kian Sam

and co-supervisor Dr. Hasbee Hj. Usop for their unfailing interest, support and advice from the beginning of this project. They have been the constant sources of enthusiasm

and have kept me on track and focused right from the beginning. Despite some setbacks

and changes along the way, they seemed never to doubt that this project could be

successfully accomplished. Their considerable knowledge and expertise have provided

me inspiration and guidance throughout the journey.

Thanks also to the participants who generously completed the surveys. I am sure your

contribution goes a long way toward furthering our knowledge regarding principals'

technology leadership.

My thanks also go to my parents, wife Ai Hua and children You You and Phei Phei who

each contributed in various ways. Without them, I may never have got this far. This

lifelong dream has finally turned into a reality mainly due to their constant love, support,

encouragement and help.

Thank you all. It has been a long, tiring but interesting journey. Without supports from all

of you I doubt I would have reached the destination.

I

Abstract

(This study empirically investigated the relationship between principals' technology

leadership, teachers' self-efficacy and teachers' ICT use in teaching. Simultaneously, it

also attempted to determine whether the relationships were conditional on teachers' age

and ICT skill levels. In this study, a conceptual model (moderated mediation model of

principals' technology leadership influence) that incorporated all these relationships was

proposed for empirical testing. Prior to the main study, a pilot test was conducted to

examine the validity and reliability of the survey instrument A stratified random

sampling technique was used to select the sample for the main study, consisting of

science and mathematics teachers from secondary schools in Malaysia. After the data

screening process, 279 valid responses were subjected to further analyses. A structural

equation modeling (SEM) technique utilizing AMOS Version 18 was carried out to test

the validity of the overall model and the hypothesized relationships between the

theoretical constructs. Findings in this study showed that there were evidences of

significant direct relationships between; (a) principals' technology leadership and

teachers' ICT use in teaching; (b) principals' technology leadership and teachers' self-

efficacy; and (c) teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in teaching. The mediation test

revealed that teachers' self-efficacy mediated the relationship between principals'

technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching. The moderated mediation

analyses revealed that; (a) the mediated effect was not moderated by teachers' age; and

(b) there was evidence of moderation by teachers' ICT skill levels. As such, the

mediation effect was stronger for teachers with lower ICT skill levels. It was concluded

that principals' technology leadership influenced teachers' ICT use in teaching both

direct and indirectly through teachers' self-efficacy depending on teachers' ICT skill

levels and the mediated effect was stronger among teachers with lower ICT skill levels

compared to those with higher ICT skill levels. This work is a significant contribution to

the understanding of the complex relationships between principals' technology

leadership, teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in teaching.

ii

Abstrak

Kajian ini mengkaji secara empirikal hubungan antara kepimpinan teknologi pengetua,

efikasi-kendiri guru and penggunaan ICT oleh guru dalam pengajaran. Pada masa yang

sama kajian inijuga menentukan sama ada hubungan tersebut bergantung kepada umur dan

tahap kemahiran ICT guru. Dalam kajian ini, satu model konseptual (model moderasi

mediasi pengaruh kepimpinan teknologi pengetua) yang merangkumi kesemua hubungan

tersebut telah dikemukakan untuk pengujian empirikal. Kajian ini menggunakan soal selidik

sebagai teknik pengumpulan data. Teknik persampelan rawak berstrata telah digunakan

untuk memilih sampel kajian sebenar yang terdiri daripada guru-guru sains dan matematik

sekolah-sekolah menengah di Malaysia. Selepas proses penapisan data, 279 respon yang

sah telah digunakan untuk analisis seterusnya. Teknik pemodelan persamaan struktural

menggunakan AMOS Versi 18 telah dilaksanakan untuk menentukan kesahihan model dan

menganalisis hubungan antara konstruk kajian yang dihipotesiskan. Hasil kajian ini

menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan di antara; (a) kepimpinan teknologi pengetua dan

penggunaan ICT oleh guru dalam pengajaran; (b) kepimpinan teknologi pengetua dan

efikasi-kendiri guru; dan (c) efikasi-kendiri guru dan penggunaan ICT oleh guru dalam

pengajaran. Analisis mediasi menunjukkan bahawa efikasi-kendiri guru memediasi

hubungan di antara kepimpinan teknologi pengetua dan penggunaan ICT oleh guru dalam

pengajaran. Analisis moderasi mediasi menunjukkan; (a) kesan mediasi tidak dimoderasikan

oleh umur guru; dan (b) terdapat bukti moderasi oleh tahap kemahiran ICT guru. Kesan

mediasi adalah lebih kuat dalam kalangan guru yang memiliki tahap kemahiran ICT yang

lebih rendah. Kesimpulannya, kepimpinan teknologi pengetua mempengaruhi penggunaan

ICT oleh guru dalam pengajaran adalah secara langsung dan tidak lansung melalui efikasi- kendiri guru bergantung kepada tahap kemahiran ICT guru dan kesan mediasi adalah lebih

kuat di kalangan guru yang berkemahiran rendah. Kajian ini memberikan sumbangan yang

signifikan kepada usaha memahami hubungan kompleks di antara kepimpinan teknologi

pengetua, efikasi-kendiri guru dan penggunaan ICT oleh guru dalam pengajaran.

III

Pusht Khidmat MakiuastAltadema UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Abstrak

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

Chapter One: Introduction

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Statement of the problem

1.3 Theoretical underpinnings

1.4 Research purposes

1.5 Research objectives

1.6 Research questions and hypotheses

1.7 Significance of the study

1.7.1 Contribution to literature

1.7.2 Contribution to methodology 1.7.3 Contribution to practice

1.8 Definition of terms

1.9 Organization of the thesis

1.10 Summary

1

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Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.0 Introduction 19

2.1 ICT use in classrooms 19

2.2 Principals and teachers effectiveness 22

2.3 Principals' technology leadership 23

2.3.1 National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators 26

(NETS-A)

2.4 Teachers' ICT use in teaching 29

2.5 Teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in teaching 32

2.6 Leadership influence on followers' self-efficacy beliefs 36

2.7 Principals' technology leadership and teachers' self-efficacy 39

2.8 Teachers' self-efficacy as mediator 40

2.9 Teachers' age and ICT skill levels as moderators 40

2.10 Conceptual model 41

2.11 Summary 42

Chapter Three: Methodology

3.0 Introduction

3.1 Research design

3.2 Construction of questionnaire

3.2.1 Content validity 3.3 Description of the pilot study

3.3.1 Determine the appropriateness of the data set for factor analysis 3.3.2 Factor analysis

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3.3.2.1 Determine the number of factors 54

3.3.2.2 Determine the significance of factor loadings 56

3.3.2.3 Rotation of axis 56

3.3.2.4 Assessment of scales using Exploratory Factor Analysis 57

(EFA)

3.3.2.4.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis results 57

3.3.2.4.2 Operationalization of factors 60

V

3.3.3 Final questionnaire 3.4 Population and samples

3.4.1 Population

3.4.2 Sampling procedures 3.5 Data collection procedures 3.6 Data analysis procedures

3.6.1 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

3.6.2 Advantages of Structural Equation Modeling

3.6.3 Approach to Structural Equation Modeling

3.6.4 Testing the measurement models 3.6.4.1 Goodness-of-fit

3.6.6 Testing the direct models 3.6.7 Testing the mediation model

3.6.8 Testing the moderated mediation models 3.7 Summary

Chapter Four: Results

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4.0 Introduction 82

4.1 Response rate 82

4.2 Data screening procedures 82

4.2.1 Missing data/data integrity 83

4.2.2 Outliers 83

4.2.2.1 Univariate outliers 83

4.2.2.2 Multivariate outliers 86

4.2.3 Distribution normality 87

4.2.3.1 Univariate distribution normality 87

4.2.3.2 Multivariate distribution normality 89

4.3 Demographic information of the participants 90 4.4 Model development and assessment 93

4.4.1 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models 94

4.4.1.1 CFA model of principals' technology leadership 94

4.4.1.2 CFA model of teachers' self-efficacy 103

vi

4.4.1.3 CFA model of teachers' ICT use in teaching 104 4.4.1.4 Overall CFA model 106 4.4.1.5 Discriminant validity 109

4.4.1.6 Convergent validity 103 4.4.1.7 Construct reliability 111

4.4.2 Development of the structural models 112 4.5 Analysis of hypotheses 112

4.5.1 Direct effects 113 4.5.2 Mediation effects 117

4.5.3 Moderated mediation effects 119

4.5.3.1 Moderated mediation model 1: Teachers' age as 121

moderator

4.5.3.2 Moderated mediation model 2: Teachers' ICT skill levels 123

as moderator 4.6 Summary 126

Chapter Five: Overview, Discussions and Conclusions

5.0 Introduction 128

5.1 Overview of the study 130

5.2 Discussion of research findings 130

5.2.1 Relationship between principals' technology leadership and teachers' 128

ICT use in teaching

5.2.2 Relationship between principals' technology leadership and 131

teachers' self-efficacy

5.2.3 Relationship between teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in teaching 132

5.2.4 Teachers' self-efficacy mediated the relationship between principals' 133

technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching

5.2.5 Teachers' age moderated the mediated effect of principals' 133

technology leadership on teachers' ICT use in teaching through

teachers' self-efficacy

5.2.6 Teachers' ICT skill moderated the mediated effect of principals' 135

technology leadership on teachers' ICT use in teaching through

vii

teachers' self-efficacy 5.3 Practical implications 137

5.3.1 Implications for principal preparation and leadership programme 137

providers 5.3.2 Implications for principals 137

5.4 Theoretical implications 140

5.5 Limitations 142

5.6 Recommendations for future research 144

5.7 Conclusions 144

References 147

Appendix

Appendix 1 Letter to The Ministry of Education, Malaysia 177

Appendix 2 Letter of consent from The Ministry of Education, Malaysia 179

Appendix 3 Letter to The Department of Education, Sarawak 180

Appendix 4 Letter of consent from The Department of Education, Sarawak 182

Appendix 5 Letter to principals 183

Appendix 6A Verification for questionnaire content validity 185

Appendix 6B Verification for questionnaire content validity 186

Appendix 7 Items included in pilot test questionnaire 187

Appendix 8 Research questionnaire 190

Appendix 9 Communalities of questionnaire items 195

Appendix 10 Total variance explained 196

Appendix 11 Exploratory factor analysis results 197

VIII

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Number of items for pilot test questionnaire 50

Table 3.2 Reliability test results 59

Table 3.3 Distribution of schools selected as sample for the main study by 65

state

Table 3.4 Summary of Goodness-of-fit and model evaluation indices 77

Table 4.1 Results of univariate outlier analysis and treatment 84

Table 4.2 Results of the multivariate outlier analysis 86

Table 4.3 Results of data transformation 88

Table 4.4 Mardia's coefficients and critical ratios of the eight constructs 89

Table 4.5 Demographic information of participants (N=279) 91

Table 4.6 Model fit statistics of the satisfactory models 95

Table 4.7 Model fit statistics of the refined individual CFA model of 96

principals' technology leadership

Table 4.8 Model fit statistics of the CFA model of principals' technology 101

leadership

Table 4.9 Model fit statistics of the CFA model of teachers' self-efficacy 103

Table 4.10 Model fit statistics of the CFA model of teachers' ICT use in 105

teaching

Table 4.11 Model fit statistics of the overall CFA model 107

Table 4.12 Latent constructs and number of indicator variables (items) 107

Table 4.13 Estimated correlations between constructs 109

Table 4.14 Standardized regression weights and measurement errors of 110

indicator variables

Table 4.15 Results of the construct reliability assessment 1l1

Table 4.16 Model fit statistics of direct models 114

Table 4.17 Standardized coefficients of direct models 115

Table 4.18 Model fit statistics of the mediation model 117

Table 4.19 Standardized coefficients of the mediation model 118

Table 4.20 Model fit statistics of moderated mediation model 1 120

Table 4.21 Standardized coefficients of moderated mediation model 1 122

IX

Table 4.22 Model fit statistics of moderated mediation model 2 124

Table 4.23 Standardized coefficients of moderated mediation model 2 124

X

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Moderated mediation model of principals' technology leadership 42

influence

Figure 3.1 Diagram of conventional approach to SEM 72

Figure 4.1 CFA model of individual factors 100

Figure 4.2 CFA model of principals' technology leadership 102

Figure 4.3 CFA model of teachers' self-efficacy 104

Figure 4.4 CFA model of teachers' ICT use in teaching 106

Figure 4.5 Overall CFA model 108

Figure 4.6 Direct model I- Relationship between principals' technology 115

leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching (Ho 1)

Figure 4.7 Direct model 2- Relationship between principals' technology 116

leadership and teachers' self-efficacy (Ho 2)

Figure 4.8 Direct model 3- Relationship between teachers' self-efficacy and 116

teachers' ICT use in teaching (Ho 3)

Figure 4.9 Mediation model - Teachers' self-efficacy mediates the 119

relationship between principals' technology leadership and

teachers' ICT use in teaching (Ho 4)

Figure 4.10 Moderated mediation model I- Teachers' age as moderator 123

(Ho 5)

Figure 4.11 Moderated mediation model 2 -Teachers' ICT skill levels as 126

moderator (Ho 6)

xi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter provides an introduction to the research. Section 1.1 describes the

background of the study. Section 1.2 deals with statement of the problem. Section 1.3

provides a review of the theoretical underpinnings. Section 1.4 discusses the purposes of

this study. Section 1.5 puts forward the research objectives. Section 1.6 presents the

research questions and hypotheses. Section 1.7 justifies the study with the significance,

contributions, and implications of this study. Section 1.8 defines the various important

research terms used in this study. Section 1.9 outlines the organization of this study. The

last section, Section 1.10 is a summary of this chapter.

1.1 Background of the study

Given the advancement of information communication technology (ICT), school system

is becoming more dependent on information and communication technology (ICT) for

existence. ICT is gradually becoming part and parcel of today's classrooms. It is being

harnessed for teaching and learning purposes (Kozloski, 2006). Politicians, researchers,

educators and the general public alike believe in the power of ICT in education (Trotter,

1997). According to Cuban (2001), Bennett (1999), Black (2009), Grey-Bowen (2010),

Sang (2010), and Watts (2009), the use of ICT in education can improve student

motivation and achievement, and teachers may be able to fully utilize this new

technology to enhance their teaching. Studies by Christmann, Lucking and Badgett

(1997), Forman (1997) and Mandinach and Cline (1996) seem to indicate that ICT could

be a powerful tool for instructional purposes. Dwyer (1996) and Sangra and Gonzalez-

Sanmamed (2010) suggested that technology could greatly improve the efficiency and

effectiveness of the schools.

1

In Malaysia, ICT in education has been given high priority since the last decade. One of

the endeavours made by the government to integrate ICT into schools is by emphasizing

the role and function of ICT as teaching and learning tools (Chan, 2004; Malaysian Smart

School Implementation Plan, 1997). Many ICT in schools projects were carried out by

the government. For instance, the "Computers in Education Project" introduced in 1991,

the "Malaysia Smart School Project" since 1997 until present. Other ICT initiatives

carried out by the government are the SchoolNet project, the school computerization

programme, the Electronic Book project, the Universal Service Provision project, and the

Penang E-Learning Community project (Chan, 2004). There are also ICT initiatives

conducted by non-governmental agencies such as the Chinese Smart Schools and the

Private Smart Schools project. At the same time, all schools are in the process of

transforming themselves into Smart Schools. According to the Malaysian Smart School

Implementation Plan (1997), all Malaysian schools will be converted into Smart Schools

by 2010.

In 2003, the government of Malaysia implemented the teaching of Mathematics and

Science in English policy. Under this policy, all Mathematics, Science, and English

teachers are provided with laptops and teaching courseware (Chan, 2004). The

government has allocated five billion ringgit for this project ("Perlaksanaan Pengajaran, "

2002).

Figures released by the Ministry of Education (Smart School Bulletin, 2005) showed that

up to 2005,4,500 schools were already equipped with computer laboratories, 99,000

computer units and 4,600 servers. A total of 8,120 schools were connected to the

SchoolNet broadband. A total amount of 97,000 laptops and 70,000 LCD projectors have

been supplied to schools for the purpose of teaching Science, Mathematics and English.

These figures foretell well for improving ICT integration in Malaysian school.

In-service training for the related subject teachers has been given to ensure their ICT

competencies. The core objective of these ICT-related endeavours is to ensure the ICT

integration success in schools and finally improve students' learning outcomes. The

2

schools are now equipped with ICT equipments such as LCD projectors, screens, and trolleys with speakers. With these initiatives, government is expecting a major change in

classroom practices (Wan Zah Wan Ali, Hajar Mohd Nor, Azimi Hamzah, & Hayati

Alwi, 2009).

However, in spite of its availability and effectiveness, ICT has not been fully utilized in

teaching and learning (Cuban, 2000; 2001). Backer (2001) and Fullan (2001) also found

that frequent use of ICT by teachers in teaching is still very much a rare phenomenon.

They also pointed out that teachers' use of ICT in the classroom is still limited and

unenthusiastic.

In Malaysia, there is a wealth of teaching courseware in the form of CD-ROMs supplied

to teachers for teaching purposes but studies carried out by Samuel and Zaitun Abu

Bakar (2006) and Wan Zah Wan Ali et al. (2009) found that many teachers used these

resources once in a while. Results from the same studies also showed that principals'

leadership influence is one of the important factors in increasing the frequency of

teachers' ICT use in teaching.

Many researchers, policy makers, and educators have carried out studies to examine the

usefulness of ICT in education and have no doubt that computer technology is a very

powerful educational tool (CEO Forum, 2000,2001; Drucker, 1997; Girod & Cavanaugh,

2001; Jonassen, 2000; Michael, 1998). However, a careful review of the literature reveals

that most of the reviewed studies have skipped a very important step in the connection

between technology and teachers' ICT use in teaching - the principals' technology

leadership role in influencing teachers' ICT use in teaching. According to Gibson (2002),

one of the most important issues in the success of school technology integration includes

the effectiveness of principals' ICT technology leadership. The Director of the

Technology Standards for School Administrators (TSSA) project, Knezek (2001) also

stressed the importance of principals' technology leadership in school technology

integration and stated that "We have a wealth of evidence attesting to the importance of

3

leadership in implementing and sustaining systematic reform in schools. It is critical;

therefore, that we attend seriously to leadership for technology in schools" (p. 5).

It is clear that the role of principals as technology leaders is increasingly essential to

make ICT in school a success. They are assigned responsibility to take an active lead in

the types of educational technology given and how it will be used. They need to be more

actively involved in leading the ICT initiatives in schools (Benson, Peltier, & Matranga,

1999).

The Malaysian Smart School Implementation Plan (1997) has stated clearly that one of

the critical success factors for the implementation of the Smart Schools is the human

factor. It is obvious that the responsibility to convert the present ordinary schools into

smart or ICT-enriched schools fall on the shoulders of school principals as technology

leaders and classroom teachers as the front line implementers. School principals and

teachers are being called to carry out more demanding roles and responsibilities in the

area of integrating technology into classrooms.

The connection between principals' leadership and the effectiveness of ICT

implementation in schools has been reported by some researchers such as Anderson and

Dexter (2005), Byrom and Bingham (2001), Brooks-Young (2000), Cavanaugh (2001),

Chambers (2002), Gibson (2002), Gurr (2000; 2001), Martin, Gersick, Nudell, & Culp

(2002), McLester (2001) and Schoney (2002). Other than that The National School

Boards Foundation (2002) and United States Department of Education (2005) also

support the connection between principals' leadership and the effectiveness of technology

implementation in schools. They agreed that strong leadership is an important factor of

successful technology integration. Thomas and Bainbridge (2000) also found that this

overall leadership responsibility was one of the most critical factors that determined the

success of ICT integration in schools. Await and Jolly (1999) argued that without

leadership, vision, and leading by example from their principals, it is no surprise that

many schools are slow in integrating ICT in education. They further suggested that

schools need principals who can serve as knowledgeable leaders.

4

Pusat KhwlilaL MaklUnatAkadeUº,. UNiVERSIT! MALAYSIA SARAWAK

Based on his observation, Garrett's (2003) pointed out that, today's principals need to

learn about the powerful uses of technology in education and make decisions on how to

plan, implement, manage and lead in their schools. He also points out that principals need

to know how technology can improve students' achievement, how to make data driven

decisions, how much technology staff and technological support are required and carry

out the technology policies. Yee (1999,2000) stresses that as leaders, school principals

need to communicate and share a clear ICT vision with the school communities.

Principals who are enthusiastic and visionary about ICT can have a positive effect in the

use of ICT in school. Brooks-Young (2002) described the complexity of the principal's

job as, "it requires the ability to hold a global perspective of the school or district while,

at the same time being able to recognize and address all the pieces that affect

programmes including technology" (p. 3).

According the Transformational Leadership Theory by Bass (1985,1990,1998), leaders

with transformational leadership style promote and manage organizations by influencing

subordinates both direct and indirectly. Previous research also found that principals with

transformational leadership style contribute to the development of teachers' self-efficacy

($ahin, 2006).

Based on the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977,1993,1997) leadership is very important in shaping followers' self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1993,1997). Other studies

also found that the principals leadership has an important effect on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfook-Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Hipp & Bredeson, 1995;

Wilmore, 2000). Empirical evidences (Albion, 1999; Bandura, 1977,1993,1997; Lumpe

& Chambers, 2001; Stone, 1998) also shows that self-efficacy is a possible predictor of

human behaviour. Hence, the present study extends these findings by proposing that

principals' technology leadership influences teachers' ICT use in teaching both direct and

indirectly through teacher's self-efficacy. At the same time, this study also seeks to

examine whether the indirect effect is conditional depending on teacher' age and ICT

5

skill levels.

1.2 Statement of the problem

ICT is becoming more common in schools and it is found to be effective in improving

student motivation and achievement (CEO Forum, 2001). Studies also indicate that it is a

powerful tool for teaching learning purposes (Christmann, Lucking, & Badgett, 1997;

Drucker, 1997; Forman, 1997; Girod & Cavanaugh, 2001; Govender & Govender, 2008;

Jonassen, 2000; Mandinach & Cline, 1996; Michael, 1998; Sang, Valcke, Van Braak,

Tondeur & Zhu, 2010).

Despite the effectiveness of ICT as teaching and learning tools, studies by Backhouse

(2003), Becker (2001), Becker and Raivitz (2001), Charp (2000), Cuban (2000,2001),

and Emery (2002) reported that many teachers have not fully utilized ICT as a teaching

and learning tool in their classrooms. Marcinkiewicz and Regstad (1996) noticed that the

new environment in schools welcomes ICT, yet relatively few teachers have seriously

used ICT in teaching and learning.

Studies continue to show high resistance to ICT use by teachers in most of the schools

(Schiller, 2002,2003a, 2003b; Paul, Theodore & Will 2003). Wolski and Jackson (1999)

found that some teachers resisted ICT entirely, and even among teachers who embrace

change, many might not be using ICT as teaching and learning tool at its fullest. Albion

(2000) says that although many teachers believe in the use of ICT and have the necessary

technical skills to employ them in teaching, they may be reluctant to implement them in

their classrooms. Various reasons have been suggested to explain the reluctance of

teachers to use ICT in their teaching. These reasons include lack of training, lack of

appropriate software, negative ICT attitudes, different psychological reasons and insufficient management support (Bennett, 1999; Chen, 2008).

Given principals are the overall educational leaders of schools and have significant influence on what are occurring within schools, their influence on teachers' ICT use in

6

teaching is needed (The Collaborative for Technology Standards for School, 2001). The

importance of principals as technology leaders in schools was highlighted by Brooks-

Young (2000), Cavanaugh (2001), Lin, Lin and Huang (2009), Malaysian Smart School

Implementation Plan (1997), Martin et at. (2002) McLester (2001), National School

Boards Foundation (2002), Schoney (2002), Thomas and Bainbridge (2000), United

States Department of Education (2005), and Yee (1999,2000). Principals could have a

positive influence in teachers' use of ICT in teaching and learning (Emery, 2002;

Govender & Govender, 2008; Jacobsen & Hunter, 2003; Kincaid & Feldner, 2002;

Schiller, 2002).

Although many researchers have researched into ICT integration in schools in general,

one area that is especially lacking in research is the relationship between principals'

technology leadership, teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in teaching (Matin et al.,

2002). Most of the previous studies (e. g. Chambers, 2002; Gibson, 2002; Gurr, 2001)

only examined the direct effects between two variables instead of investigating the

moderating and mediating effects. This research goes a step further by investigating

various factors simultaneously through the use of structural equation modelling (SEM)

technique.

This study highlights and interprets the relationships among principals' technology

leadership, teachers' self-efficacy for teaching with ICT and teachers' ICT use in

teaching and learning. It examine whether teachers' self-efficacy mediates the

relationship between principals' technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching.

In addition, this research also investigates whether teachers' age and ICT skill moderate

the mediated effect of teachers' self-efficacy between principals' technology leadership

and teachers' ICT use in teaching and learning. Research of such nature is especially

lacking in Malaysia. Therefore, there is a need to carry out such a study on Malaysia

setting.

7

1.3 Theoretical underpinnings

This research is grounded within the literature on principals' technology leadership, self-

efficacy, and technology acceptance behaviours. Especially, it is centred around theories

that linking leadership influence on followers' self-efficacy beliefs and in turn resulting

in behavioural change. The works on principal leadership (e. g., Razick & Swanson, 2001;

Schwahn & Spady, 2001) set the ground to the understanding of principals' leadership.

These works suggest that principals' leadership is important for school effectiveness. On

the other hand, Bandura's (1977,1986) Social Cognitive Theory provides understanding

on the self-efficacy beliefs constructs. This theory suggests that leaders influence

subordinates' beliefs, and in turn modify human behaviour. In the case of school settings,

Bandura (1997) suggests that principals influence teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, and

these beliefs in turn lead to the modification of teachers' behaviour.

This kind of causal relationship study is known as process-product or process-outcome

research (Emans & Milburn, 1989). The history of the process-product paradigm can be

traced back at least 50 years ago but only become popular during 1970's. Analyses of

process-product relationships lend themselves to pattern matching logic and path

analysis. Cause-and-effect relationship studies have increased with the introduction of

sophisticated statistical packages such as LISREL and AMOS.

Results from previous empirical studies (Anderson & Dexter, 2000; Await & Jolly, 1999;

Brooks-Young, 2000; Cavanaugh, 2001; Flanagan & Jacobsen, 2003; Gurr, 1996,2000,

2001,2004; Hughes & Zachariah, 2001; MacNeil & Delafield, 1998; McLester, 2001,

2004; Powers, 2000; Schmeltzer, 2001; Schiller, 2000,2003a, 2003b; Slenning, 2000;

Wilmore, 2000) have shown positive relationship between principals' technology

leadership and teachers' ICT use. Results from other studies found positive relationship between principal's technology leadership and teachers' self-efficacy beliefs (Await &

Jolly, 1999; Bandura, 1997; Brooks-Young, 2000; Cavanaugh, 2001; Flanagan &

Jacobsen, 2003; Hughes & Zachariah, 2001; Kincaid & Felder, 2002; MacNeil &

Delafield, 1998; McLester, 2001). Studies conducted by Albion (1999), Bandura (1997),

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Govender and Govender (2008), Lumpe and Chambers (2001), and Stone (1998) to

examine the relationship between teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and teachers' ICT use

also found positive relationship between these two constructs. Therefore, this study

hypothesized that principals' technology leadership has an influence on teachers' use of

ICT in teaching and learning directly and/or indirectly through teachers' self-efficacy for

teaching with ICT.

However, most of the previous ICT studies only focused on simple bivariate

relationships. Meanwhile, this study argued that the relationship between principals'

technology leadership and ICT use in teaching was not direct but through a third variable

that was teachers' self-efficacy. As such it was postulated that principals' technology

leadership influenced teachers' self-efficacy and in turn teachers' ICT use in teaching. In

addition, it was also argued that the mediated effects were dependant on teachers' age

and ICT skill levels. This study further extended the bivariate models into a more

complex moderated mediation model by integrating all variables of interest into a single

model.

This study proposed the prediction of age and ICT skill as moderators; such as, teachers

who were young and having better ICT skill were more likely to be more positively

influence by principals' technology leadership via self-efficacy than those who did not

match these descriptors. These groups of teachers were chosen because they are

traditionally perceived as computer savvy. Thus, this study proposed that principals'

technology leadership influenced teachers' ICT use both directly and indirectly through

teachers' self-efficacy depending on teachers' age and ICT skill levels.

1.3 Research purposes

The main purpose of the current study was to advance and test a theoretical model which

integrates three assumptions in one model: (a) principals' technology leadership directly

influences teachers' ICT use (direct effect), (b) principals' technology leadership

influences teachers' ICT use indirectly through teachers' self-efficacy (indirect effect),

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and (c) the strength of mediated effect is conditional depending on teachers' age and ICT

skill levels (conditional indirect effect). As a preliminary analysis, both the direct and indirect effects of principals' technology leadership on teachers' ICT use via self-efficacy

(mediation) were examined. Then the moderated mediation model was tested. These

complex moderated mediation effects, also known as conditional indirect effects can be

simultaneously tested using a moderated mediation structural equation modelling (SEM)

approach (Little, Card, Bovaird, Preacher & Crandall, 2007).

1.5 Research objectives

The objectives of this study were to:

ROI: Determine the relationship between principals' technology leadership and

teachers' ICT use in teaching.

R02: Determine the relationship between principals' technology leadership and

teachers' self-efficacy.

R03: Determine the relationship between teachers' self-efficacy and ICT use in

teaching.

R04: Determine whether teachers' self-efficacy mediate the relationship between

principals' technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching.

R05: Determine whether teachers' age moderate the strength of mediated relationship

between principals' technology leadership and teacher' ICT use in teaching via

teachers' self-efficacy, such that the mediated relationship is stronger for younger

teachers.

R06: Determine whether teachers' ICT skill levels moderate the strength of the

mediated relationship between principals' technology leadership and teacher' ICT

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use in teaching via teachers' self-efficacy, such that the mediated relationship is

stronger for teachers with higher ICT skills levels.

1.6 Research questions and hypotheses i The following research questions were asked in this study:

Direct effects:

RQI: Was there a positive and direct relationship between principals' technology

leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching?

RQ2: Was there a positive and direct relationship between principals' technology

leadership and teachers' self-efficacy?

RQ3: Was there a positive and direct relationship between teachers' self-efficacy and

teachers' ICT use in teaching?

Mediation effects

RQ4: Did teachers' self-efficacy mediate the relationship between principals'

technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching?

Moderated mediation effects:

RQ5: Did teachers' age moderate the strength of the mediated relationship between

principals' technology leadership and teachers' ICT use in teaching via teachers'

self-efficacy, such that the mediated relationship was stronger for younger

teachers?

II