The Human Body: An Orientation
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Transcript of The Human Body: An Orientation
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The Human Body: An Orientation
P A R T A
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one anotherGross or macroscopicMicroscopicDevelopmental
Physiology – the study of the function of the body parts
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Gross Anatomy
Regional – study of the structures in one specific part of the bodyNeck, head, etc
Systemic – gross anatomy of the system of the body
Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
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Microscopic Anatomy
Cytology – study of the cell Histology – study of tissues
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Developmental Anatomy
Study of the changes in form from conception to physical maturityEmbryology – study of
developmental changes of the body before birth
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Specialized Branches of Anatomy
Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans
Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level
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Physiology
Systemic physiology –study of the operation of specific organ systemsRenal – kidney functionNeurophysiology – workings of the
nervous systemCardiovascular – operation of the
heart and blood vessels Cell physiology Pathological physiology
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Physiology
Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains electrical currentsblood pressurethe way muscle uses bone for
movement
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Principle of Complementarity
Anatomy and physiology are closely related
What a structure can do depends on its specific formBecause enamel is a very hard
structure we can masticate hard things
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4
5
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Smooth muscle cellMolecules
Atoms
Smoothmuscletissue
Epithelialtissue
Heart
Bloodvessels
Smoothmuscletissue
Connectivetissue
Bloodvessel(organ)
Cardiovascularsystem
Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.
Tissue levelTissues consist ofsimilar types of cells.
Organ levelOrgans are made upof different typesof tissues.
Organ system levelOrgan systems consist ofdifferent organs thatwork together closely.
Organismal levelThe human organismis made up of manyorgan systems.
Chemical levelAtoms combine toform molecules.
Figure 1.1
Levels of Structural Organization
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Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
Cellular – cells are made of molecules
Tissue –similar types of cells working together
Organ – are made of two or more tissues
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Levels of Structural Organization
Organ system – consists of different organs that work closely together
Organism – made up of the organ systems. It is the highest level of organization
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Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering
Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D
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Skeletal System Composed of bone, cartilage, and
ligaments Protects and supports body
organs Provides the framework for
muscles Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals
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Muscular System
Composed of muscles and tendons
Provides locomotion, and facial expression
Maintains posture Produces heat Provides protection and support
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Nervous System
Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
Is the fast-acting control system of the body
Responds to stimuli Interprets environmental stimuli
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Cardiovascular System
Composed of the heart and blood vessels
The heart pumps blood The blood vessels transport
blood throughout the body
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Lymphatic System
Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
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Respiratory System
Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
provides oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
Produce sounds
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Digestive System Composed of the oral cavity,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, liver, etc
Digests and absorbs food Eliminates indigestible
foodstuffs as feces
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Urinary System
Composed of kidneys, ureteres, urinary bladder, and urethra
Eliminates wastes from the body
Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood
Secrets hormone
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Endocrine System
Composed of pineal, pituitary, thyroid, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testis
They secrete hormones that will control metabolism, reproduction, growth, etc
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Male Reproductive System
Main function is the production of offspring
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
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Female Reproductive System
Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
Main function is the production of offspring
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
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Organ Systems Interrelationships
• Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood
• Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems
Figure 1.2
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Organ Systems Interrelationships
The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment
Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and oxygen
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Organ Systems Interrelationships
Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood
Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems
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Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries between external and internal environmentsCellular level – accomplished by
plasma membranesOrganismal level – accomplished by
the skin Movement – locomotion, propulsion
(peristalsis), and contractility
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Necessary Life Functions
Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them
Digestion – breakdown of ingested food Metabolism – all the chemical reactions
that occur in the body Excretion – removal of wastes from the
body
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Necessary Life Functions
Reproduction – cellular and organismal levelsCellular – an original cell divides and
produces two identical daughter cellsOrganismal – sperm and egg unite to
make a whole new person Growth – increase in size of a body part
or of the organism
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Survival Needs
Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building
Oxygen – necessary for metabolic reactions
Water – provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions
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Survival Needs
Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungsHigh altitude low atmospheric
pressure low oxygen
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis – ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world
The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Components of control mechanisms:Receptor – monitors the
environments and responds to changes (stimuli)
Control center – determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
Effector – provides the means to respond to stimuli
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism
Negative Feedbackthe output shuts off the original
stimulusExample: Regulation of room
temperature
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Positive Feedback
In positive feedback systems, the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
Example: Regulation of blood clotting
Figure 1.6
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Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasisDiseases
Aging Slow down of the body’s control
mechanisms increase the risk for diseases
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Anatomical Position
Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body
Figure 1.7a
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Directional Terms
Superior Inferior Anterior Posterior Medial Lateral
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Directional Terms
Proximal Distal Superficial Deep
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Body Planes
Sagittal – divides the body into right and left partsMidsagittal or medial
Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
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Body Planes
Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique section – cuts the body diagonally
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Anatomical Variability
Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy
Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:Nerves or blood vessels may be
somewhat out of placeSmall muscles may be missing
Extreme anatomical variations are seldom seen
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Body Cavities
Figure 1.9a
Cranial cavity(contains brain)
Dorsalbodycavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)
Pelvic cavity(contains bladder,reproductive organs,and rectum)
Vertebral cavity(contains spinal cord)
Key:
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Thoraciccavity(containsheartand lungs)
(a) Lateral view
Body Cavities
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45Figure 1.9b
Ventral body cavity(thoracic and abdomino-pelviccavities)
Abdomino-pelvicCavity(peritonealCavity)
Superiormediastinum Pleuralcavity
Cranialcavity
Vertebralcavity
Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity(contains digestivevisceral
Pelvic cavity(contains bladder,reproductive organs,and rectum)
Thoraciccavity(containsheartand lungs)
(b) Anterior view
Key:
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
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Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisionsCranial cavity – within the skull;
encases the brainVertebral cavity – runs within the
vertebral column; encases the spinal cord
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Body Cavities
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisionsThoracicAbdominopelvic
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Body Cavities Thoracic cavity is subdivided into
Pleural cavities (2)– each houses a lung
Mediastinum – between the pleural cavities. Houses esophagus, trachea, etcPericardial cavity – encloses the heart.
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Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm
It is composed of two subdivisionsAbdominal cavity – contains the
stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
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Heart Serosa
Figure 1.10b
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Figure 24-2d Mesenteries
A sagittal section showing the mesenteries ofan adult. Notice that the pancreas, duodenum,and rectum are retroperitoneal.
Falciformligament
Diaphragm
UterusUrinarybladder
Sigmoidmesocolon
Mesenteryproper
Rectum
Duodenum
Pancreas
Lesseromentum
Stomach
Transversemesocolon
Transversecolon
Greateromentum
Parietalperitoneum
Small intestine
Liver
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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
Serous membrane or serosaParietal layer lines internal body
wallsVisceral serosa covers the internal
organsSerous fluid – fills the cavity
between the parietal and visceral layers
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Other Body Cavities
Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
Orbital – house the eyes Middle ear – contains bones
(ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
Synovial – joint cavities
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Right upper• Left upper• Right lower• Left lower
Figure 1.12
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Abdominopelvic Regions
Figure 1.11a
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Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions
Figure 1.11b