i

THE INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ON OUR NIGERIAN INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES: EXAMPLES OF BORROWING FROM

ENGLISH INTO YORUBA BY UNILORIN UNDERGRADUATES

KATIBI KAOSARA KIKELOMO 07/15CD105

AN ESSAY SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS

(HONS) IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN KWARA STATE

MAY, 2011.

ii

CERTIFICATION

This essay has been read and approved as meeting part of the requirements

for the Award of Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Degree in the Department of English

Language, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

______________________ __________________ MRS T.M. OLUJIDE DATE Supervisor

_________________________ __________________ DR. S.T. BABATUNDE DATE Head of Department

__________________________ __________________ EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE

iii

DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah for His mercy,

guidance and protection right from the beginning of my programme till the end.

And to my caring, loving parents Dr. Ahmad Sa’du-deen Ibrahim Katibi and

Alhaja Shuaibat Katibi who were in support morally, financially and spiritually

to make me attain this level of education. May Allah continue to be with them

(Amen).

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The journey to success in life is always rough and full of hardships, but

whosoever endures to the end will receive a crown of success. My appreciation

and profound gratitude first goes to Almighty Allah who has made it possible for

me to complete this work.

I will like to pay special respect to my hardworking and sympathetic

supervisor Mrs. T. M. Olujide whose encouragement and criticism I so much

admire throughout the duration of the project. May the glory of God continue to

shower on her and her family (Amen).

A lot of thanks, to my caring parents Dr. Ahmad Sa’ad-deen Ibrahim

Katibi and Alhaja Shuaibat Katibi for their love, caring, moral, financial and

spiritual support in my academic pursuit. May Allah continue to bless them and

shower His Mercy on them (Amin).

My deepest gratitude also goes to my darling brothers and sisters Alhaji

M. O. S. Katibi, Dr Ibrahim Katibi, Dr. Abdulrasak Katibi, Mr and Mrs

Aiyelabegan, Alhaji Saheed Katibi, Mum Seleem, Sis Muibat, Sis. Nafisat, Sis.

Sekinat, Bro. Kamil, Sis. Ramat, Ronke, Mudashir, Abubakar Mustapha, Bro.

Lukman and My step mum. (Mum abdulrafiu) who inspired me in this work.

v

I owe much gratitude to my ‘small girls and boys’- Abdulrauf, Taofiq,

Habeeb, Abdulhafeez, Seleem, Mahmud, Aishat, Ramat, Jamal-deen Najeebat

Abdulrafiu Abdullhafeez Aiyelabegan and Rukayat; I love you all.

I also wish to register my deep appreciation to all my friends Shakirat,

Aishat, Fatimah, Nike, Bukola, Zynab, Sikirat, Bola Yusuf, Rasheedat, Rasheedat,

Jimoh, Ummulkhair, Habidat, Habibat, Maryam, Yetunde, Bolakale,

Abdulhameed, Muhammed Kayode, Mayowa and Hafeez you all made my stay in

Unilorin a wonderful experience, may Allah bless you all.

Lastly, my infinite appreciation goes to my darling and worthy husband

Olanrewaju Abdulkadir Abolaji, who took the pain to ensure that I obtain this

educational status. May Allah in His infinity be pleased with him and his family.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of contents vi

Abstract viii

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 General Introduction 1

1.2 Scope and Delimitation of the study 3

1.3 Methodology 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction 5

2.1 The advent of English language in Nigeria 5

2.2 Functions of English language in Nigeria 8

2.3 Language contents 12

2.3.1 Effects of language contact 15

2.3.1.1 Bilingualism 15

2.3.1.2 Multilingualism 18

2.3.1.3 Code-switching 21

2.3.1.4 Code-mixing 23

2.3.1.5 Language shift 25

2.3.1.6 Language loss 27

2.3.1.7 Diglossia 28

2.3.1.8 Transfer 30

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2.3.1.9 Interference 31

2.3.1.9.1 Phonological interference 33

2.3.1.9.2 Lexical interference 34

2.3.1.9.3 Grammatical interference 35

2.3.1.10 Borrowing 35

2.3.1.10.1 Types of borrowing 39

2.3.1.10.1.1 Loantranslations or calques 39

2.3.1.10.1.2 Loanblends 41

2.4 The influence of English language on our Nigeria

indigenous languages 41

2.5 Conclusion 44

CHAPTER THREE: DATA ANALYSIS

3.0 Introduction 45

3.1 Presentation of data 45

3.1.1 Classification of borrowed words 45

3.1.1.1 Loantranslations or calques 45

3.1.1.1.2 Loanblends 47

3.2 English –Yoruba code-mixed sentence 48

3.3 Analysis 54

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

4.0 Introduction 58

4.1 Summary 58

4.2 Findings 59

4.3 Conclusion 60

Bibliography 62

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ABSTRACT

Generally speaking, it seems unlikely that English will cease to be used

elaborately in Nigeria in a foreseeable future. This research work therefore will

find out if students in the University of Ilorin borrow words from English in to

Yoruba in their day to day interaction and if they do to identify this borrowings.

The sample population used in this work is 80 (Eighty) students of the University

of Ilorin and these students were randomly chosen from four faculties in this

University and they are all Yoruba language speakers with the use of instruments

like tape reader and audio cassette. From the data analyzed, it is observed that the

Yoruba speaker use their language predominantly during communication not only

borrow in most times a single lexical item from English and in corporate it within

their utterances. Code-mixing, as a sociolinguistic phenomenon, is a familiar

practice through out the world, most especially among bilinguals who combine

certain linguistic items is from two different languages. In this regard, it was

discovered that language contact also result in borrowing from one language to

another.

1

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 General Introduction

It is a well established fact that English language has established itself

firmly in Nigeria thus, its importance cannot be over emphasized. Apart from

being an official language. English language is the rope that ties members of the

different speech communities together in continuing interrelationships. It is the

common instrument that they draw on for socio-cultural identification.

English language is said to be a human specific mode of expressing our

thought through the verbal (i.e spoken and written) and non-verbal means. With

this definition, we shall reiterate that English language necessarily serves humans

in a multitude of ways: English language is said to have a great impact on the

cognitive development of man: Man is able to express his thoughts and view.

The majority of world English speakers use English either as a second or

third language and exists in an environment where in the least, bilingualism is the

norm even though English may be the official language. In many countries,

including Nigeria, English is the main language of instruction in schools

(especially after primary education level) and it is used in business and other

official transactions and interactions.

English came into Nigeria through colonization centuries ago and three

main groups of people emerged from this contact of English with the indigenous

2

languages of Nigeria. These groups are the British, the new Nigerian elite trained

in Britain and the native indigenous population trained in Nigeria. A local variant

of English emerged from the mixing of those groups of people. This local variant

of English was coloured by influence from local languages. Borrowing of

indigenous words into English is a result of this contact and these borrowed words

are what we call ‘loan words’.

Today as English is used in almost every facet of life in Nigeria, it still

comes in contact with practically all indigenous Nigerian languages and when

Nigerians speak English words from their various indigenous languages occur in

their speech

This research work therefore, will find out if students in the University of

Ilorin borrow words from English into Yoruba in their day to day interaction and

if they do, to identify these borrowings.

We shall also find out the sources of these borrowings. We hope to trace

them to the various indigenous languages and which they use in a communication.

In other words, effort shall be made extensively on the scope of the study and

methodology involved in the collection of data.

3

1.2 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study intends to deal with the influence of English language on our

indigenous Nigerian languages. To this end , we will focus on Yoruba as our case

study. This is because Yoruba is the predominant indigenous language of the

geographical areas in which this research is being carried out. We then examine if

students borrow words from English into Yoruba and specifically if they indulge

in code mixing when they communicate in Yoruba by interspersing the Yoruba

speech with English words or phrases.

The scope of this study will also cover why and when these students code-

mix. This study does not concern itself with error analysis. Therefore attention

will not be focused at correcting sentences collected in the process of our analysis.

The examples of borrowing used in our data are English borrowings into

Yoruba. This is due to the fact that our data are based on Yoruba which is one of

the Nigerian indigenous languages which borrow English language into their

languages. The researcher in this research has decided to limit herself to Yoruba

language because of the geographical area she finds herself.

This research work will pay attention to whether English language has a

positive or negative influence on Yoruba one of the Nigerian indigenous

languages so has to find out whether English language aids the growth of Yoruba

language or impedes it?

4

1.3 Methodology

The sample population that will be used in this study is 80 (eighty)

students of the University of Ilorin. These students shall be randomly chosen from

four faculties in the University of Ilorin, which are:-

i. Faculty of Arts

ii. Faculty of Agriculture

iii. Faculty of Engineering and

iv. Faculty of Law

The students that will be used as subjects from the selected faculties are all

Yoruba language speakers.

The instruments to be used in the collection of our data are tape recorder and

audio cassette in the recording of some natural conversations of undergraduate

students of the University of Ilorin. Eighty conversations shall be recorded and

the techniques of sampling shall be used by numbering the conversations from

one to eighty. The conversations with even numbers would be selected and

analyzed.

Specifically, 400 level students of four faculties shall be studied and analyzed

because it is felt that this category of students know enough English to be affected

by the phenomenon being investigated.

5

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

In this chapter, we shall review available materials on the advent and

functions of English language in Nigeria and language contact and its effects

This research work will also take a sociolinguistic stance in looking at the

relationship that exists between English language and the indigenous language.

2.1 The Advent of English Language in Nigeria

The advent of English language in Nigeria dates back to the 16th century

when ports and trading posts were established on the African coasts. English

Merchants had arrived at the coastal areas like Calabar, Warri and Brass to

compete with the Portuguese who had dominated the commercial scene of Africa

before the arrival of the British. From that time on, English had started to grow

from strength to strength in the Nigeria socio-cultural milieu. But a discussion of

the advent of English language in Nigeria will be incomplete if the factors that

contributes to the survival and the advent of English language in Nigeria are not

mentioned.

The first factor to be discussed is the Portuguese, being the nearest

Europeans to African, were the first to sail down the Nigerian coast in the 15th

century in search of commerce. The need for communication resulted in the birth

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of combination of languages and also Portuguese. Pidgin which developed from

attempts by Portuguese traders to speak ‘Sabir’-an already pidginised form of

English language. (Odumuh 1997:9). After they had stabilized in Nigeria to be

precise in Benni, they gradually imposed their language on indigenous language

because that was the only means of communication with them.

Another factors is early commercial contact. The first English people to

come to Nigeria were traders who came after the Portuguese in quest of anything

to boost their economy and this eventually led to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade

which was in a triangular format. Africans mostly Nigerian’ were extracted from

their roots to work on the plantation field in the New world (American) from

where the goods were shipped to European. As a result of this contact English

language became a phenomenon on the African soil and to facilitate trade, it had

to be learnt. In other words, the contact between the Europeans and the Nigerians

warranted communication.

The Missionaries impact is another factor. With the abolition of slave

trade, those Nigerian’ (West African) who had been slaves were repatriated to

Sierra Leone. During their stay in America plantation fields, they had learned

English and had got in contact with Christianity. The returnees served as

assistants to the missionaries in their evangelist activities. A prominent Nigerian

ex-salve was Bishop Ajayi Crowder. Having become a Christian himself, helped

7

the missionaries in evangelizing the Africans with the concomitant entrenchment

of English. He also served as a teacher and an interpreter of the English language

as a way of advancing the work of God. To be a Christian then, one needs a little

knowledge of English which was important since it was the language of the Bible.

English language spread with the spread of Christianity. The free slaves from

Sierra Leon served mainly as interpreters and teacher in this respect of

Christianization.

The impact of Colonialism is another factor. In the era of colonialism, the

British wanted the Nigerians to be able to speak their own (English) language.

They became unsatisfied with the method of the missionaries use of indigenous

language which they later found out to be more effective in evangelizing people.

Therefore the 1840 policy of educating the natives in their indigenous languages

was reversed in 1882.

In 1842, there was the founding of a set of schools by the colonial masters.

This was due to their not being satisfied with the missionary’s method of

communication and the missionaries aim which was to spread the gospel. But

with the 1882 educational ordinance, the then government made grants to school

under one condition that the grants would be given to schools whose students

speaks fine English. This also aided the growth of English language in Nigeria till

date (Ogu, 1992:69).

8

Between 1920s, till date, series of development had taken place in Nigeria

which had informed the indigenization of the language, the climax of which is

summarized in Bamgbose (1971) as cited in Adedimeji (2002:11).

“Of all the heritage left behind in Nigeria by the British at the end of

colonial administration, probably, none is more important than the English

language. It is now the language of government, business and commerce,

education, the mass media, literature and much internal as well as external

communication”.

2.2 Functions of English Language in Nigeria

After the advent of English language in Nigeria, English perform so many

functions in Nigeria.

The English language performs two general functions in Nigeria: Intra

national and international function. At the intra-national level, it is the language of

education, media science and technology. It is also an official language as well as

a lingua franca to Nigerians. It is the language of education as well as a school

subject, from the primary to the University level of education. The functions of

English language are summarized by Olujide (1998:99).

“The English language performs many significant functions in

Nigerian. These functions are diverse in nature and vary very

widely from group to group, individual to individual and social

context to social context”.

9

Also Bangbose (1991:20) cited by Adedimeji (2002:12) says:

“English today serves as the official language of Nigeria, the

language used for running the affairs of the government fostering

nationalism which is concerned with political integration and

efficiency”.

With the above submissions, we can therefore conclude that English

language in Nigeria perform some significant functions. For instance in the field

of education, Bangbose (1971:35) also says that, the introduction of English as a

subject in the last three years of the primary through higher education as a

medium of instruction means that the Nigerian child’s access to the culture and

scientific knowledge of the world is largely through English. Bamgbose went

further says that since the products of the schools will be absorbed in to different

types of employment where English is the official language of communication

and where consequently, proficiency in English is a necessary qualification, the

pre-eminent provision of English in the educational system is likely to remain for

a long time.

English as a lingua franca is considered as a rallying point for all

Nigerians. In a country that has about 400 languages (Bamgbose 1991:2) English

language performs a unifying role among Nigerians with different linguistic

backgrounds and this accounts for the reason why national activities and official

10

matters are conducted in English. Alabi (1994:87) says: “Now in Nigeria, English

is used for the official matters of the country”.

English is the language of integration or unity. Amidst compounding

complexities of Nigeria especially in relation to the language question, the only

language that indexes the spirit of togetherness is English. (Brown and Yule,

1983) more often than not, activities conducted in indigenous languages are

reprobated as being ethnic or tribal except in cultural celebrations of

entertainment displays. This explains why even during the first republic and even

the colonial era, when English had not attained its present level of ascendancy in

national and international affairs, political parties were formed in English. The

fact that they were named in English entailed their collective import. The

Northern people congress (NPC), the Action group (AG), the NCNC (National

Council of Nigerian Citizens) etc were formed to integrate all Nigerians and give

them a sense of belonging.

English also serve as the language of nationalism, concerned with political

integration and efficiency (Bamgbose, 1991:20). It is the length age that brings all

the supposed nations of Nigeria to function as one. Nation is often made of each

ethnic group being a nation on its own with the Hausa nation, the Igbo nation, the

Yoruba nation, the Edo nation etc as examples. But, the cohesion of all under the

subsuming Nigeria, nation is possible through English. In other words, without

11

English, the ubiquitous violent ethnic groups like Oodua People Congress (OPC),

the Arewa People Congress (APC) and other militant groups would have found

more justification for desiring to secede from the Nigerian federation.

English is also the language of international relations and diplomacy, is

the language that mirrors Nigeria to the world. Writing in English by Nigerian

literary artists that also create a distinctive Nigeria literature marked by its own

characteristics imbued with features of inter-cultural communication and

cooperation. All these have the effects of reducing what Adegbija (1994:150)

refers to as “deep rooted mutual suspicions that result in prejudice, stereo types

and subtle linguistic hostility among various linguistic groups.” And in fact there

are obvious national symbols such as the National flag, the national anthem, the

national day, independence day, the national associations as well as several

national monuments, all of which designed in English and of which ‘assert’ that

English is the foundation of the magnificent structure called Nigeria. If English is

removed, it is agreeable, the whole nation automatically crumbles.

At the international level, English serves as our window to the outside

world. It is the language of diplomacy and international relation. As a member of

the global continental and regional bodies, united Nation of Africa union and

Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS), the vehicle of

international cooperation is English.

12

It is also function as a language of creativity as well as language of

external international relation. As said by Ofuya (1996:139) says:

“About 90% of the text books that are available to

Nigerians in the world are written in English language”.

So far we have discussed the functions of English language in Nigeria and

it has been revealed that English language more than many languages of the world

performs more functions because of its esteemed status. But the most interesting

part of its function is its adaptability to different exigence of the continuing

existence of English in most non-native English countries where several efforts

are being made to evolve indigenous languages (Babatunde, 2001:55).

2.3 Language Contact

According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000)

“Language contact is the state of touching when two substances are now in

contact”. We can therefore define language contact as a situation where by two or

more languages come together. According to Hadumod Busman (1996:120) says:

13

“Language contact is a situation in which two or more languages

co-exist within one state and where the speakers use these different

languages alternatively in a specific situation”.

Examples are found in Belgium, Switzer land, China, India, Peru, Nigeria

and other countries. Such linguistic contact can have a political, historical,

geographical or cultural basis. The mutual influences can be shown at all levels of

description. Linguists in the past have been primarily concerned with the proposal

on language planning on the development and institution of pan-regional trade

languages since such questions on language policy are dependent to such a high

degree on political, economic, cultural factors etc. their can be formed only

through interdisciplinary efforts.

Only very rarely, if ever, does a language find itself spoken in a

completely isolated environment, with no contact at all between its speakers and

the speakers of another languages. Most speakers of any given language have day

to day dealings with the speakers of at least one or two other languages and

possibly with a large member than this. Indeed, for the larger part of human

existence, the normal situation was probably for everybody routinely to learn and

use two, three even four different languages. It is though that between 70 percent

and 80 percent of the earth’s population are bilingual or multilingual.

14

Language contact is such a common phenomenon that it would be

tempting merely to illustrate its diversity in relation to lexis, phonology and

syntax. It is more informative, however, to look at the phenomenon from a range

of view points. It is important for instance, to note the social relationship between

the language in contact. Generally. In the opinion of Millar (1996:388,) we

distinguish between superstratum, substratum and adstratum contact situations.

In superstratal contexts, the language of a socially powerful element in a

society influences the language of less powerful groupings. These are common

place post colonial experience, with words from the colonizers language finding

their ways into the language of the colonized (millar 1996:388).

Adstratal influence is where two (or more) languages come into contact,

but there is no dominant community. Good examples of these would include the

contact between Scandinavian dialect and English in northern England during the

Viking period, or the contact between Frankish and Romance speakers in northern

post-Roman Gaul.

Substratal influences involves influence upon a dominant language by a

less dominant one (often on which is losing native speakers). Influences the

influence of Irish upon the English of Ireland and the influence of Yiddish (and

other IE language) upon Israeli Hebrew. (Millar 1996:389).

15

Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact.

The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. When speakers of

different language interact closely, it is typical for their language to influence

each other. Language normally develop by gradually accumulating dialectal

differences until two dialects cease to be mutually intelligible. Language contact

can occur at language borders between adstratum languages or as the result of

migrations with an intrusive language acting as either as superstratum or a

substratum.

Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena including language

convergence, borrowing and relaxification. The most common products are

pidgins, creoles code, switching and mixed languages. Other hybrid languages,

such as English do not strictly fit in to any of those categories.

2.3.1 Effects of Language Contact

Language contact is seen as a situation where two or more languages co-

exist in the same environment. This result in to some effects such as bilingualism.

Multilingualism, code-mixing, code switching, diglossia, interference, transfer,

language shift, language loss and borrowing.

2.3.1.1 Bilingualism

In the history of the study of bilingualism, various definitions have been

proposed. There are two extreme positions to this. According to Bloomfield

16

(1933), a bilingual should possess native-like control of two or more languages.

At the other extreme is the proposition that a person has some second language

ability in one of the four language skills (speaking, listening, writing, reading), in

addition to his first language skills. From the perspective of Gregory and Kerstin

(1996), a bilingual society is a linguistic community where more than one

language is spoken. From the foregoing, bilingualism is the native-like control of

two languages and a bilingual is a person that makes use of more than one

language.

Scholars like Hymes and Fishman have proven that bilingual speakers do

not attain equal proficiency in the language they speak at a point in time. The

language interfere with each other. If at a point in time a language is not

frequently used, it ‘recedes’ towards its loss and eventually death (Crystal, 1994).

On the other hand, there is a situation where both languages are used

interchangeably as the context, or situation requires. The speakers of English in

Nigeria have their different mother tongue which equip them with communicative

ability within their regions. Learning English in a foreign context actually

promotes bilingualism. However, the individual competence and performance in

English depends largely on this educational background. The social structure that

indicate the type of bilingualism a speaker uses includes age, level of education,

sex etc.

17

The effect of two languages in Nigerian society results into bilingualism.

This is so because most individuals who make up the larger society are able to

communicate in at least, English and any of the three major languages in Nigeria

Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa, inspite of the fact that these Nigerian languages and

English language belong to different sociolinguistic contexts.

A simple statement about bilingualism and intelligence is as impossible as

prescribing one simple food for human survival. To state simply that bilingualism

has a beneficial or detrimental effect on intelligence is to be simplistic. To

understand the relationship between the two, the problem involved in the

definition and measurement of intelligence and bilingualism must be first

understood.

The problem of the definition of bilingualism is to suggest to parents and

teachers that being a bilingual person is beneficial in terms of intelligence would

among other concerns, require “being bilingual” to be in ambiguous.

Unfortunately, deciding exactly who is or is not bilingual is problematic (Mackey,

1902, Skutnabbkangas, 1981, Baker, 1985).

The initial issue is that of dimensions. To be called bilingual, is it

necessary to show literacy as well as oracy in two languages? Mackey (1962)

suggest four basic language skills: Listening, reading, speaking and writing. For

example, in speaking two languages, people may differ interms of extent of

18

vocabulary correctness of grammar and pronunciation. As defined by Mackey

(1962), there are at least 20 dimensions of language skill in each language. People

have varying skills in listening, speaking reading and writing a language.

The notion of bilingualism is firmly established in the mind of the lay

person. It may be tinged with bias, and it frequently carries either positive or

negative connotations. Yet, some of the definitions of bilingualism that have been

put forward are surprisingly vague, and even contradictory.

Uriel Weinreich, one of the founding fathers of bilingual studies and a

bilingual himself, offers one of the shortest definitions in his well known book

“language in contact”: “The practice of alternately using two languages will be

called bilingualism and the person involved, bilingual”. (Weinreich,1968:1).

2.3.1.2. Multilingualism

There is no reason to believe that monolingualism is the normal state of

affairs in human society. In fact, bilingualism is more wide spread, since more

than half of the world’s population can claim to be bilingual. At the societal level,

multilingualism is quite common, particularly in the continents of African and

Asia. Bilingualism in the individual results from a person’s contact with two (or

more) languages. Multilingualism comes about when speakers of different

languages are brought together with in the same political entity.

19

The term multilingualism can refer to either the language use or the

competence of an individual or to the language situation in an entire nation or

society. However, at the individual level, it is generally subsumed under

bilingualism. This may be because, while there are probably more bilinguals in

the world than monolinguals, there are not perceived to be so many people who

use more than two languages habitually. There are of course, many rich

multilingualism situations in the world, for example, Khubch and ani, 1988 on

India and sondergaard, 1991, on the Dano-German border to cite only two

researched areas. For individuals, normative definitions (Van Overbeke, 1972)

requiring those termed bi-or multilinguals to have equal competence in the

languages, to have acquired them simultaneously, or to use them in the same

contexts have proved unrealistic (Haugen, 1973). Thus definitions now tend to be

general. A common definition of multilingualism would then be the use of more

than one language or competence in more than one language. This allows for

further retirement in the actual description to cover different levels of command

or use of the various languages. At the societal or national level, we have to

distinguish between ‘official and defactor’ multilingualism. For instance

Switzerland is an officially multilingual society

Multilingualism is a common phenomenon if increasing importance in

present day society which can be studied from different perspectives including the

20

use of languages in the sociolinguistic context. The diversity of languages have

important implications for individuals and societies. Multilingualism can be

defined in different ways but basically it refers to the ability to use more than two

languages. A basic distinction when discussing bilingualism and multilingualism

is between the individual and societal level. At the individual level, bilingualism

and multilingualism refers to the speakers competence to use two or more

languages. At the societal level the term bilingualism and multilingualism refers

to the use of two or more languages in a speech community and it does not

necessary imply that all the speakers in that community are competent in more

than one language.

Examples of multilingualism patterns in contemporary Europe is

Switzerland (or the Swiss confederation of twenty three cantons and three demi-

catons) is a small country of some six million people which has four national

languages: Gernman, French, Italian and Rhaeto-Romansch. Only the first three,

however are mentioned in the Swiss constitution, which means that Romansch

does not enjoy the same right in the federal parliament and in administration as

the other three. Since Switzerland follows the principle of territorial

monolinguals, the individual cantons are linguistically autonomous. Most cantons

are monolinguals a few are bilingual (e.g Jura and Freiburg/Fribourg) and the

Gravbunden canton in trilingual. In the sixteen German speaking cantons range of

21

regional and local dialects (collectively referred to as Swiss German. German or a

German-based dialect can be said to be the first language of more than two thirds

of Swiss people).

French is dominant in six cantons, three of which are bilingual. French is

spoken by at least 20 percent of the Swiss population. Italian dialects are spoken

by 10 percent principally in the Tiano canton. Stand and Halian is used mainly for

written purpose.

Romansch is the mother tongue of only about 1 percent of the country’s

population, perhaps even less. There are five main dialects spoken, but no

standard language.

2.3.1.3 Code Switching

Code-switching involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistic

varieties within the same utterance. According to Olaoye (1998), code-switching

refers to the successive, alternate use of two different codes or even varieties of

the same code. Mclaughlin (1987) identifies code-switching as language changes

occurring across phrase or sentence boundaries. Many contextual, situational and

personal factors influences the speaker.

Oloruntoba-Oju (1999) defines code-switching as: “a complete switch from

one code to the other. The switch may be language switch or a variety switch. In

the former, the switch is to a different language entirely while in later the switch

22

is to a different mode, style or variety of the same language”. Gumperz (1982)

defines code switching as the “Juxtaposition with a speech exchange of passages

of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems”. Hymes

(1974) also claims that code switching is the use of two or more language

varieties or even speech styles”. Hermers and Blanc (1999) describe code

switching as a change from one language to another in the same utterances or

conversation.

Code switching refers to a change over from one semiotic mode to another

in order to accommodate other kinds of varieties dialects and registers. Code

switching is governed by different norms in different bilingual community

although the norm may differ, and the communities, although the norm may

differ, and the reasons for switch are diverse. Code switching is therefore more

problematic when typologically different languages are involved than when the

languages are typologically similar. Code switching is the inevitable consequence

of bilingualism (or more generally, multilingualism).

It might be argued that code switching is potentially the most creative

aspect of bilingual speech. It has, however, also been considered as sign of

linguistic decay, i.e evidence that bilinguals are not capable of acquiring two

languages properly or keeping them apart. Sociolinguists have looked in to speech

communities, both monolingual and bilingual, trying to establish reasons for and

23

patterns of changes of style and language switching. The bilinguals who have

received their attention often include immigrant groups like Hispanic speakers in

the USA (e.g Gumperz and Hermandex. Chivez 1972 and 1975, Valdes. Fallis

1976; Silva-Corvalan 1983).

In view of Romane (1986),he describes the term ‘code switching’ in the

sense in which Gumperz (1982:59) has defined it as ‘the juxtaposition with in the

same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different

grammatical system or subsystems: He also used the term ‘code’ in a general

sense to refer not only to different languages but also to varieties of the same

language as well as styles within a language.

2.3.1.4 Code Mixing

Code mixing is the random alternation of two languages within a sentence.

Code mixing is defined by wardhaugh (1986) as “a process where speakers

alternate between one language and the other with in the same conversation and

even with in the same utterance”. Praff (1983) says that this language behavior is

governed by linguistic and socio-linguistic factors. Banjo (1983) calls it language

mixing and that it occurs in a sentence mode of elements of language ‘A’ and

languages ‘B’. Code mixing occurs when lexical or phrasal element of two or

more languages are blended with in a given sentence.

24

Harmers and Blanc (1989:35) say code mixing is “the case of elements of

one language in another language” (for example, the use of English lexemes in a

Yoruba conversation). Hudson (1996:53) says the purpose of code-mixing is “to

symbolize ambiguous situation to get the right effect, the speaker takes words

from one language and mix it with few words from the other

language”.Oloruntoba- Oju (1999) asserts that code mixing occurs when elements

of two or more linguistic systems are randomly mixed. It is often an unconscious

illocutionary act in naturally occurring conversation. Though no norm guides the

level of code-mixing, different communities and people maintain, consciously or

unconsciously, their levels of code mixing which is constrained by competence.

In the context study of schlyter, she proposes: code-mixing is defined here

quite simply as the Child’s using words or sentences in the ‘wrong’ language; in a

clearly monolingual situation; language separation is defined as the opposite of

‘mixing’ (Schlyter 1988:2). Redlinger and Park (1980:339) write: that language

mixing refers to the combining of elements from two languages in a single word

utterances from two languages during the same stretch of conversation between a

child and care giver.

The kind of mixes reported on may involve the insertion of a single

element or of a partial or entire phrase, from one language into an utterance in

25

another and they can be of a phonological (in the shape of loan blends),

morphological, syntactic, lexico-semantic, phrasal or pragmatic kind.

Code mixing also occurs when the affected item is a technical usage. It is

often an unconsciously illocutionary act. It is primarily used as a solidarity

marker. It requires the conversationalist to have a good knowledge of the

grammar of the two languages and to be well aware of the societal norms.

2.3.1.5 Language Shift

In the opinion of Oloruntoba-Oju (1999) language shift occurs when

certain elements of a language become substituted with element from a competing

language or variety.

Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language

replacement or assimilation is the progressive process where by a speech

community of a language shifts to speaking another language. The rate of

assimilation is the percentage of individuals with a given mother tongue who

speak another language more often in home. The data is used to measure the use

of a given language in the life time of a person, or most often across generations

with in a linguistic community.

Language shift is used to describe a change from the habitual use of a

language to another. This situation arises when a given language is misused, not

given priority or in the sociolinguistic sense, not maintained over a period of time

26

owing to a switch to another for status demographic, institutional, political or

religious reasons.

When a community does not maintain its language, but gradually adopts

another one, we talk about language shift. The shift can be complete, involving a

change from one kind of monolingualism to another, with only the transitional

period marked by group bilingualism. The change from Cornish to English in

Cornwall can serve as an illustration. The shift can also be incomplete, for

instance in those cases where a section of a speech community retains the old

language in addition to acquiring the new one, this is the case in Wales where

everybody speaks English but about one- fifth of the population can also speak

Welsh. Another form of incomplete shift can be that all (or a large majority of)

the members of the community maintain some degree of proficiency in the

language, because they continue to use it for certain functions.

The study of language shift in a community always entails examining

language use in two (or more) language. The subject offers two broad areas of

interest, the linguistic and the sociolinguistic. The codes involve in language shift

often experience changes, such as loss of inflections, borrowing, and appearance

of new pronunciation features, which can be the object of the attention of the

linguist.

27

Language shift is sometimes also called language decline and language

death. Both terms seems to imply a considerable degree of personalization.

Language shift has always been a common occurrence all over the world. In

Africa, America and Asia, the process was speeded up by colonization and more

recently, state-building both created four able conditions for the spread of the

‘big’ colonial languages (e.g English or Spanish).

2.3.1.6 Language Loss

Language loss results from the influence of contact. It could be an

individual phenomenon or a communal phenomenon; for instance when an

individual stays away from his language, there is tendency for him to lose his

language and this is the case is Nigeria today. Most of our vocabularies are dead

and this is because we have stayed away gradually and if care is not taken, dead

vocabularies will lead to language loss or death. Language loss is consequent

upon language shift. Appel and Muysken (1987:42) write that:

As a language loses territory in a given community,

speakers will become less proficient in it. In linguistic

minority children will often speak the language of the

group less well their parents…..the loss of lexical skills in

the minority language hand in hand…. Words in the

dominant language are replacing words in the minority

language.

28

The foregoing implies that a shift from use of language ‘A’ for instance to

another instigates loss on the part of language ‘A’ owing to a recessive impact

arising from its disuse.

In Nigeria case, language loss is noticeable especially with respect to

indigenous languages which have suffered serious black flash effect from the

ever-increasing premium placed on English at the expense of local languages.

2.3.1.7 Diaglossia

The word diaglossia was first introduced into English from French by

Ferguson 1959, Cited in Hudson 1946:49-50 defines diaglossia as stable language

situation in which in addition to the primary dialect, there is a highly codified

super imposed variety, learned by formal instruction for formal transaction.

Consequently diaglossia refers to specialized functions of language or variety. For

example, in Egypt, the colloquial Arabic is used in formal settings, while the

standard Arabic is used in informal contexts for official transactions. Ferguson

identifies the H (high) and L (Low) varieties which differ in dialect, prestige,

acquisition and stability. The L is acquired as the first language used through out

the lifespan of the speaker and usually enjoys little or no prestige. The H is

learned by formal education, it is the standard variety and used with in a defined

period. Initially, Ferguson used diaglossia to refer to varieties of a language with

29

distinct roles but some scholars like Fishman (1971:74) extend the term to include

varieties of a language and languages.

In a multilingual or multi community where there is a desire for the

adoption of a standard national language, for instance Nigeria, Ferguson describes

the conflict that can ensure.

“The proponents of it argue that it must be adopted because it links

the society with its glorious past……and it is unifying factor…… the

adhreherents of L argue that L must be adopted because it is closer

to the native……..it is more effective for communication (Ferguson

1959:247-248)”.

A similitude of diaglossia situation is what obtains in Nigeria where

English exists side by side with indigenous languages (and pidgin English in some

quarters) with each being functionally significant in certain domains.

There are however, speech communities where all speakers need to know

at least two varieties because each language form is associated with a specific set

of social functions. This language situation has become known as diaglossia. Poul

(1965) calls it vertical bilingualism, since the two varieties exist with in the same

speaker.

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2.3.1.8 Transfer

Transfer refers to the importing of elements from one language in to

another. This happens in all languages and at all levels of language and discourse,

phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactic, semantic and even rhetorical.

Transfer may be due to the absence of a word in a language to describe a

new concept. An example of scientific and technological concept like “computer”

is a technological concept that has no meaning or alternative word in Yoruba but

can only be best described in English language as “computer”. In such instances,

the appropriate word is “borrowed” from the relevant language as shown above.

Sometimes, a word is present but is more cumbersome than a word expressing a

similar concept in another language. The former may be substituted with the

latter.

Transfer could be positive or negative. Positive transfer occurs when

certain structures and concepts in the learner’s mother tongue (MT) are similar to

those of the target language. The learners transfer those structures and concepts to

the corresponding elements in the target language and this facilitates learning.

This is exemplified below.

Mo Nlo Oja

Me Going Market

= I am going to the market

31

Negative transfer occurs when the transfer structure and concepts of his

mother tongue inappropriately in to the target language, leading to the production

of incorrect forms in the target language. Such transfer is also referred to as

interference Oloruntoba-Oju, (1999) this is also exemplified below.

It is negative transfer that leads to variety of English or Nigerian English.

This is because, it is not our languages and we are not perfect therefore, we are

bound to make mistakes.

2.3.1.9 Interference

This is also been interference due to supplanting of the second language

structure by the mother tongue which becomes habitualised and established. Most

often, this depends on the individual and the context of usage. Therefore

interference is a linguistic alternation occurring with one unit of speech directed

to one listener: deviation from the norms of either language may be referred to

interference. It seems evident however, that not every switch from one language

to another results from the unwelcomed intrusion which the term interference

suggests. The Nigerian English speaker tends to transfer the word-order in their

mother tongue in to English (Weinerich).

Aso Funfun

Cloth white

White cloth

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In 1953, when Weinreich first published his book “Language in Contact”.

Wernreich decided to call interference those instances of bilinguals as a result of

their familiarity with more than one language caused by language contact: . In the

definition given by Mackay there is however, no reference to ‘norm’ or

‘deviation’: Interference is the use of features belonging to one language while

speaking or writing another’ (Mackey 1970:569).

Grosjean (1982 and 1985 a) like Mackey, prefers a neutral definition of

interference: The involuntary influence of one language on the other’ (1982:299)

which distinguishes it from borrowing and code-switching, understood to be less

involuntary. The latter are quite noticeable features of the speech of bilinguals

when addressing each other, where as interference is also prominent in the speech

of bilinguals when addressing monolinguals.

To some linguists, interference is seen as errors in the learner’s use of a

foreign language that can be traced back to the mother tongue. Interference is an

automatic transfer, due to habit, of the surface structure of the first language in to

the surface structure of the first language in to the surface structure of the target

language. However, interference may not be perceived wholly as errors in

themselves.

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Interferences occurs virtually at all the primary levels of language

description most especially phonology, lexis and grammar. These are taken up

below.

2.3.1.9.1 Phonological Interference

This occurs in six major ways following Weinreich’s (1968) classification.

These are under differentiation, over differentiation, Re-interpretation of sounds,

phonemic substitutions, hyper correction, epenthesis and simplification.

Under differentiation occurs when two or more phonemic segments which

are acoustically contrastive but appear similar are confused. A case point is the

English vowel system which is more elastic than those of the Nigerian languages,

for example //, /e/, /З:/ and /:/ as in the word father, cat, birth and star

respectively may all be replaced with the cardinal // by the Nigerian speakers of

English.

Over-differentiation ensures where a language speaker prenames a single

phoneme in many different ways which are not in a way allophonic. An example

is when a typical Hausa man pronounces “current” /kΛrnt/ as /kwrent/.

Reinterpretation coincides with a case where a speaker gives a totally

different sequence of phonemic use in the target language-An example is a case

where /æks/ is used in place of /æsk/ (for the word “ask”).

34

Substitution is a major types of phonological interference triggered by

language contact phenomenon. This case abounds in Nigerian. For example the

absence of the inter-dental fricatives /Ø/ and // in major Nigerian languages calls

for their replacement with /t/ and /d/ (with /z/ for // in some cases) as in the

words: “theme being realized as /ti:m/ instead of /Øi:m/.

Hyper correction arises as a result of over sensitivity to contrasting

features in the target language. A typical illustration of this is characteristics of a

Nigerian who is prepared at all cost to learn an alien sound in the target language.

Such an individual may over generalized.

Epenthesis is a superfluous insertion of vowel segments as a way of

alleviating the complexity of consonant clusters which characterize English. For

instance /rIðm/ for /rIðm/ (rhythm) in hurried speech. Simplification occurs when

clusters with up to three or four consecutive consonants are reduced to two or

three for ‘accommodation’ reasons, e.g sixth/sIkøs/ is reduced to /SIKS/.

2.3.1.9.2 Lexical Interference

Weinreich (1968) describes this as a transfer of meanings in language

most especially through borrowing, however, owing to the fact that language

varies in alignment with contact with new ideas and development, with meaning

being shifted or extended in new context, “Lexical” may not be adequate enough

to describe this phenomenon. Adegbija (1989) and Bamiro’s (1991) lexico-

35

semantic variation in Nigeria. English are formidable essays on lexico-semantic

variation (interference) of English as a second language in Nigerian.

2.3.1.9.3 Grammatical Interference

This implies a transfer of the grammatical system of one language into

another. This is noticeable in the areas of pronouns; for instance, in relation to

politeness phenomena. In Yoruba where “they” is used to refer to singular “won”

as we have in B response below.

A: Where is your uncle?

B: They have gone to the market.

2.3.1.10 Borrowing

All languages borrow lexical items from other codes, and have always

done so. In the European context, it can be said that certain languages seem to

have been particularly prone to borrowing from others, as for instance German,

which has over the centuries incorporated large numbers of words from Latin,

Italian, French and, more recently, English. English too, has over the centuries

borrowed extensively from other European languages: Today it is the most

prolific ‘donor’ giving words to most languages in Europe and beyond often

replacing indigenous items which, from a linguistic point of view, were perfectly

acceptable.

36

Crystal (1980:47) refers to borrowing as “linguistic forms being taken

over by one language or dialect from another language”. Borrowings are also

called ‘loan words’. Busman (1996:55) defines borrowing as the adoption of

language usually when no term for the new concept exists in the dominant

language”. Borrowing involves the direct transfer of linguistic elements from the

secondary language into primary (major) language. For example French words,

Latin Lexemes and so on are found in English. Loan words become part of the

dominant language with time but they do not lose their background and import so

easily.

Borrowing is fundamental to the development of languages. For example,

Latin language was initially the world language but because it would not

accommodate words from other languages, it became almost extinct and is now

restricted to liturgical use.

Borrowing in sociolinguistic occurs when word or phrase is borrowed

from one language in to another language. In view of Adeyanju (1986) cited by

Olaoye (2002:205) “borrowing is a sociolinguistic situation in which a word or

phrase which has been taken from one language is used in another language”.

When borrowing is a single word, it is called a loan word. Borrowing is as a result

of contact situation. Whenever two or more languages come in contact, a number

of phenomena take place, such as borrowing, multilingualism, bilingualism, code

37

switching, code mixing, language domination and sometimes language shift and

death.

Borrowing occurs in adults as well as children. The borrowed item serves

a momentary need that may be caused by laziness, fatigue or some form of

emotional stress which makes the bilingual forget to correct term. The reasons for

borrowing are not always of a negative kind. A speaker may consciously choose

one item from the other language because he considers it more appropriate or

more relevant to the points. Incidents of borrowing in the speech of bilinguals

directed to other bilinguals do not normally lead to misunderstanding of the

contrary. The incident can add interest, humour or intimacy to the conversation

and cause delight to both interlocutors of their shared linguistics knowledge.

Borrowing according to Routledge Dictionary Language and Linguistics

(1995:55) is :“Adoption of a linguistic expression from one language in to

another language usually when no term exists for the new object concept or state

of affairs”. Among the causes of such cross-linguistic influence (language

contact) may be various political cultural, social or economic developments.

Throughout its history, English too has been subjected to foreign culture and

language for example, through the expansion of the Roman empire, the

development and growth of science and humanities. French borrowing have been

on and off since Norman conquest and there has been more recent borrowings

38

from dozens of languages in modern times, especially through the growth of

telecommunications and universal travel.

It is true that borrowing enriches and sustains a language. Care should be

taken not to allow borrowed words dominates the major language because by so

doing, the primary language will lose its prominence to the borrowed language

(language shift); and where the trend continues unchecked, the probability of the

‘major’ language being threatened by loss, decay or extinction (language death) is

higher.

Borrowing takes place at all levels of language which are syntax,

morphology, semantics, phonetics, phonology and lexicon. It refers not only to

words from other language but also to words which have been created to name

new inventions and deliberate combination of words. Lexis is an aspect of

language which is very central to borrowing. Words are more easily from one

language to another in a very large numbers. Phonology and phonetics are

concerned with features like vowel assimilation, vowel reduction and insertion

which affects the speech structure of the language. Vowel insertions will be

exemplified. Vowel insertion involves the insertion of a vowel in to a syllable

combination. Example from the Yoruba language are:-

Yoruba English

Ibusun Bed

Ago Clock

39

The Yoruba language borrowed the words “Bed” and “clock” from

English. However the syllable structure of Yoruba language does not permit

consonant cluster. Vowels are therefore inserted into the consonant cluster. This is

borrowing at phonological and lexical levels.

Borrowing is a linguistic innovation that takes place in language. The

perpetuation of human language depends upon our human prosperity even

eagerness to imitate. That makes it possible for patterns of one language to be

borrowed into another.

2.3.1.10.1 Types of Borrowing

According to McGregor (2009:89), there are two types of borrowing:

Loantranslations or calques and loan blends.

2.3.1.10.1.1 Loantranslations of Calques

Loantranslations or calques are a special type of borrowing in which the

morphemes composing the source words are translated item by item. Examples

are English “power polities” from German Machtpolitik and Chinese nanpencgyu

(Make friend) from English “boy friend”.

In linguistic, a claque or loantranslation is a word or phrase borrowed

from another language by literal. Word-for-word (Latin: “verbum pro verbo”) or

root-for-root translation. For example, the common English phrase “flea market”

40

is a phrase calque that literally translates the French “marcheaux puces” (market

where one acquires fleas”).

Going in the other direction, from English to French, provides an example

of how a compound word may be calqued by first breaking it down into its

component, roots. The French “gratte-ciel” is a word-coinage inspired by the

model of the English “skyscraper” “gratter” literally translated as “to scrape” and

“ciel” translated as “sky”. The same is true for the swedith word “skyskrapa”

Spanish word “rascacielose” and the Italian word “grattacielo” (literally, a scrape-

skies-sky), the Russian word “He bockped” the Nurwegian word “skyscraper”

and the Danish word “skyskraber” (both lilerally “cloud-scraper”).

A further example is bienvenue” (literally meaning “welcome”),

sometimes used for ‘you’re welcome in response to “thank you” in French

Canada instead of using the standard French “de rein” (it was nothing) or “avec’

plaisir” (with pelasure). Yet again, each of these phrases can be found as calques

in English, as “it was my pleasure, the pleasure was (is mine” used as a verb, “to

calque” means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while

translating its components so as to create a new lexemexin the target language).

“calques” itself is a loan word from a French, noun and derives from the

verb “calques” (to trace, to copy), while loanword is a calques of the German

“lehnwort”, and loantranslation, a loantranslation of “Lehnubersetzun”.

41

Proving a word is a calques sometimes requires more documentation than

an un translated loanword, since in some cases a similar phrase might have arisen

in both language independently. This is less like to be the case when the grammar

of the proposed calques is quite different from that of the language proposed to be

borrowing, or the calques contains less obvious imagery.

2.3.1.10.1.2 Loanblends

Similar to calques are loanblends in which one of the morphemes, that is

the main lexical morpheme is borrowed, and the other is native as in

Pennsylvanian German bassig “bossy” with borrowed stem and native suffix,-ig a

Garman morpheme corresponding to the English –y suffix.

2.4 The influence of English language on our Nigerian indigenous

languages

The influence of English languages on our indigenous language cannot be

over looked. It is the most important heritage left by the British colonialists as a

unifying force, but that does not mean that we should de-emphasize our

indigenous languages in their own functional domains. From the data collected,

English language has a negative influence on our indigenous languages. This is

because, all the functions meant to be performed by our indigenous languages

have been taken over by English language because of the purported integration it

fosters. And most importantly is the issue of borrowing of English into our

42

vocabularies. From our data, we noticed that most students can not communicate

fluently in their mother tongue without adding one or two English vocabularies to

their mother tongue. This is a bad influence on our indigenous languages, because

as a result of borrowings from English language, it is only aiding the growth of

English but leading to the death of our own indigenous languages. That is why

most of the words borrowed in our data do not have alternatives in Yoruba. Those

that have do not share the same etymological origin, thus leading to different

concepts.

The negative influence of English language on our Nigerian indigenous

languages have taken prime or dominance and above, then in terms of academic

instructional materials in schools. In contrast with the Nigeria language policy

which stipulate that the three major indigenous Nigerian languages which are

Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba should be used as a media of instruction at the early

stages of primary education, English has taken over this functional role, that is

English is now use in relatively all levels of Nigerian educational system.

Another instance of those negative effects comes from the mass-media. It

is obvious that in Nigerian mass media, English is mostly used at the expense of

our indigenous languages. Therefore, owing to the fact that many a time, they do

not have access to vital information since the information are not disseminated in

their native languages.

43

However, despite the fact that English language has affected or influenced

the indigenous languages in Nigerian in certain respects, among which are

considered above, it has positively influenced or contributed immensely, at least

to a great extent, in the linguistic enrichment and development of Nigerian

indigenous languages.

The most outstanding way in which English language influences Nigerian

indigenous language positively is in the aspect of borrowing. Perhaps this is a

linguistic influence with respect to morphology. Using our language of

description (Yoruba) as a prototypical example, it is observed that the lexicon of

Yoruba has been relatively expanded as a result of borrowing certain lexical items

form English. Word such as buredi from “bread” offiisi from “office”, sileti from

“slate”, bulooku from “block” etc. are examples of borrowed words from the

lexicon of English into the lexicon of Yoruba language, consequentially enriching

an expanding the lexicon of the target language (Yoruba). Summarily, English

influences Nigerian indigenous languages linguistically by increasing the number

of lexical items in the native languages through borrowing.

Another area where English affects Nigerian indigenous languages

positively is orthography design. Obviously, very many Nigerian native languages

have been reduced to writing using the English writing. System (alphabet) as the

basis. The codification of these languages using English orthography as a medium

44

of reference is indeed a reflection of the linguistic contribution of English

language to the linguistic development of Nigerian indigenous languages.

2.5 Conclusion

We have reviewed the advent of English language in Nigeria, its functions

in Nigeria, language contact and its effects. But of all that has been reviewed in

this chapter, the most important to us is borrowing as it relate in the topic directly

to this essay. Finally, we reviewed the influence of English language on our

Nigerian indigenous languages both positive and negative influences.

45

CHAPTER THREE

DATA ANALYSIS

3.0 Introduction

In this chapter, we shall examine and analyse the examples of borrowing

from English into Yoruba. These borrowings are classified broadly into two types:

loantranslations or calques and loanblends. In addition to this, how the borrowed

or loaned words from the source language (English) are code-mixed with the

native lexical items within the target language (Yoruba) sentence shall be

exemplified.

3.1 Presentation of Data

3.1.1 Classification of Borrowed Words

3.1.1.1 Loantranslations of Calques

S/N English Yoruba

1. Get Gbáá

2. Stingy Lahún

3. Teller Iwe

4. Wheelbarrow ỌmỌlánke

5. Try Gbiyanju

6. Like Fe

7. Carryover Ise asetunse

46

8. People Eniyan

9. Chair Aga

10. Window Ferese

11. Masquerade Eegun

12. School Ile iwe

13. Mosque Mosalasi

14. Television Ero amohunmaworan

15. Aeroplane Oko Ofurufu

16. Radio Ero asoromagbesi

17. Stadium Papa isere

18. Journey Irin ajo

19. Girls Awon obinrin

20. Boys Awon okunrin

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3.1.1.2 Loanblends

S/N English Yoruba

1. Pretend Pretendi

2. Need Needi

3. Cup Koobu

4. Bread Buredi

5. Table Tebu

6. Church Soosi

7. Chalk Sooki

8. Class Kilaasi

9. Block Bulooku

10. Glass Gilaasi

11. Trailer Tirela

12. Shop Soobu

13. Office Ofiisi

14. Chairman Siamaanu

15. Skirt Sikeeti

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16. Card Kaadi

17. Shirt Saati

18. Ceiling Sili

19. Ball Boolu

20. Pot Pootu

3.2 English Yoruba Code-mixed Sentences

1. Emi ti n get e

I have get that

‘I am getting it’

2. Awon yen wa stingy ju

They that be stingy surplus

‘they are too stingy’

3. se o ti gba teller yen?

Have you collect iwe isanwowole that?

‘have you collected that teller?

4. Awon yen ti n lo wheelbarrow yen

Those ones that have use omolanke that

‘Those ones have been using that wheelbarrow’

5. Ema try lati gbaa bee

They always gbiyanju lati take in like that

‘Always try to accept it like that’

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6. Mi o like kinni yen

I don’t feran thing that

‘I don’t like that thing’

7. Awon girls yen ni carryovers

Those obinrin that have ise asetunse

‘Those girls have carryovers’

8. Se awon people yen ti lo?

Have those eniyan that have go?

‘Have those people gone’?

9. Awon chairs yen wa pa

Those aga that exist okay

“Those chairs are okay’

10. Bami si window yen

Help me open ferese that

‘Open that window for me’

11. Awon yen ma an se masquerade festival

Those that use to do egungun festival

‘Those are used to celebration of masquerade festival’

12. Won ni schools ti o po ni state yen

They have awon-ilewe that many ni inpinle that

‘They have many schools in that state’

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13. Awon yen nse adua ni mosque

Those that do prayer in mosalasi

‘They are doing prayer in the mosque’

14. Mi o fe tun television yen se mo

I don’t want repeat ero-amohunmaworan that do again

‘I don’t want to repair that television again’

15. Se e ma baa aeroplane yen lo ni?

Will you with oko ofurufu that go?

‘Are you going to travel in the aeroplane’

16. Radio yen ko sise mo

Ero asoromagbesi is not working again

‘The radio is not working again’

17. Mo nlo si stadium

I (prog marker) go to paapa isere

‘I am going to the stadium’

18. Mo nlo journey loola

I (prog marker) irin ajo tomorrow

‘I am traveling tomorrow’

19. Awon girls yen ti rough ju

Those obinrin that (perfect tense) do ti surplus

‘Those girls are too rough

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20. Mo feri ikan lara awon boys yen

I see one among those okunrin that

‘I want to see one of those boys’

21. Won maaan pretendi ni sa

They usually pretend (adverb) always

‘They are always pretending’

22. Won needi iranlowo

They need help

‘They need help’

23. Bami mu koobu yen

Help bring cup that

‘Give me that cup’

24. Mo fe je buredi ni sin

I want eat bread now

‘I want to eat bread now’

25. O wa lori tebu

It be on table

‘It is on the table’

26. Won ni eto ni soosi

They have programme in church

‘They have programme in church’

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27. Mo fe lo sooki

I want use chalk

‘I wan to use chalk’

28. Mo wa ni kilaasi

I be in class

‘I am in the class’

29. Awon bulooku yen o le to

Those blocks that (neg) can enough

‘Those blocks can not be enough’

30. Omo okunrin yen ti fo gilaasi yen

Child boy that (Agr) break galss that

‘That boy has broke the glass’

31. Awon tirela yen ti da hold up kale

Those trailer that hase cause sunkerepakere down

‘Those trailers has caused hold up’

32. Eni ti oni soobu yen ti ku

Person that own shop that have die

‘The person that owned the shop has died’

33. Mo ni ise lati se ni ofiisi

I have work to do ni office

‘I have work to do in the office’

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34. Awon yen ti yo siaamanu yen

They that have remove chairman that

‘They have impeached that chairman’

35. Mi o fe sikeeti yen mo

I (neg) want skirt that again.

‘ I don’t want that skirt again

36. E lo ni MTN recharge kaadi yin?

How much is MTN risaji card you?

‘How much is your MTN recharge card?’

37. Mi o ni black saati

I (neg) have dudu shirt

‘I don’t have black shirt’

38. Awon sili yen gbona gaan

Those ceilings that hot very

‘Those ceilings are too hot’

39. Boolu yen ti sonu

Ball that have last

‘The ball has lost’

40. Awon pootu yen kii se gidi

Those pots that (neg) not do original

‘Those pots are not original’

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3.3 Analysis

Loantranslations and loanblends as instances of code mixing apply in our

data as represented above. From these, it is evident that Yoruba speakers tends to

borrow words of English into their own language while in conversation. The

following are some of the examples from our data:

1. Emi ti n get e

2. Mi o like kinnin yen

3. Awon chairs yen wa pa

4. Bami si window yen

5. Mo wa ni kilaasi

6. Awon bulooku yen o le to

7. O wa lori tebu

In the above utterances, Yoruba is predominant in these utterances. This

seems evident because in the utterances above, the borrowed words are virtually

single lexical items in each sentences.

Structurally, the borrowed word predominates at the medial positions of the

utterance. Only in few instances of the borrowed words occur at the initial and

final positions. The following are some of the examples from our data:

1. Radio yen ko sise mo

2. Boolu yen ti so nu

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3. Won needi iranlowo

4. Bami mu koobu yen

5. Mi o fe tun television yen se mo

6. Se e ma aero plane ye lo ni?

7. Awon girls yen ti rough ju

8. Mo n lo si stadium

9. Won ni eto ni soosi

10. Mo fe lo sooki

11. Awon yen nse adua ni mosque

In the above utterances, some of the borrowed words occurred at the medial

position, for instance ‘needi’ koobu’, ‘aeroplane’ ‘girl’ ‘television’. This shows

that the majority of the borrowed element occur at the medial structural position

linearly in the Yoruba sentences followed by some occurring sentence. While

very few ones are inserted at the sentence initial slot for instance ‘Radio’ and

‘Boolu’. In most cases, some of the borrowed elements occur at the final position,

for instance ‘stadium’ ‘soosi’, ‘sooki’ and ‘mosque’.

Another instances in our data is that, it is only on few occasions that the

speakers borrow more than one lexical item in each utterance. The following are

some of the examples from our data:

1. Mi o ni black saati

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2. Awon tirela yen ti da hold up kale

3. Awon girls yen ti rough ju

4. Awon girls yen ni carryovers

5. E lo ni MTN recharge kaadi yin?

In the above utterances, it is observed that more than one lexical item are

borrowed in each utterances for instance ‘black and saati,’ ‘tirela’and holdup’

‘girls’ and‘rough’ ‘girls’and carryover’.

In our data above, it is clear that Yoruba-English code-mixing can take place

in any sentence type in the recipient language Yoruba. That is whether in a

declarative, interrogative or command sentence. The Yoruba speakers can

entertain Yoruba-English code mixing. There are some exampleS from our data.

1. Mi o fe sikeeti yen mo

2. Awon sili yen gbo na gaan

3. Awon pootu yen I ki se gidi

4. Mo n lo si stadium

5. Won ni eto ni soosi

In the above utterances, it shows that they are all declarative sentences and it

serve as a means of entertaining Yoruba-English code mixing. Another instance is

when Yoruba-English code-mixing take place in an interrogative sentence for

instance.

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1. Se awon people yen ti lo?

2. Se o ti gba teller yen?

3. Se e ma ba aeroplane yen lo ni?

4. Elo ni MTN recharge kaadi yin?

The above utterances featured interrogative sentences which is an example of

Yoruba-English code-mixing and also serve as a means of entertaining Yoruba-

English code-mixing.

At the instance of Yoruba-English code-mixing, there are only few command

sentences in our data, these are some of the examples.

1. Bami si window yen

2. Bami mu koobu yen

3. Mo fe ri ikan lara awon boys yen

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CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

4.0 Introduction

In this chapter we shall present a brief summary of the whole research

work based on our findings. Also, appropriate conclusion shall be done

4.1 Summary

By and large, efforts have been made in this long essay towards examining

the sociolinguistic concept; the borrowing and code-mixing among Unilorin

undergraduates. In other to achieve this aim, this research has taken down the

utterances of certain groups of students in their respective faculties with respect to

how they code-mix the linguistic items of English and Yoruba during

conversation.

Chapter one examined a brief history of English language in Nigeria and

then talked about its usefulness in Nigeria as a whole. It then went on to discuss

how students at the University of Ilorin borrow words from English into Yoruba

in their day to day interaction which is a reflection of code-mixing. In addition, it

addressed why and when code-mixing is used on the campus.

In chapter two, we made a review of literature related to the research topic

there by discussing the advent of English language and some factors that

contributed to the survival of English language in the country. We also discussed

59

some of the functions of English language in Nigerian such as instruments of

education, integration of unity intranational and international functions, English

as an official language and above all, as Nigeria’s second language. In chapter

two, we alsoreview what language contact is and the effects with respect to

borrowing it has on our indigenous languages. And finally, we made a review on

the influences of English language on our Nigerian indigenous languages both

positively and negatively.

Chapter three presented the research methodology; it stated the data on

instances of borrowing (code-mixing) and analyzed the data in full.

Finally, chapter four summarized and concluded the essay by

recapitulating the salient issues regarding borrowings by users of English among

the sample population.

4.2 Findings

In the above given sets of data, the findings or observations are as follows:

It is observed that whereas some borrowed words from English into

Yoruba are loantranslations or calques, others are loanblends. In other words, a

speaker of Yoruba can borrow items from English and either assimilate them

directly by translation without any linguistic modification, or make the words

conform with the linguistic system of their language, hence, modified respectively

e.g. ‘get’, ‘like’, ‘pretend’ and ‘church.’

60

Also, we find out that in the sentences (data) above, the Yoruba speakers

use their language predominantly during communication but only borrow in most

times, a single lexical item from English and incorporate it within their utterance.

It is only on a few occasions that the speakers borrow more than one lexical item

in each sentence.

Another finding in our data is connected with the structural positions in

which the borrowed concepts (words) from English can occur within the Yoruba

native sentences. We discover that the majority of the borrowed elements occur at

the medial structural position linearly in the Yoruba sentences followed by some

occurring sentence-finally while very few ones are inserted at the sentence-initial

slot.

Finally, we observe that in Yoruba-English code-mixing can take place in

any sentence type in the recipient language-Yoruba. That is whether in a

declarative, interrogative or command sentence, the Yoruba speakers can

entertain Yoruba English code-mixing.

4.3 Conclusion

Code-mixing, as a sociolinguistic phenomenon, is a familiar practice

throughout the world, most especially among those who are bilingual in which

they combine certain linguistic items from two different languages as a linguistic

reflection of borrowing.

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University of Ilorin whose undergraduate students are our case study in

this research work is an academic community and English language is the official

language in the institution. So while the people could be said to be fluent in

English they nonetheless still have their mother tongue which sometimes does not

take care of all the concepts especially the ones they have acquired through

formal education.

This is why code-mixing appears to be the main feature of the academics

using their mother tongue words such as ‘block’ ‘church’ ‘office’ ‘bread’ ‘skirt’

‘card’ and so on are commonly used not only by literate people but also by those

who have not been to schools at all.

These words and many could then be treated as loan words because of

their low frequency of usage among Nigerians and most importantly because they

denote concepts which are alien to us.

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