The Globalization of English: Its Impact on English

Language Education in the Tertiary Education Sector in

Taiwan

A thesis

submitted in fulfilment

of the requirements for the Degree

of

Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics at

The University of Waikato

by

HER, JIA-HUEY

______

University of Waikato

2007

-i-

Abstract

The overall agenda for the research reported here grew out of semi-structured

interviews with senior educational managers from a tertiary educational institution

in Taiwan. These managers raised a number of issues, including the changing

profile of tertiary students, the changing nature of English curricula, the

increasing need for English teaching staff to be adaptable, highly qualified and

research-active, and the growing pressure on institutions to introduce English

language proficiency benchmarking. Each of these issues can be related to the

impact of globalization and, in particular, the impact of the globalization of

English, on the education sector. Following a critical review of selected literature

on the impact of globalization on the teaching and learning of English, each of

these issues, as it affects the tertiary education sector in Taiwan, was explored.

Analysis of the Taiwanese national curriculum guidelines for schools, strongly

influenced by academics in the tertiary education sector, revealed a number of

problems relating to a lack of proficiency benchmarking and a lack of coherence,

consistency and transparency in some areas. These problems may be associated

with the initial phase of transition from a grammar-based curriculum to a more

communicatively-oriented, outcomes-centered one. Problems of a similar type

were indicated in responses to questions relating to curriculum matters included in

a questionnaire distributed to a sample of teachers of English in the tertiary sector.

Among other things revealed by questionnaire responses was the fact that many

survey participants had received no training in English teaching.

The results of a C-test (one that was initially used in a major European study)

taken by a sample of entry-level and exit-level Bachelors degree students

indicated a wide variation in proficiency, with individual scores differing by as

much as 64 percentage points in the case of exit-level students. Furthermore, there

was a difference of almost 10 percentage points between the mean scores of

students from two different institutions who had majored in English. These results

indicate some of the difficulties that Taiwan faces in attempting to establish

graduation proficiency benchmarking.

-ii-

C-test participants completed a background questionnaire, the responses

indicating a generally positive attitude towards English-speaking people, a general

willingness to use English in situations where there was the option of not doing

so, and a strong tendency towards instrumental motivation. Although one of the

factors that appeared to have a positive impact on C-test performance was time

spent in an English-speaking country, fewer than 18% of respondents had done so.

Although there appears to be considerable anxiety and uncertainty associated with

the teaching of English at tertiary level in Taiwan, and some genuine cause for

concern, there are also many positive indicators of future success. Teachers and

educational managers are aware of the problems they currently face and appear

determined to resolve them. Taiwanese academics are increasingly involved in

language-related research and increasingly prepared to interrogate their own

practices, and Taiwan, unlike some other countries in Asia, is moving towards

graduation proficiency benchmarking.

KEYWORDS: English language teaching in Taiwan; the globalization of

English; attitudes, perspectives and competencies of English language teachers in

Taiwan; English proficiency testing; backgrounds and perspectives of students of

English in Taiwan.

-iii-

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all of those people who have

contributed to this research project. I wish to thank Wenzao Ursuline College of

Languages for their financial support and for giving me the opportunity to pursue

further study at the University of Waikato. I also wish to thank Education New

Zealand for a New Zealand Postgraduate Study Abroad Award, and the University

of Waikato for a Te Pua Wānanga ki te Ao Postgraduate Excellence Award.

It is difficult to overstate my appreciation to all of those people - over 1,000

students, teachers and educational managers - who willingly contributed to this

research project by completing questionnaires, taking proficiency tests and taking

part in interviews. Without their help, this research project would have been

impossible. I am deeply indebted to all of my supervisors for providing me with

enlightenment, support and encouragement. I would like to thank my chief

supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Winifred Crombie for her remarkable

supervision, brilliant guidance, enthusiasm and invaluable support throughout the

research. I would also like to thank Dr. Diane Johnson for her great inspiration,

outstanding teaching, encouragement, invaluable advice and generosity. She is a

true role model for language teachers. My sincere thanks also to Dr. Ian Bruce for

helpful advice, detailed comments, suggestions, and ongoing encouragement. I

could not have wished for better supervision and support than these three people

provided. Very special thanks to Dr. Hēmi Whaanga for his friendship, his wisdom and his

generosity, particularly for providing me with detailed guidance on referencing

and thesis organization. I wish to thank all of my fellow PhD students at the University of Waikato,

particularly my colleagues from Taiwan for their friendship, their understanding

and their support.

Finally, I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation and thanks to my parents,

my brothers and my sister for standing by me and for giving me their

unconditional love, care, good will, assistance, and patience.

-iv-

Contents

Abstract__________________________________________________________ i

Acknowledgements________________________________________________iii

Contents ________________________________________________________ iv

List of Tables ____________________________________________________ xi

List of Figures ___________________________________________________xv

Chapter 1 _______________________________________________________ 1

Introduction to research background, research questions and research

methods_________________________________________________________ 1

1.1 Background to the research: A personal perspective ______________ 1

1.2 Background to the research: The Taiwanese context ______________ 2

1.2.1 Introduction to Taiwan ___________________________________ 2

1.2.2 Taiwan: Brief historical overview___________________________ 3

1.2.3 Taiwan: Brief geographical overview________________________ 3

1.2.4 Taiwan: Brief introduction to its people and languages __________ 5

1.2.5 Taiwan: Brief introduction to its economy ____________________ 5

1.2.6 Education in Taiwan: An overview _________________________ 6

1.3 Overview of research aim, research questions and research

methods ______________________________________________ 11

1.3.1 Overall research aim ____________________________________ 11

1.3.2 Overview of research questions and research methods _________ 12

Chapter 2 ______________________________________________________ 17

Setting the agenda: Senior managers at Wenzao Ursuline College of

Languages reflect on change and change management _________________ 17

2.1 Introduction_____________________________________________ 17

2.2 Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages_______________________ 18

2.3 Background to the interviews and the interviewees ______________ 21

2.4 Reporting on the interviews ________________________________ 23

2.4.1 The founding of the institution ____________________________ 23

2.4.2 The initial mission of the institution ________________________ 24

-v-

2.4.3 Most important experiences as an undergraduate of the institution 26

2.4.4 Giving today’s students an experience as rewarding of that of

former students ________________________________________ 26

2.4.5 The role of the English curriculum at the time the institution was

founded ______________________________________________ 27

2.4.6 Main changes and factors influencing change ________________ 27

2.4.7 Main frustrations in attempting to bring about change __________ 31

2.4.8 Gaining university status_________________________________ 32

2.4.9 Retaining aspects of the institution’s mission while adapting and

changing _____________________________________________ 33

2.4.10 Preferred changes ______________________________________ 34

2.4.11 A special role?_________________________________________ 36

2.4.12 A more central role in national policy development? ___________ 37

2.4 13 The role of English now and in the future?___________________ 38

2.4.14 The standard of English proficiency of graduates _____________ 38

2.4.15 Relationship between different parts of the institution __________ 41

2.4.16 Relationship between the English department and other areas of

institutional activity_____________________________________ 41

2.4.17 Training new and existing staff____________________________ 42

2.4.18 Increasing self-access ___________________________________ 43

2.4.19 Recommended policy changes ____________________________ 44

2.4.20 Ten year vision ________________________________________ 45

2.4.21 The English curriculum__________________________________ 46

2.4.22 English for specific purposes _____________________________ 48

2.4.23 Further comments ______________________________________ 49

2.5 Identifying the major issues emerging from the interviews ________ 50

2.6 Higher education and the teaching and learning of English in

Taiwan: The significance of the interviewee responses ___________ 52

Chapter 3 ______________________________________________________ 53

English and the teaching of English to speakers of other languages: Some

major global trends and their influence in Taiwan _____________________ 53

3.1 Introduction_____________________________________________ 53

-vi-

3.2 Towards global English - The impact of the globalization of English

on issues relating to distinctiveness, course rationalisation and

staffing_________________________________________________ 53

3.3 Towards communicative competence and communicative language

teaching ________________________________________________ 58

3.4 Towards universal proficiency benchmarking – The impact of a

move towards universal proficiency benchmarking on language

programme design and testing and assessment__________________ 72

3.5 Towards outcomes-based curricula: The impact of outcomes-based

curriculum design on fluency and accuracy and curriculum

coherence_______________________________________________ 82

3.6 Motivation______________________________________________ 83

3.7 Intercultural education and the issue of curriculum rationalisation __ 88

3.8 Conclusion______________________________________________ 90

Chapter 4 ______________________________________________________ 92

Responding to the challenge: The changing face of English language

education as reflected in the Taiwanese national curriculum guidelines for

English in schools _______________________________________________ 92

4.1 General introduction ______________________________________ 92

4.2 Introduction to the new curriculum for Years 1 – 9 of schooling in

Taiwan_________________________________________________ 93

4.2.1 Learning areas and lesson time ____________________________ 94

4.2.2 Overarching curriculum goals_____________________________ 96

4.3 The curriculum guidelines for English at elementary/ primary and

junior high school levels ___________________________________ 97

4.3.1 The elements of the English curriculum _____________________ 97

4.3.2 Aims/goals, competencies and competency indicators__________ 98

4.3.3 Core competencies/ attitudes ____________________________ 102

4.3.4 Competency indicators: Language skills and interests, learning

strategies and culture and customs ________________________ 106

4.3.5 Teaching and materials guidelines, principles of materials

compilation, teaching methods, assessment, teaching resources _ 122

4.3.6 The appendices _______________________________________ 124

-vii-

4.4 Introduction to English curricula for senior high schools, vocational

high schools and integrated schools _________________________ 126

4.4.1 The temporary senior school English curriculum: Aims _______ 127

4.4.2 The temporary senior school English curriculum: Core

competencies_________________________________________ 127

4.4.3 The temporary senior school English curriculum: Competency

indicators for Senior High Schools and Comprehensive High

Schools _____________________________________________ 133

4.4.4 The temporary senior school English curriculum: Competency

indicators for Vocational High Schools ____________________ 136

4.5 Some concluding remarks_________________________________ 142

Chapter 5 _____________________________________________________ 144

Sampling Taiwanese Tertiary Teachers of English: Attitudes, Perspectives

and Competencies_______________________________________________ 144

5.1 Introduction____________________________________________ 144

5.2 Designing the questionnaire: preliminary stages _______________ 144

5.2.1 The aims of the survey _________________________________ 144

5.2.2 Selecting a survey approach _____________________________ 145

5.2 3 The target population __________________________________ 146

5.2.4 Processes and procedures to be used in analysing the responses _ 146

5.2.5 The draft questionnaire and the pilot study__________________ 146

5.2.6 Ethical considerations __________________________________ 147

5.3 Questionnaire responses: Analysis and discussion ______________ 147

5.3.1 Personal information: age, sex, qualifications and teaching

experience ___________________________________________ 148

5.3.2 In-service development opportunities and respondents’ evaluation

of their own preparation to teach English ___________________ 158

5.3.3 Curriculum, syllabus and achievement objectives ____________ 162

5.3.4 Textbooks and teaching materials_________________________ 170

5.3.5 Proficiency and placement testing ________________________ 173

5.3.6 Discourse competence and communicative language teaching __ 180

5.3.7 Teaching beliefs and teaching approach ____________________ 184

5.4 Discussion _____________________________________________ 188

-viii-

Chapter 6 _____________________________________________________ 191

The English language proficiency of tertiary students in Taiwan: The C-test

scores of a sample of students at entry to and exit from BA degrees in

Taiwan _______________________________________________________ 191

6.1 Introduction____________________________________________ 191

6.2 Selecting a test instrument and questionnaire __________________ 195

6.3 Administering the C-test and questionnaire ___________________ 195

6.4 Entry C-test scores ______________________________________ 196

6.5 Discussion of C-test scores of sample on entry to degree level study 202

6.6 Exit C-test scores: data and discussion _______________________ 202

6.6.1 Exit C-testing: Introduction _____________________________ 202

6.6.2 Exit C-test scores and comparison between entry and exit scores 203

6.7. Relationship between C-test scores and performance in other

proficiency tests ________________________________________ 207

6.8 Comparison of exit level C-test scores: Taiwan, Europe, New

Zealand _______________________________________________ 210

6.9 Concluding remarks _____________________________________ 211

Chapter 7 _____________________________________________________ 212

The C-test participants: background, attitudes, motivation, expectations,

personality, metalinguistic knowledge and self-evaluation of linguistic

competence ____________________________________________________ 212

7.1 Selecting and adapting the questionnaire _____________________ 212

7.2 Questionnaire responses __________________________________ 213

7.2.1 Gender______________________________________________ 213

7.2.2 Age ________________________________________________ 214

7.2.3 Degree and major subject _______________________________ 215

7.2.4 Nationality, year of study, type of high school attended _______ 218

7.2.5 Entry-level participants: High school specialist areas _________ 219

7.2.6 Entry-level participants: Performance in college entrance

examinations _________________________________________ 219

7.2.7 Prior study of English __________________________________ 221

7.2.7 Graduation proficiency benchmarking _____________________ 226

-ix-

7.2.8 First languages/ home languages _________________________ 231

7.2.9 Residence abroad _____________________________________ 232

7.2.10 Proficiency self-evaluation ______________________________ 235

7.2.11 Other languages studied ________________________________ 235

7.2.12 Motivation___________________________________________ 238

7.2.13 Perceptions of Taiwanese people and English-speaking people__ 239

7.2.14 Importance of English in specified situations________________ 240

7.2.15 Willingness to take risks or remain in comfort zone __________ 242

7.2.16 Language confidence and language anxiety _________________ 245

7.2.17 Identification with English-speakers_______________________ 246

7.2.18 Information about the parents and siblings of participants ______ 249

7.2.19 Knowledge about language______________________________ 253

7.3 Overview______________________________________________ 255

Chapter 8 _____________________________________________________ 259

Looking back, looking forward: Conclusions, reflections and

recommendations _______________________________________________ 259

8.1 Introduction____________________________________________ 259

8.2 Limitations of the research ________________________________ 263

8.3 Research contribution ____________________________________ 264

8.4 Recommendations for future research _______________________ 267

References ____________________________________________________ 270

Appendix 1:____________________________________________________ 294

Semi-structured interviews schedules and lists of questions _____________ 294

Appendix 2:____________________________________________________ 300

Taiwanese degree programs taught through the medium of English ______ 300

Appendix 3:____________________________________________________ 304

An outline of evidence from various correlation studies involving C-testing 304

Appendix 4:____________________________________________________ 308

Original version of The Grade 1~9 Integrated Coordinated Curriculum

(Taiwan) with my translation______________________________________ 308

-x-

Appendix 5:____________________________________________________ 365

The temporary senior school English curriculum and the temporary

vocational school curriculum (Taiwan) in Mandarin __________________ 365

Appendix 6:____________________________________________________ 385

English and Mandarin versions of the questionnaire for teachers of English

in degree level programs in Taiwan ________________________________ 385

Appendix 7:____________________________________________________ 408

English and Mandarin versions of the questionnaire distributed with the C-

test participants on entry and exit __________________________________ 408

Appendix 8: The practice C-test ___________________________________ 446

Appendix 9: Comparative tables ___________________________________ 449

-xi-

List of Tables

Table 2.1: Changing academic programmes at Wenzao Ursuline College of

Languages __________________________________________________ 20

Table 3.1: Common Reference Levels (Council of Europe) compared with

proficiency levels in two New Zealand language curriculum documents__ 75

Table 4.1: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Core competencies/ attitudes as

outlined in the English curriculum for Grades 1 – 9 ________________ 102

Table 4.2: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Listening skills entries____________ 107

Table 4.3: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Speaking skill entries ____________ 110

Table 4.4: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Reading skill entries _____________ 114

Table 4.5: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Writing skill entries _____________ 116

Table 4.6: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Applied integrated skills entries ____ 118

Table 4.7: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Interests and learning skill entries __ 119

Table 4.8: The Year 1 – 9 Curriculum - Culture and customs _____________ 121

Table 4.9: The temporary senior school English curriculum - Core skills

competencies _______________________________________________ 128

Table 4.10: The temporary senior school English curriculum - Core

competencies relating to interests and strategies ___________________ 132

Table 4.11: The temporary senior school English curriculum - Core

competencies relating to culture and customs _____________________ 133

Table 4.12: The temporary senior school English curriculum –

Competencies associated specifically with Senior High Schools _______ 134

Table 4.12 (Part 2): The temporary senior school English curriculum –

Competencies associated specifically with Senior High Schools _______ 135

Table 4.13: English I for Vocational Schools – Subject Framework ________ 137

Table 4.14: English I for Vocational Schools – Teaching guidelines________ 138

Table 4.15: English I for Vocational Schools – Materials, Methodology,

Assessment and Resources ____________________________________ 140

Table 4.16: English I for Vocational Schools – Competency indicators _____ 141

Table 5.1: Responses relating to whether the institutions/s in which

participants worked had an overall English curriculum by institution __ 163

Table 5.2: Views on overall coherence of the institutional English

curriculum by institutional affiliation ____________________________ 164

-xii-

Table 5.3: Responses relating to proficiency benchmarking for majors in

English by institution ________________________________________ 175

Table 5.4: Responses relating to proficiency benchmarking for minors in

English by institution ________________________________________ 175

Table 5.5: Activities participants use in class _________________________ 185

Table 6.1: Mean scores and mean percentage scores of students at the point

of entry to Bachelors degrees in Taiwan who participated in the study__ 197

Table 6.2: Mean scores and mean percentage scores of students at the point

of entry to Bachelors degrees in Taiwan who participated in the study

(by institution and programme) ________________________________ 197

Table 6.3: Range of actual scores (out of 125) and percentage scores of

students at the point of entry to Bachelors degrees in Taiwan who

participated in the study ______________________________________ 197

Table 6.4: Mean scores and mean percentage scores (after removal of zero

scores) of students at the point of entry to Bachelors degrees in Taiwan

who participated in the study __________________________________ 198

Table 6.5: Mean scores and mean percentage scores (after removal of zero

scores) of students at the point of entry to Bachelors degrees in Taiwan

who participated in the study (by institution and program) ___________ 198

Table 6.6: Comparison of C-test scores (Taiwanese, New Zealand and UK

students entering degree programs) _____________________________ 199

Table 6.7: Number of Taiwanese English C-test entry-level participants who

provided results in other types of proficiency test __________________ 200

Table 6.8: Relationship between GEPT level scores and C-test scores of

entry-level participants without zero C-test scores removed __________ 201

Table 6.9: Relationship between GEPT level scores and C-test scores of

entry-level participants with zero C-test scores removed_____________ 201

Table 6.10: Mean scores and mean percentage scores of students at the

point of exit from the English components of Bachelors degrees in

Taiwan____________________________________________________ 203

Table 6.11: Mean C-test scores and mean percentage scores of English

major and non-English major participants at the point of exit from the

English components of Bachelors degrees in Taiwan _______________ 204

-xiii-

Table 6.12: Mean C-test scores and mean percentage C-test scores of

English major and non-English major participants at the point of exit

from the English components of Bachelors degrees in Taiwan (after

removing zero scores) ________________________________________ 205

Table 6.13: Mean percentage C-test entry and exit scores of participants

from institution B ___________________________________________ 205

Table 6.14: Range of actual scores (out of 125) and percentage scores of a

sample of students at the point of exit from the English component of

Bachelors degrees in Taiwan __________________________________ 207

Table 6.15: Performance of participants in the exit-level C-tests in other

proficiency tests_____________________________________________ 208

Table 6.16: Comparison of exit level C-test scores and scores in the GEPT __ 208

Table 6.17: Comparison of entry and exit level C-test scores and scores in

the GEPT__________________________________________________ 209

Table 6.18: C-test means comparison of entry and exit groups in the TOEIC_ 209

Table 6.19: Comparison of C-test scores (Taiwanese, New Zealand and UK

students exiting degree programs) ______________________________ 210

Table 7.1: Entry-level participants - non-English major subjects __________ 215

Table 7.2: Exit-level participants –non-English major subjects____________ 217

Table 7.3: Entry-level participants - College Entrance Examination levels __ 220

Table 7.4: Entry-level participants - Technological and Vocational

Education Joint College Entrance Examination percentage bands _____ 220

Table 7.5: Entry-level participants – College Entrance Examination levels

and average C-test scores _____________________________________ 220

Table 7.6: Entry-level participants – College Entrance Examination levels

and average C-test scores _____________________________________ 220

Table 7.7: Graduation English proficiency benchmarks as indicated by exit-

level participants____________________________________________ 227

Table 7.8: Language backgrounds of entry-level and exit-level participants

by percentage ______________________________________________ 231

Table 7.9: Reasons for including English in degree study ________________ 238

Table 7.10: Perceptions of typical English-speaking people and Taiwanese

people ____________________________________________________ 239

-xiv-

Table 7.11: Entry-level participants - Perceptions of relative importance of

the ability to use English in specified situations (by percentage)_______ 241

Table 7.12: Exit-level participants - Perceptions of relative importance of

the ability to use English in specified situations (by percentage)_______ 241

Table 7.13: Entry-level and exit-level participants - Competencies regarded

as ‘very important’ or ‘important’ (by percentage) _________________ 242

Table 7.14: Entry-level and exit-level participants - Willingness to engage

with English in specified contexts (by percentage)__________________ 243

Table 7.15: Entry-level and exit-level participants – Extent to which they

are prepared to move out of their comfort zone in relation to particular

skills _____________________________________________________ 244

Table 7.16: Entry-level and exit-level participants - Verbal or non-verbal

responses to situations encountered in Taiwan (by percentage) _______ 245

Table 7.17: Entry-level participants – Attitudes towards their own children

(country of upbringing and language) and C-test averages ___________ 248

Table 7.18: Exit-level participants – Attitudes towards their own children

(country of upbringing and language) and C-test averages ___________ 248

Table 7.19: Entry-level participants: Attempts to identify the subject of ‘The

boy in the blue jeans waved to me’ ______________________________ 253

Table 7.20: Entry-level participants: Attempts to identify the indirect object

of ‘He gave me the red book’ __________________________________ 254

Table 7.21: Entry-level participants: Attempts to identify the modal verb in__ 255

‘I might not have seen you’ ________________________________________ 255

Table 7.22: Some factors that appear to have a bearing on proficiency in the

case of entry-level participants _________________________________ 256

Table 7.23: Some factors that appear to have a bearing on proficiency in the

case of both entry-level and exit-level participants _________________ 257

Table 7.24: Some final observations emerging from the questionnaire

responses__________________________________________________ 258

-xv-

List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Map of Taiwan __________________________________________ 4

Figure 5.1: Sex of respondents _____________________________________ 148

Figure 5.2: Age of respondents_____________________________________ 148

Figure 5.3: First degree specialist subjects of respondents by number of

selections and percentage _____________________________________ 149

Figure 5.4: Masters degree specialist subjects of respondents by number

of selections and percentage ___________________________________ 150

Figure 5.5: Number/ percentage with doctorates_______________________ 151

Figure 5.6: Doctorate degree specialist subjects _______________________ 151

Figure 5.7: TEF/SL - Type of specialisation___________________________ 152

Figure 5.8: Areas covered in teacher training programmes ______________ 153

Figure 5.9: Number of years of experience of teaching English ___________ 154

Figure 5.10: Contexts in which respondents were currently teaching

English ___________________________________________________ 154

Figure 5.11: Types of course respondents were currently teaching_________ 155

Figure 5.12: Respondents’ knowledge of the content of other English

courses taken by their students in the same year of study. ____________ 156

Figure 5.13: Whether respondents would attempt to make direct links

between a reading course taught by them and a writing course taught

by another member of staff to the same students in the same year of

study _____________________________________________________ 157

Figure 5.14: Ways of ensuring that courses related to one another_________ 157

Figure 5.15: Respondents’ views concerning the adequacy of their own

preparation to teach English___________________________________ 158

Figure 5.16: Availability of in-service teacher training in the institutions

where respondents worked ____________________________________ 159

Figure 5.17: Respondents’ views on the usefulness of in-service training

provided by the institutions where they worked ____________________ 159

Figure 5.18: Respondents’ approaches to improving their teaching skills ___ 160

Figure 5.19: Ways in which respondents maintain and develop their

English ___________________________________________________ 161

Figure 5.20: Respondents’ preferences in relation to in-service provision ___ 162

-xvi-

Figure 5.21: Responses relating to whether the institution/s in which

participants worked had an overall English curriculum _____________ 163

Figure 5.22: Respondents’ opinions on the matter of overall coherence in

the institutional English curriculum _____________________________ 164

Figure 5.23: Respondents’ views on the importance of being provided with

an explicit syllabus document __________________________________ 165

Figure 5.24: Respondents’ views on the usefulness of syllabus documents

provided by their institution ___________________________________ 165

Figure 5.25: What respondents would do if not provided with a syllabus

document for a particular course _______________________________ 166

Figure 5.26: whether participants would be able to provide an example of

their course outcome_________________________________________ 167

Figure 5.27: Respondents’ approaches to deciding on course content ______ 169

Figure 5.28: Materials used in teaching______________________________ 170

Figure 5.29: How respondents selected textbooks ______________________ 171

Figure 5.30: Respondents’ opinions of their students’ views of the

textbooks used ______________________________________________ 172

Figure 5.31: Respondents’ use of textbooks (same series; different series)___ 172

Figure 5.32: Factors that can affect the decision to change from one

textbook series to another _____________________________________ 173

Figure 5.33: Responses relating to whether or not institutions have

specific proficiency targets for their students ______________________ 174

Figure 5.34: Responses relating to proficiency targets for English major

students ___________________________________________________ 174

Figure 5.34A: Respondents’ data relating to proficiency targets for

English minor students _______________________________________ 175

Figure 5.35: Respondents’ estimate of the percentage of students who

achieve required proficiency benchmarks ________________________ 176

Figure 5.36: Respondents’ views on institutional response to student

failure to achieve proficiency benchmarks ________________________ 177

Figure 5.37: The number of participants who were aware of the

proficiency levels of students entering their courses ________________ 177

Figure 5.38: How respondents’ knew the proficiency levels of students

entering their courses ________________________________________ 178

-xvii-

Figure 5.39: Types of placement test run by institutions _________________ 179

Figure 5.40: Responses to a question about whether participants’

institutions provided diagnostic testing __________________________ 179

Figure 5.41: Participants views on whether there is a distinction between

‘discourse competence’ and ‘grammatical competence’ _____________ 180

Figure 5.42: Number and percentage) of participants who provided

examples of discourse competence that indicated an understanding of

the way in which the term is generally used _______________________ 182

Figure 5.43: Participants’ views on whether ‘communicative language

teaching’ is relevant at the levels they teach ______________________ 182

Figure 5.44: Participants views on whether communicative language

teaching can take place in classes of 20 or more students ____________ 183

Figure 5.45: Participants’ views on whether their own teaching could be

described as ‘communicative’__________________________________ 183

Figure 5.46: Three characteristics of communicative language teaching –

number of times different items occurred _________________________ 184

Figure 5.47: Participants’ estimates of the amount of time they spend

talking in class _____________________________________________ 184

Figure 5.48: Respondents’ teaching philosophy________________________ 186

Figure 7.1: Entry-level participants – percentage of males & females ______ 213

Figure 7.2: Entry-level participants – average C-test scores of males &

females ___________________________________________________ 213

Figure 7.3: Exit-level participants –percentage of males & females ________ 214

Figure 7.4: Exit-level participants – average C-test scores of males &

females ___________________________________________________ 214

Figure 7.5: Age groups of entry-level participants by percentage _________ 214

Figure 7.6: Age groups of exit-level participants by percentage __________ 214

Figure 7.7: Entry-level participants: Average C-test scores by major

subject category (English; foreign language other than English or

language teaching (A category); applied Chinese or some aspect of

communication (B category); other (C category)) __________________ 216

Figure 7.8: Exit-level participants: Average C-test scores by major subject

category (English; applied Chinese or some aspect of communication

(B category); other (C category)) _______________________________ 217

-xviii-

Figure 7.9: Entry-level participants - attendance at different types of high

school ____________________________________________________ 218

Figure 7.10: Entry-level participants - average C-test scores of

participants who attended different types of high school _____________ 218

Figure 7.11: Entry-level participants – Average C-test score of those who

had specialized in Applied Foreign Languages (English) and those

who had not________________________________________________ 219

Figure 7.12: Entry-level participants - number of weekly high school

English classes _____________________________________________ 221

Figure 7.13: Entry-level participants: Average C-test scores of those who

had five or more English classes each week at high school and those

who had four or fewer________________________________________ 221

Figure 7.14: Entry-level participants – Number of years of English study ___ 222

Figure 7.15: Entry-level participants - Relationship between number of

years of English study and average C-test scores___________________ 222

Figure 7.16: Exit-level participants - Number of years of English study _____ 223

Figure 7.17: Exit-level participants: Relationship between number of

years of English study and average C-test scores___________________ 223

Figure 7.18: Exit-level participants: Number of years of English study in

current institution ___________________________________________ 224

Figure 7.19: Exit-level participants: Number of English courses still to be

taken as part of their degree ___________________________________ 224

Figure 7.20: Exit-level participants: Average C-test scores in relation to

number of years of study of English in current institution ____________ 225

Figure 7.21: Percentage of exit-level participants who indicated that their

institution had graduation English proficiency benchmarks __________ 226

Figure 7.22: Percentage of exit-level participants who indicated what

their institution’s graduation English proficiency benchmarks were____ 226

Figure 7.23: Exit-level participants – achievement of graduation

proficiency benchmark _______________________________________ 229

Figure 7.24: Exit-level participants – Average C-test scores of those who

had achieved their institution’s proficiency benchmark and those who

had not____________________________________________________ 230

-xix-

Figure 7.25: Entry-level participants - Average C-test scores of first

language speakers of Mandarin and first language speakers of other

languages _________________________________________________ 232

Figure 7.26: Exit--level participants - Average C-test scores of first

language speakers of Mandarin and first language speakers of other

languages _________________________________________________ 232

Figure 7.27: Entry-level participants who had visited an English-speaking

country ___________________________________________________ 232

Figure 7.28: Exit-level participants who had visited an English-speaking

country ___________________________________________________ 232

Figure 7.29: Entry-level participants – Number of visits to an English-

speaking country ____________________________________________ 233

Figure 7.30: Exit-level participants – Number of visits to an English-

speaking country ____________________________________________ 233

Figure 7.31: Entry-level participants - Length of time spent in an English-

speaking country ____________________________________________ 233

Figure 7.32: Exit-level participants - Length of time spent in an English-

speaking country ____________________________________________ 233

Figure 7.33: Entry-level participants - Average C-test scores of those who

had spent some time in an English-speaking country and those who

had not____________________________________________________ 234

Figure 7.34: Exit -level participants - Average C-test scores of those who

had spent some time in an English-speaking country and those who

had not____________________________________________________ 234

Figure 7.35: Entry-level participants - Average C-test scores of those who

had spent one month or more in an English-speaking country and

those who had not ___________________________________________ 234

Figure 7.36: Exit-level participants - Average C-test scores of those who

had spent one month or more in an English-speaking country and

those who had not ___________________________________________ 234

Figure 7.37: Entry-level participants – Proficiency self-evaluation ________ 235

Figure 7.38: Exit-level participants – Proficiency self-evaluation__________ 235

Figure 7.39: Entry-level participants: Average C-test scores and

proficiency self-evaluation bands _______________________________ 235

-xx-

Figure 7.40: Exit-level participants: Average C-test scores and

proficiency self-evaluation bands _______________________________ 235

Figure 7.41: Entry-level participants – Study of languages other than

English and Mandarin in the past_______________________________ 236

Figure 7.42: Exit-level participants – Study of languages other than

English and Mandarin in the past_______________________________ 236

Figure 7.43: Entry-level participants – Study of languages other than

English and Mandarin in the past and C-test averages______________ 236

Figure 7.44: Exit-level participants – Study of languages other than

English and Mandarin in the past and C-test averages______________ 236

Figure 7.45: Entry-level participants – current or planned study of other

languages _________________________________________________ 237

Figure 7.46: Exit-level participants – current or planned study of other

languages _________________________________________________ 237

Figure 7.47: Entry-level participants – current or planned study of other

languages and C-test averages _________________________________ 237

Figure 7.48: Exit-level participants – current or planned study of other

languages and C-test averages _________________________________ 237

Figure 7.49: Entry-level participants – Embarrassed when make mistakes

in speaking English? _________________________________________ 246

Figure 7.50: Exit-level participants – Embarrassed when make mistakes in

speaking English? ___________________________________________ 246

Figure 7.51: Entry-level participants: Average C-test score of those who

would, and those who would not feel embarrassed if they made

mistakes while speaking English________________________________ 246

Figure 7.52: Exit-level participants: Average C-test score of those who

would, and those who would not feel embarrassed if they made

mistakes while speaking English________________________________ 246

Figure 7.53: Entry-level participants – Would or would not like to be

considered to be native speakers of English (by percentage)__________ 247

Figure 7.54: Exit-level participants – Would or would not like to be

considered to be native speakers of English (by percentage)__________ 247

-xxi-

Figure 7.55: Entry-level participants – Average C-test scores of those who

would, and those who would not like to be considered to be native

speakers of English __________________________________________ 247

Figure 7.56: Exit-level participants – Average C-test scores of those who

would, and those who would not like to be considered to be native

speakers of English __________________________________________ 247

Figure 7.57: Entry-level participants – Attitudes towards their own

children (country of upbringing and language) ____________________ 248

Figure 7.58: Exit-level participants – Attitudes towards their own children

(country of upbringing and language) ___________________________ 248

Figure 7.59: Entry-level participants: Parents’ capacity to use English to

socialize with native speakers __________________________________ 249

Figure 7.60: Exit-level participants: Parents’ capacity to use English to

socialize with native speakers __________________________________ 249

Figure 7.61: Entry-level participants: Average C-test scores correlated

with whether parents can use English to socialize __________________ 249

Figure 7.62: Exit-level participants: Average C-test scores correlated with

whether parents can use English to socialize ______________________ 249

Figure 7.63: Entry-level students: Parents’ capacity to use a foreign

language other than English to socialize with native speakers ________ 250

Figure 7.64: Exit-level students: Parents’ capacity to use a foreign

language other than English to socialize with native speakers ________ 250

Figure 7.65: Entry-level students: Average C-test scores correlated with

parents’ capacity to use a foreign language other than English to

socialize with native speakers __________________________________ 250

Figure 7.66: Exit-level students: Average C-test scores correlated with

parents’ capacity to use a foreign language other than English to

socialize with native speakers __________________________________ 250

Figure 7.67: Entry-level participants – Parental encouragement __________ 251

Figure 7.68: Exit-level participants – Parental encouragement ___________ 251

Figure 7.69: Entry-level participants: Average C-test scores correlated

with parental encouragement __________________________________ 251

Figure 7.70: Exit-level participants: Average C-test scores correlated with

parental encouragement ______________________________________ 251

-xxii-

Figure 7.71: Entry-level participants: Whether parents had friends

overseas with whom they could exchange visits ____________________ 252

Figure 7.72: Exit-level participants: Whether parents had friends overseas

with whom they could exchange visits ___________________________ 252

Figure 7.73: Entry-level participants: Whether siblings keen on foreign

language learning ___________________________________________ 252

Figure 7.74: Exit-level participants: Whether siblings keen on foreign

language learning ___________________________________________ 252

Figure 7.75: Entry-level participants: Percentage who claimed to know

what a ‘subject’ was _________________________________________ 253

Figure 7.76: Entry-level participants: Percentage who claimed to know

what an ‘indirect object’ was __________________________________ 254

Figure 7.77: Entry-level participants: Percentage who claimed to know

what a ‘modal verb’ was______________________________________ 254

-1-

Chapter 1

Introduction to research background, research questions and

research methods

1.1 Background to the research: A personal perspective

We are entering a phase of global English which is less glamorous, less

news-worthy, and further from the leading edge of exciting ideas. It is the

‘implementation stage’ which will shape future identities, economies and

cultures. The way this stage is managed could determine the futures of

several generations.

David Graddol, English Next, 2006, p. 109.

This research project evolved out of the problems I and many of my colleagues

face as tertiary teachers of English in Taiwan, problems relating, in a general

sense, to the attitudes, motivation and proficiency achievements of students of

English, particularly those majoring in the language. Many tertiary-level teachers

of English in Taiwan feel themselves to be under constant pressure to improve the

performance of their students, pressure that relates both to internal factors - the

desire to do better - and external factors - the expectations of educational

managers, parents and the students themselves, expectations that are reflected in

ongoing discussion in the popular press about the need to improve the English

language proficiency of Taiwanese students. The problems involved in doing this,

however, often appear to be insurmountable. Teachers of English do not operate

in a vacuum. They operate in a political, social and institutional context which

impacts on everything they do. When students enter tertiary-level education, they

already have experience of learning English. They also have expectations about

what language learning involves and what constitutes success. These are based in

part on their earlier language learning and assessment experiences. Tertiary level

teachers are, to some extent, constrained by these expectations. They are also

constrained by the existing levels of achievement of their students, by the

-2-

institutional contexts in which they work, by the curriculum frameworks in which

they operate (including internal and external assessment methods and, often, the

fact that they need to work with materials selected by others), and by the

interaction of their courses with courses taught by others.

My starting point is the context in which I currently operate. I am a lecturer in

English language at Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages (Wenzao), an

institution which has provided education in languages since 1966. I have a

particular interest in the teaching and learning of English in this institution at this

particular stage of its evolution. However, although my focus begins and ends

with Wenzao, it moves beyond it to examine aspects of the national and

international context in which it operates since no institution can be understood

unless the context within which it operates is understood.

1.2 Background to the research: The Taiwanese context

1.2.1 Introduction to Taiwan

Taiwan (formerly Formosa, now also referred to as Republic of China), is situated

in the East China Sea, midway between Japan and Korea to the north and Hong

Kong and the Philippines to the south. Its population currently stands at

approximately 23 million people, over 90% of whom are Buddhist, Confucian or

Taoist, and approximately 4.5% of whom are Christian (Clark, 2002)1. Taiwan

has a dynamic economy, its GDP (purchasing power parity) being estimated at

approximately $611.5 billion in 2005, with exports of $189.4 billion. It is a major

investor throughout Southeast Asia and has the third largest foreign reserves in the

world. In January 2002, it was admitted to the World Trade Organization (WTO),

opening up official links to international markets, but also leading to an increase

in business competition.

1 In the case of Web-based materials which have no page numbers, I have included paragraph numbers only where this would be helpful. I have done so in the case of very short or very long pieces.

-3-

1.2.2 Taiwan: Brief historical overview

“Before the seventeenth century, Taiwan (Formosa) was an isolated and virtually

unknown part of the world”. From the seventeenth century onwards, “there was a

surge of European interest in the region and it became a coveted strategic location

for both military and trade purposes” (Her, 2003, p. 20). Toward the end of the

Ming dynasty, the Dutch occupied the south of Taiwan,2 the Dutch colonial period

lasting from 1624 until 1662 when they were ousted by Jheng Cheng-gong who

was loyal to the Ming dynasty. The Ming dynasty was, in turn, defeated by the

Cing dynasty which governed from 1683 until Taiwan was ceded by China to

Japan in 1895, remaining under Japanese rule until 1945 when it was returned to

China at the end of World War II (Government Information Office, 2003, chap.

3). In 1949, following a Communist victory in mainland China, Chiang Kai-shek

and the central government of the Republic of China relocated to Taiwan along

with approximately 2 million Chinese Nationalists. They established a

government based on the 1946 Chinese constitution. For the first 38 years

following the relocation of the central government of the Republic of China,

Taiwan was ruled under martial law. In 1950, during the period of martial law,

the outbreak of the Korean War led Truman, the United States President, to issue

an order protecting Taiwan from attack by Mainland China, an act which began a

close political and economic relationship between Taiwan and the United States

and led to a period of rapid modernization and industrialization (Government

Information Office, 2005, chap. 3). In 2000, Taiwan underwent a peaceful

transfer of power from the Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party.

1.2.3 Taiwan: Brief geographical overview

Taiwan is made up of a small island and a number of islets (including Penghu,

Kinmen, and Matsu) located off the southeastern coast of China, north of the

Philippines, and south of Korea and Japan. It is surrounded by the Western Pacific

Ocean and the Taiwan Strait. The main island of Taiwan, shaped like a tobacco

leaf, is 394 km long and 144 km wide, with a total area of approximately 36,179

2 The Spanish occupied the northern area of Taiwan in 1626 till they were defeated by the Dutch in 1642.

-4-

sq. km. At it closest point, Taiwan’s main island is 130km from Mainland China

(see Figure 1.1 from website of Maryknoll Taiwan Information Service, 2006).

Figure 1.1: Map of Taiwan

Taiwan’s land area is made up of steep mountains (31%), hills and terraces (38%),

and alluvial plains (31%) where most communities, farming activities, and

industries are concentrated (Government Information Office, 2003, chap. 1). The

main cities are Taipei (the capital and largest city, situated in the north of the main

island: population over 2.6 million) and Kaohsiung (second largest city and main

port, situated in the south of the main island: population approximately 1.6

million).

-5-

1.2.4 Taiwan: Brief introduction to its people and languages

From 12,000 to 15,000 years ago, the indigenous Austronesian people of Taiwan

occupied settlements in the south and along the east coast. The northern and

central parts of Taiwan were more recently inhabited by Han people

(approximately three quarters Fujainese and one quarter Hakka) from southern

China. In 1949, they were joined by the group of migrants who fled with Chiang

Kai-shek from the Republic of China. Since 1949, the official language of

Taiwan has been Mandarin, but the Taiwanese and Hakka dialects are also widely

spoken.3 Many of the older people also understand Japanese, and some of the

indigenous people (making up approximately 2% of the population) speak, with

varying degrees of proficiency, one of the indigenous languages of the country.

The indigenous Austronesian languages gradually lost speakers during Japanese

occupation and the years of martial law. However, the Council of Indigenous

Peoples was established in 1996 and since 2001, and primary and junior high

school students are now required to take at least one course on a local language

(Government Information Office, 2004, chaps. 2 & 18). Also in 2001, the

Council of Aboriginal Affairs adopted a program similar to New Zealand’s Māori

Köhanga Reo (language nest) program, a program involving Māori language-

based pre-school education, and implemented an Aboriginal Language Networks

scheme to provide total immersion education in its twelve districts.

1.2.5 Taiwan: Brief introduction to its economy

With the assistance of the United States of America, Taiwan’s economy

developed rapidly following World War II. In the 1950s, 90% of exports were

agriculture or food related; in the 1960s and 1970s, the emphasis moved to light

manufacturing; in the 1980s and 1990s, major export earners were high

technology and chemical products and Taiwan was already a major investor

throughout Southeast Asia (Government Information Office, 2003, chap. 9). By

2001, Taiwan had become the 14th largest exporter and 16th largest importer in the

world, and had the world’s third largest foreign exchange reserves. In that year,

3 Taiwanese and Hakka are dialects of the Han language family. The Taiwanese dialect is spoken by approximately 70% of the population, the Hakka dialect by approximately 12% of the population.

-6-

the United States was Taiwan’s largest trading partner (although exports to the US

had fallen from nearly 40% to 22% over the preceding ten year period), its

eleventh and twelfth largest (also predominantly English-speaking) being the UK

and Australia. In January 2002, Taiwan was admitted to the World Trade

Organization (WTO), opening up official links to international markets, but also

leading to an increase in business competition. By 2003, the United States had

dropped into third position as a trading partner. Among Taiwan’s other significant

trading partners were countries where a range of languages other than English and

Mandarin predominate. These include Japan, Korea, Germany, Malaysia,

Netherlands, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and France (Washington State

Taiwan Office, 2006; Chung, 2003). Since 1990, exports to Mainland China have

risen dramatically. In 2004, Mainland China was Taiwan’s third largest import

source (9.9%) following Japan (26%) and the United States (12.9), and its largest

export destination (19.5%), followed by Hong Kong (17.1%) and the United

States (16.2%) (Trade Statistics (Bureau of Foreign Trade, Taiwan), 2005).

1.2.6 Education in Taiwan: An overview

1.2.6.1 Overview

There have been many changes the Taiwanese education system in the past four

decades. In 1968, at the end of the 38 year period of martial law, the period of

free, compulsory education was extended from six years to nine years. In the

1970s, the demands of the rapidly industrializing economy led to greater emphasis

being placed on vocational education. In 1990, a further three years of free (but

non-compulsory) schooling was guaranteed by statute. Although the government

continues to maintain strong centralized control over many aspects of educational

planning, educational reforms have provided for a greater measure of institutional

and personal choice than was traditionally the case. One of the four principles

guiding educational reform is the desire “to create an adaptive learning

environment with a flexible education system” (Ministry of Education (Taiwan),

2006, June 2).

-7-

1.2.6.2 From pre-school education to graduate education

Approximately one quarter of children in Taiwan attend non-compulsory pre-

school educational facilities, the majority of which (approximately three quarters)

are private (Government Information Office, 2003, chap. 18).

The nine-year compulsory education plan, introduced in 1968, provides for six

years of compulsory primary education and three years of compulsory junior high

school education. On completion of their primary education, students are

awarded a primary diploma and sit competitive national examinations which

determine which junior high school they may enter.4,5 Following graduation from

junior high school, students sit a further set of competitive national examinations

which, together with applications, interviews and, often, further institution-

specific examinations, determine whether they may attend three year senior high

schools, vocational senior high schools6 or five-year junior colleges.7, 8, 9 Entrants

4 “Since 1996, the government has been establishing experimental bilateral high schools and comprehensive junior-senior high schools. Combining vocational and academic curricula, bilateral high schools are designed to give students a broader knowledge base, thus enabling them to choose their career paths in a more informed manner. Under the Voluntary Promotion Scheme for Junior High School Graduates entering Senior High School, experimental classes or schools provide students with the option of attending a comprehensive junior-senior high school, allowing them to progress from junior high to senior high school without having to take the competitive entrance examinations”(Clark, 2002, Recent Secondary School Reforms section). 5 “Effective from 2001, the Joint Public Senior High School Entrance Examinations were eliminated, and a multi-route program to enter senior high school was implemented, allowing junior high graduates to enter high schools through assignment, application or selection by recommendation. However, junior high graduates must still pass the Basic Achievement Test for Junior High Students (BAT). After obtaining a BAT score, students can file applications, be selected by recommendation or get assigned based on their BAT score” (Clark, 2002, Recent Secondary School Reforms section). 6 Vocational Schools offer programs in combination of general education subjects in addition to a vocational component selected from one of seven main areas: industry or medicine, commerce, maritime studies, agriculture, nursing, home economics, drama and the arts (Department of Statistics (Ministry of Education), 2005, p.16). Academic schools focus on the humanities and sciences, and are mainly intended to prepare students for admission to higher education institutions which, until 2002 was by means of a highly competitive Universities and Colleges Joint Entrance Examination. Since 2002, entry to higher education has involved one of three processes: (1) an application process, (2) selection by recommendation, and (3) a Joint University Entrance Examination. The first (application process) requires students to pass a general Scholastic Attainment Test for College-bound Seniors (SAT) and then to apply individually to colleges. The second (selection by recommendation) calls for recommendations by senior high schools (from their recommendation quota). Recommended students then take the SAT and the College Testing of Proficiency for Selected Subjects of College-Bound Seniors. The third involves sitting a Joint University Entrance Examination (JUEE) in one of its three different modes (Government Information Office, 2005, Multi-route Promotion Program for College-bound Seniors section; Ministry of Education, 2005, January 23). 7 “Until SY 2001, all students took the Joint Public Senior High School Entrance Examinations, which has now been replaced by the Basic Achievement Test for Junior High School Students”

-8-

to five year junior colleges may, on completion of their junior college studies,

apply for entry to degree study at two year institutes or universities of

technology10 or at four year colleges or universities.11, 12 Graduates from academic

or vocational senior high school may apply for entry to two year

institutes/universities of technology or to four year universities or colleges.13 On

completion of degree-level study, students may enter graduate programmes

leading to Masters degrees (taking between one and four years for completion)

and then doctoral programmes (taking between two and seven years to complete)

(Department of Statistics (Ministry of Education), 2003, 2005, chap 5). In 1999,

Taiwan had more than 5 million students studying in over 8,000 schools at all

levels, including 1.2 million students in more than 100 institutions in the higher

education sector (Ministry of Education (Taiwan), 2006, June 2). It now has over

150 recognized institutions of higher education, both public and private, divided

into the following categories: four-year universities and colleges, institutes of

technology/polytechnics and junior colleges. Both universities and independent

colleges offer four-year programs leading to a Bachelor's degree. To qualify as a

university, an institution must have least three faculties and it must have

demonstrably research-active staff (Ministry of Education (Taiwan), 2006,

December 4). (Clark, 2002, Entrance Exam section). 8 “In 1995, the Practical Technical Program became an extension of the nine-year compulsory education system. Technical training courses begin in the third year for junior high students who do not wish to continue in a general education curriculum. Upon graduation, they may also enroll in vocational schools that provide a minimum of one additional year of vocational training” (Clark, 2002, Recent Secondary School Reforms section). 9 “Five-year junior college programs, primarily technical and vocational in content, combine a student's three remaining years of high school with two years of higher education. Successful students are awarded a Certificate/Diploma of Graduation” (Clark, 2002, Secondary Education section). 10 “Students who have completed a two-year, junior-college-level program in certain technological disciplines may complete a bachelor's degree in the same field at a public institute/university of technology. This requires an additional two years of study” (Clark, 2002, Programs and Degrees section).. 11 “Admission to institutions of higher education is based on results from the highly competitive…Joint College Entrance Examination or the Universities and Colleges Joint Entrance Examination, administered by the Ministry of Education”(Clark, 2002, Admission and Access section). 12 “The Ministry of Education requires that a minimum of 128 credit hours be completed during a four-year bachelor-degree program” (Clark, 2002, Programs and Degrees section). 13 The academic track includes three years of senior high school education, college/university education and post-graduate programs. The educational goal at these levels is to nurture high-quality specialists with expertise and international vision. Vocational Education includes professional high schools, junior colleges, institutes of technology and universities of technology. Its purpose is to develop technical manpower for economic development.

-9-

Education in Taiwan is centrally administrated by the Ministry of Education in

collaboration with local Education Bureaux. The Ministry of Education oversees

educational policy and the operation of colleges and educational organizations

(public and private). Education Bureaux are responsible for policy implementation

and the oversight of schools within their administrative territories.

Between 1997 and 1998, the Elementary and Junior High School Curriculum

Panel prepared an initial outline of a new Grade 1~9 Integrated Coordinated

Curriculum. The new nine-year curriculum for primary/ elementary and junior

high schools, which includes seven essential learning areas14, was launched in

2001. The ten curriculum goals (Ministry of Education (Taiwan), 2004e) are:

• to enhance self-understanding and explore individual potential;

• to develop creativity, the ability to appreciate beauty, one’s own talents;

• to promote abilities related to career planning and lifelong learning;

• to cultivate knowledge and skills related to expression, communication,

and sharing;

• to learn to respect others, to care for the community, and to work as a

member of a team;

• to further cultural learning and international understanding;

• to strengthen knowledge and skills related to planning and organizing,

and their implementation;

• to acquire the ability to utilize technology and information;

• to encourage a positive attitude towards active learning and studying; and

• to develop abilities related to independent thinking and problem solving.

In line with these curriculum goals are a range of core competences associated

with each of the seven learning areas. This new curriculum marks a major change

in the philosophy of education, signalling a move away from rote learning.

14 These are: Language Arts, Health and Physical Education, Social Studies, Arts and Humanities, Mathematics, and Natural Science and Life Technology.

-10-

In implementing the new curriculum, each school is required to form a

Curriculum Development Committee, including a panel for each of the seven

learning areas. The committee’s task is to prepare a curriculum plan (which is

submitted to the local education authority). That plan outlines the school

curriculum, allocates times to subject areas, indicates selected teaching topics,

activities and textbooks 15 , and provides detail about how curriculum and

instructional evaluation will be conducted. Included in Language Arts, one of the

seven essential learning areas, are Mandarin (the official language of Taiwan),

English and any other languages offered, including at least one course on a local

language.

1.2.6.3 The role of English in Taiwanese education

In common with many countries throughout Asia, Taiwan regards English

language education as critical to its future. Indeed, 80% of respondents in a public

opinion survey published in January 2006 reported that they hoped that the

Taiwanese government would designate English the second official language

(Graddol, 2006, p. 89). At the same time, in common with many other countries in

Asia, including Thailand, the Philippines and Japan, the Taiwanese government

has recently expressed “grave anxiety about its national proficiency in English”

(p. 95).

English is a common second language in Taiwan, with many large private schools

providing English language instruction, and television channels in English

(largely originating in the US) being widely available. English language education

has been a compulsory part of secondary schooling (junior high school) in Taiwan

since 1968. From 2001, English was introduced at Grade 5 of elementary

schooling; from 2005, it was introduced at Grade 3 (Ministry of Education

(Taiwan), 2004d; Oladejo, 2005). The extent of English provision in elementary

schools is not mandated and can be as little as one period of 40 minutes each

15 In selecting textbooks, schools are expected to refer the to list of textbooks approved by the National Institution for Compilation and Translation (NICT) (Department of Statistics (Ministry of Education), 2003, pp. 28-29). School textbook selections also need to be included in curriculum plans which, in turn, need to be approved by the local education authority.

-11-

week16. However, senior high school students are required to take four hours of

English per week in a semester 17 for three years, (totalling 16 credits) and

vocational school students are required to take two hours per week of English

instruction each semester in the first two years and two hours per week of

conversational English in the final two semesters (Department of Statistics

(Ministry of Education), 2003, pp. 31-32). In addition to attending English

classes in school, many students, particularly in the metropolitan areas, take

English courses at what are popularly referred to as ‘cram schools’, that is,

independent after-school learning establishments. Although many parents elect to

send their children to pre-schools in which there is partial or complete immersion

in English, since February 2004, the Ministry of Education policy has been that

English should not be taught in pre-schools (either as a subject or as an immersion

context) so that children are given adequate opportunity to explore Mandarin and,

where it is not Mandarin, their home language (Ministry of Education (Taiwan),

2004g).

1.3 Overview of research aim, research questions and research methods

1.3.1 Overall research aim

Graddol (2006, p. 22) observes that “the business of teaching and learning English

is . . . changing beyond recognition” and “[the] relationships between stakeholders

in the global English business – learners, parents, governments, employers,

publishers, schools – are also evolving rapidly”.

The overall aim of this research project is to investigate (a) how those involved,

directly and indirectly, in the teaching and learning of English in higher education

institutions in Taiwan are affected by, and perceive themselves to be affected by, a

16 Students in Grades 1 – 2 have between 4 and 6 lessons a week (out of a total of between 22 and 24 lessons) in the area of Language Arts; students in Grades 3 – 4 have between 5 and 8 lessons a week (out of a total of between 28 and 31 lessons) in the area of Language Arts, students in Grades 5 – 6 have between 5 and 8 lessons a week (out of a total of between 30 and 33 lessons) in the area of Language Arts; students in Grades 7 and 8 (junior high school) have between 6 and 8 lessons a week (out of a total of between 32 and 34 lessons) in the area of Language Arts, and students in Grade 9 (junior high school) have between 6 and 9 lessons a week (out of a total of between 33 and 35 lessons) in the area of Language Arts. (Department of Statistics (Ministry of Education), 2005, p. 30). 17 There are twenty weeks in each of the two school semesters.

-12-

range of contextual factors, including national and global trends in English

language education, (b) how they are responding, and (c) how effective their

responses are. This is an area that has not previously been investigated in depth,

publications such as that by Nunan (2003), focusing on the school sector in a

number of countries in Asia and being largely confined to providing an overview

of some policy changes that have taken place in recent years.

The research begins in one particular institution of higher education (Wenzao

Ursuline College of Languages in Taiwan), recording the hopes, aspirations and

concerns of some of those who have been most closely involved in its evolution in

relation, in particular, to the teaching and learning of English (Chapter 2). These

voices echo throughout the research as it becomes clear that many of the issues

they highlight are also issues, in one form or another, that are of concern to others

– both students and educationalists – throughout Taiwan and in other countries.

1.3.2 Overview of research questions and research methods

These research questions can be grouped into a number of categories as follows.

Category 1:

Issues relating to the teaching and learning of English in higher educational

institutions in Taiwan: Educational leaders speak out.

Research question:

• How do educational leaders in one higher education institution in Taiwan

(an institution with a long-standing reputation for providing vocationally-

oriented languages education) perceive the issues that they are currently

facing particularly in relation to English language education?

Research method:

A case study based on semi-structured interviews with educational managers (see

Chapter 2).

-13-

Category 2:

The global positioning of language – national and international response

Research question:

• What major influences, national and international, are currently affecting

the teaching of English in higher education institutions in Taiwan and are

likely to affect it in the next decade?

Research method:

Critical review of literature on the global positioning of English and national and

international responses to that positioning, including issues relating to proficiency

specification and requirements, curriculum design, methodology and assessment

(see Chapter 3).

Category 3:

The changing face of English language education in Taiwan as reflected in

Ministry of Education curricula for English in schools.

Research question:

• What do the English language curricula for English in Taiwanese schools

(particularly the recently produced curriculum for elementary and junior

high schools) tell us about the direction of English language education in

the country?

Research method:

Translation of the English language curriculum for English in elementary and

junior high schools in Taiwan and analysis of this curriculum and others in

relation to content, methodology and materials (see Chapter 4).

Category 4:

English teaching staff in a sample of higher education institutions in Taiwan:

Background, training and perception of issues relating to the teaching and learning

of English

-14-

Research questions:

• What types of background, training and experience do English teaching

staff in a sample of higher education institutions in Taiwan have?

• How adequate do they perceive their education and training to have been

in relation to their current teaching responsibilities?

• What types of further education and training have they engaged in and

what types would they most welcome?

• What are their views on language curricula, curriculum coherence, and

teaching and learning methodologies and materials?

• What institutional policies on diagnostic and placement testing and

proficiency target setting are they aware of?

Research method:

Self-completion questionnaire (see Chapter 5).

Category 5:

Sampling the English language proficiency of students in a number of higher

education institutions in Taiwan.

Research questions:

• What are the English language proficiency achievements of students

(English majors and non-English majors) on entry to and exit from

Bachelors degree-level study of English in a sample of higher education

institutions in Taiwan?

• How do these proficiency achievements compare with the proficiency

achievements of students studying elsewhere?

Research methods:

Administration, data recording and data analysis of an English C-test designed

and tested in a major European study (see Chapter 6).

-15-

Category 6:

English and the learning of English: The language backgrounds, attitudes,

opinions and motivation of a sample of students attending higher education

institutions in Taiwan

Research questions:

• What are the language backgrounds of a sample of students who are

learning English in Taiwanese higher education institutions?

• What direct experience, if any, do they have of English-speaking

countries?

• What are their main reasons for studying English?

• In a general sense, how do they perceive people who speak English as a

first language?

• In what contexts do they think they are likely to use English after they

have completed their studies?

• How willing are they to use English in situations where they have a

choice?

• How able are they to explain aspects of the structure of English?

Research methods:

Adaptation, administration, data recording and comparative analysis of responses

to a self-completion questionnaire initially designed for use in a major European

study (see Chapter 7).

Category 7:

Reviewing the response of higher education establishments in Taiwan to the

rapidly changing context in which English is taught and learned.

Research question:

• How effectively are Taiwanese higher education institutions coping with

the rapidly changing national and global context in which English is taught

and learned?

-16-

Research methods:

Review of the research findings (Chapters 2,4,5,6 & 7) in the light of the critical

literature review (Chapter 3) with conclusions, recommendations for future

research, and an analysis of the strengths and limitations of the research project

(see Chapter 8).

-17-

Chapter 2

Setting the agenda: Senior managers at Wenzao Ursuline College

of Languages reflect on change and change management

2.1 Introduction

Almost everywhere, educational systems are in a state of rapid change.

Globalisation has led to a desperate race in many countries to upgrade the

skills of their workforce faster than their economies are being forced up

the value chain.

David Graddol, English Next, p. 70.

Currently, a number of global processes are taking place which are having a

fundamental effect on approaches to English language education in Asia and in

other parts of the world (see Chapter 3). In common with other institutions

involved in higher education in Taiwan, Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages

(Wenzao) is in the process of reviewing its approach to English language

education. Like other institutions in Taiwan and elsewhere, it must consider

global and national processes in the context of its own unique circumstances. Its

future, its aims and ambitions, its problems and possibilities, are bound up with its

past. Nevertheless, many of the issues it faces are the same as, or similar to, the

issues faced by other institutions of higher education in Taiwan. When institutions

are undergoing a period of major change, all staff members are involved in one

way or another. It is, however, those who are directly involved in management

and governance who set the agenda for change and manage its overall direction.

In this chapter, I report on a series of semi-structured interviews with five people

involved in the management and governance of Wenzao. All of these people have

been involved with Wenzao for a considerable period of time, all are familiar with

its origins and its development, and all are fully aware of the pressures (global and

national) that are currently impacting upon the provision of English language

education in their institution and in other institutions in Taiwan.

-18-

I begin by providing some information about Wenzao (section 2.2) and about the

nature of the interviews and the identity of the interviewees (section 2.3) before

reporting on the interviews themselves (section 2.4), identifying main themes

(section 2.5) and discussing the significance of these interviews in relation to the

higher education sector in Taiwan as a whole (section 2.6).

2.2 Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages

Established in 1966 in Kaohsiung (the location o