The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

Immanuel Kant

The Will• Only thing that is intrinsically good• All other goods depend on the good will• For example, political power– Good Will – Good ruler– Bad Will – Bad Ruler

• The Will determines how good the other good (i.e. political power)

What is a Good Will?

• Free, rational will that acts in accordance with duty and not pleasure/desire.

What Makes a Human Being?• The ability to act in accordance with moral obligation• We are not designed for acting in accordance to

happiness, but to morality• Nature has created us to be reasonable, and so we

must act in accordance to this reason rather than happiness

• We will see this in one of his four examples (neglect of talents)

Moral Actions• Moral actions only have worth if done according

to duty• You cannot act for any other intention (i.e.

desire/pleasure)– For example, cheatingA. Do you act because of a duty to uphold the morality

of integrity?B. Or, do you act out of fear of getting caught and

punished?• You MUST act according to A and never B

Freedom• We are truly free when we act according to

duty• Our desires enslave us• Reason frees us from this enslavement• Only actions done according to duty have

moral worth, since they are based on reason (i.e. freely chosen without bias from desire)

Moral Duty• Universal– Applies to ALL rational beings– Distinguishes duties from preferences

• Categorical– All MORAL imperatives (commands) are

categorical

Hypothetical Imperatives• Conditional– Based on a desired outcome– For example:• Desired outcome is to be a good doctor• Imperative would be to go to a good medical school• Going to medical school is dependant on your desired

outcome• It is not a duty• i.e., You do not NEED to go to medical school. You

could go to law school

Categorical Imperative• Unconditional– You ought to act regardless of context– Morality never commands from desire (i.e.

desired outcome)– Duty is unchanging– Morality needs to be based on duty

• Moral commands can be immediately identified– Observe the act based on categorical form

Maxims• Every action that is morally ratable (CI) is

freely willed• Freely chosen acts are physical manifestations

of our intentions• Intentions are representative of principles– These principles are maxims

Maxims Cont• Action– Stealing – What is the Maxim (i.e. principle) you protrude?

• Whenever I want what I cannot afford, I will steal it.

• We can only control this Maxim of ours• Only element (i.e. intent) under our control• Outcomes are out of our control– Determined in large part to circumstance of context

• Must only act morally on what we can control

Example• Nazi Soldier• You agree to hide a Jewish man running from

Nazi• Nazi asks if you know where Jewish man is• According to Maxim (I can never falsify

information) must be obeyed.• You can only control YOUR principles• You CANNOT control the Nazi’s principles• You have acted morally according to duty; Nazi

has acted immorally according to desire

Kant’s Supreme Moral Principle• Categorical Imperative – “Act only in

accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will it to be a universal law.”

• Everyone must be able to imitate your act at all times– If not, immoral

Categorical Imperative

• Must be able to apply it without violating rationality and reason

• Shows four examples of this

Example 1• Suicide• Maxim – From self-love I adopt it as a principle

to shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring more evil than satisfaction.”

• Violates rationality– You cannot use self love as an excuse to kill

yourself since self love is also the very reason why you try to improve and continue your life.

Example 2• Borrow money under false pretenses• Maxim – When I think myself in want of

money, I will borrow money and promise to repay it, although I know I never can do so.

• Violates rationality– No statement would be believed, and no one

would be able to borrow money since no lender would ever think people are telling the truth.

Example 3• Neglect of talents• Maxim – (Never explicitly stated) – I can

neglect natural gifts in favor of indulgences• Violates Rationality– Nature gives talents as part of the law of nature,

so man must cultivate out of duty what nature has given them.

Example 4• Charity• Maxim – (NES) Whenever I see someone in

need, I will refuse to help them even if I have the physical means to do so

• Violates Rationality– When you want help, you will have created a

world incapable of helping you

Kingdom of Ends• Moral Universe• We create the moral universe through our

actions in accordance to duty to moral law• Ask yourself “What kind of world am I willing

when I act?”• Must create the moral universe• Combined collection of everyone’s actions

Kingdom of Ends, Cont.• In this universe, all rational beings are equal

and sovereign• Equal due to our ability to act in accordance to

the moral duty with our reason• We make equal contributions to the moral

universe• Sovereign since each of us is a creator of this

universe

Kingdom of Ends• Through KOE, we come to know that all

rational beings must be treated not as a means, but always as an end

• To treat them as a means denies them their role as equal authors of the moral universe

Groundwork Focus Questions1. How would Rand react to Kant’s assertion

that our desires enslave us? Do you agree with Rand or Kant?

2. Discuss how Mill would address Kant’s ideas about duty?

3. To what extent should the pragmatic application of the Supreme Moral Duty influence our moral decisions?

Fin