The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

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THE GEOGRAPHY OF CAPITALIST ACCUMULATION: A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE MARXIAN THEORY * David Harvey Johns Hopkins University The spatial dimension to Marx's theory of accumulation under the capitalist mode of pro- duction has for too long been ignored. This is, in part, Marx's fault since his writings on the matter are fragmentary and often only sketchily developed. But careful scrutiny of his works reveals that Marx recognized that capital accumulation took place i n a geograph- ical context and that it in turn created specific kinds of geographical structures. Marx further develops a novel approach to location theory (in which dynamics are at the center of things) and shows that it is possi- ble to connect, theoretically, the general processes of economic growth with an explicit understanding of an emergent structure of spatial relationships. And it further trans- pires that this locational analysis provides, in albeit a limited form, a crucial link between Marx's theory of accumulation and the Marxian theory of imperialism -- a link which many have sought but none have so far found with any certainty, in part, I shall argue, because the mediating factor of Marx's loca- tion theory has been overlooked. how the theory of accumulation relates to an understanding of spatial structure and how the particular form of locational analysis which Marx creates provides the missing link between the theory of accumulation and the theory of imperialism. In this paper I shall try to demonstrate I. THE THEORY OF ACCUMULATION Marx's theory of growth under capitalism places accumulation of capital at the center of things. Accumulation i s the engine which powers growth under the capitalist mode of production. The capitalist system is there- fore highly dynamic and inevitably expansion- ary; it forms a permanently revolutionary force which continuously and constantly re- shapes the world we live in. A stationary state of simple reproduction is, for Marx, logically incompatible with the perpetu:tion of the capitalist mode of production. The historical mission of thell bourgeoi sie," is expressed in the formula accumulation for accumu1atio;'s sake, productjon for produc- tion's sake (Ca ital, 1, p. 595). Yet this historical m i s h e s not stem from the in- herent greed of the capitalist; it arises, rather, out of forces entirely independent of the capitalist's individual will: Only as personified capital is the capitalist respectable. As such, he shares with the miser the passion for * This paper i s i n part excerpted from Chapter 5 of a forthcoming book on urbanization under capitalism. wealth as wealth. But that which in the miser is mere idiosyncrasy, is, in the capitalist, the effect of the social mechanism, of which he is but one of the wheels. Moreover, the development of Capitalist production makes it constantly necessary to keep increasing the amount of capital laid out in a given industrial undertaking, and competition makes the immanent laws of capitalist production to be felt by each individual capitalist, as external coercive laws. I t compels him to keep constantly extending his capital, in order to preserve it, but extend it he cannot, except by means of progressive accumulation Iw., p. 5921. Economic growth under capitalism is, as Marx usually dubs it, a process of internal contradictions which frequently erupt as crises. Harmonious or balanced growth under capitalism is, i n Marx's view, purely acci- dental because of the spontaneous and chaotic nature of commodity production under competi- tive Capitalism (Capital, 2, p. 495). Marx's analyses of this system of commodity produc- tion led him to the view that there were in- numerable possibilities for crises to occur as well as certain tendencies inherent within capitalism which were bound to produce serious stresses within the accumulation process. We can understand these stresses more easily if we recognize that the progress of accumulation depends upon and presupposes: (1) The existence of a surplus of labor -- an industrial reserve army which can feed the expansion of production. Nechanisms must therefore exist to increase the supply of labor power by, for example, stimulating popu- lation gtowth, generatin! migration streams, drawing latent elements -- labor power em- ployed in non-capitalist situations, women and children, and the like -- into the workforce, or by creating unemployment by the application of labor-saving innovations. (2) The existence i n the market place of requisite quantities of, or opportunities to obtain, means of production -- machines, raw materials, physical infrastructures, and the like -- to permit the expansion of produc- tion as capital is reinvested. (3) The existence of a market to absorb the increasing quantities of commodities pro- duced. If uses cannot be found for goods or if an effective demand (need backed by ability to pay) does not exist, then the condltions for capitalist accumulation disappear. accumulation may encounter a serious barrler which, once reached, will likely precipitate a crisis of some sort. Since, i n well- In each of these respects the progress of 9

description

Harvey D (1975) Antipode 7(2):9–21

Transcript of The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

Page 1: The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

T H E GEOGRAPHY OF CAPITALIST ACCUMULATION:

A RECONSTRUCTION OF T H E MARXIAN THEORY *

David Harvey

Johns Hopkins University

The s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n t o M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n u n d e r t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o - d u c t i o n has f o r t o o l o n g been i g n o r e d . T h i s i s , i n p a r t , M a r x ' s f a u l t s i n c e h i s w r i t i n g s on t h e m a t t e r a r e f r a g m e n t a r y and o f t e n o n l y s k e t c h i l y deve loped . B u t c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y o f h i s works r e v e a l s t h a t Marx r e c o g n i z e d t h a t c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n a geograph- i c a l c o n t e x t and t h a t i t i n t u r n c r e a t e d s p e c i f i c k i n d s o f g e o g r a p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . Marx f u r t h e r d e v e l o p s a n o v e l app roach t o l o c a t i o n t h e o r y ( i n w h i c h dynamics a r e a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h i n g s ) and shows t h a t i t i s p o s s i - b l e t o c o n n e c t , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s e s o f economic g r o w t h w i t h an e x p l i c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f an emergen t s t r u c t u r e o f s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . And i t f u r t h e r t r a n s - p i r e s t h a t t h i s l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s , i n a l b e i t a l i m i t e d form, a c r u c i a l l i n k between M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n and t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m - - a l i n k w h i c h many have s o u g h t b u t none have so f a r f o u n d w i t h any c e r t a i n t y , i n p a r t , I s h a l l a rgue , because t h e m e d i a t i n g f a c t o r o f M a r x ' s l o c a - t i o n t h e o r y has been o v e r l o o k e d .

how t h e t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n r e l a t e s t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e and how t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h Marx c r e a t e s p r o v i d e s t h e m i s s i n g l i n k between t h e t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n and t h e t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m .

I n t h i s p a p e r I s h a l l t r y t o d e m o n s t r a t e

I. THE THEORY OF ACCUMULATION

M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f g r o w t h u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m p l a c e s a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h i n g s . A c c u m u l a t i o n i s t h e e n g i n e w h i c h powers g r o w t h u n d e r t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n . The c a p i t a l i s t sys tem i s t h e r e - f o r e h i g h l y dynamic and i n e v i t a b l y e x p a n s i o n - a r y ; i t f o r m s a p e r m a n e n t l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e w h i c h c o n t i n u o u s l y and c o n s t a n t l y r e - shapes t h e w o r l d we l i v e i n . A s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e o f s i m p l e r e p r o d u c t i o n i s , f o r Marx, l o g i c a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e pe rpe tu : t i on o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n . The h i s t o r i c a l m i s s i o n o f thell b o u r g e o i s i e , " i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o r m u l a a c c u m u l a t i o n f o r accumu1atio;'s sake, p r o d u c t j o n f o r p r o d u c - t i o n ' s sake (Ca i t a l , 1, p. 5 9 5 ) . Ye t t h i s h i s t o r i c a l m i s h e s n o t s tem f r o m t h e i n - h e r e n t g r e e d o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t ; i t a r i s e s , r a t h e r , o u t o f f o r c e s e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t ' s i n d i v i d u a l w i l l :

Only as p e r s o n i f i e d c a p i t a l i s t h e c a p i t a l i s t r e s p e c t a b l e . As such , he s h a r e s w i t h t h e m i s e r t h e p a s s i o n f o r

* T h i s p a p e r i s i n p a r t e x c e r p t e d f r o m C h a p t e r 5 o f a f o r t h c o m i n g book on u r b a n i z a t i o n under c a p i t a l i s m .

w e a l t h a s w e a l t h . But t h a t which i n t h e m i s e r i s mere i d i o s y n c r a s y , i s , i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t , t h e e f f e c t of t h e s o c i a l mechanism, of which he i s b u t one of t h e w h e e l s . Moreover, t h e deve lopment of C a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n makes i t c o n s t a n t l y n e c e s s a r y t o keep i n c r e a s i n g t h e amount of c a p i t a l l a i d o u t i n a g i v e n i n d u s t r i a l u n d e r t a k i n g , and c o m p e t i t i o n makes t h e immanent laws of c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n t o b e f e l t by each i n d i v i d u a l c a p i t a l i s t , a s e x t e r n a l c o e r c i v e l a w s . I t compe l s him t o keep c o n s t a n t l y e x t e n d i n g h i s c a p i t a l , i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e i t , b u t e x t e n d i t he c a n n o t , e x c e p t by means of p r o g r e s s i v e accumula t ion Iw., p . 5 9 2 1 .

Economic g r o w t h u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m i s , as Marx u s u a l l y dubs i t , a p r o c e s s o f i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y e r u p t a s c r i s e s . Harmonious o r b a l a n c e d g r o w t h under c a p i t a l i s m i s , i n M a r x ' s v iew, p u r e l y a c c i - d e n t a l because o f t h e spontaneous and c h a o t i c n a t u r e o f commodi ty p r o d u c t i o n under compe t i - t i v e C a p i t a l i s m ( C a p i t a l , 2, p. 4 9 5 ) . M a r x ' s a n a l y s e s o f t h i s sys tem o f commodi ty p roduc - t i o n l e d h i m t o t h e v iew t h a t t h e r e were i n - numerab le p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c r i s e s t o o c c u r as w e l l as c e r t a i n t e n d e n c i e s i n h e r e n t w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h were bound t o p roduce s e r i o u s s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o c e s s . We can u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e s t r e s s e s more e a s i l y i f we r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e p r o g r e s s o f a c c u m u l a t i o n depends upon and p resupposes :

( 1 ) The e x i s t e n c e o f a s u r p l u s o f l a b o r -- an i n d u s t r i a l r e s e r v e army w h i c h can f e e d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n . Nechanisms must t h e r e f o r e e x i s t t o i n c r e a s e t h e s u p p l y o f l a b o r power by, f o r example, s t i m u l a t i n g popu- l a t i o n g t o w t h , g e n e r a t i n ! m i g r a t i o n s t reams , d r a w i n g l a t e n t e lemen ts - - l a b o r power em- p l o y e d i n n o n - c a p i t a l i s t s i t u a t i o n s , women and c h i l d r e n , and t h e l i k e - - i n t o t h e w o r k f o r c e , o r b y c r e a t i n g unemployment b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l a b o r - s a v i n g i n n o v a t i o n s .

( 2 ) The e x i s t e n c e i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e o f r e q u i s i t e q u a n t i t i e s o f , o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o o b t a i n , means o f p r o d u c t i o n - - machines, raw m a t e r i a l s , p h y s i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , and t h e l i k e - - t o p e r m i t t h e e x p a n s i o n o f p r o d u c - t i o n as c a p i t a l i s r e i n v e s t e d .

( 3 ) The e x i s t e n c e o f a m a r k e t t o a b s o r b t h e i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s o f commod i t i es p r o - duced. I f uses c a n n o t be f o u n d f o r goods o r i f an e f f e c t i v e demand (need backed by a b i l i t y t o pay ) does n o t e x i s t , t h e n t h e c o n d l t i o n s f o r c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n d i s a p p e a r .

a c c u m u l a t i o n may e n c o u n t e r a s e r i o u s b a r r l e r wh ich , once reached, w i l l l i k e l y p r e c i p i t a t e a c r i s i s o f some s o r t . S ince , i n w e l l -

I n each o f t h e s e r e s p e c t s t h e p r o g r e s s o f

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deve loped c a p i t a l i s t economies, t h e s u p p l y o f l a b o r power, t h e s u p p l y o f means o f p roduc - t i o n and o f necessa ry i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s , and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f demand a r e a l l "p roduced" under t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n , Marx con- c l u d e s t h a t c a p i t a l i s m t e n d s a c t i v e l y t o p r o - duce some o f t h e b a r r i e r s t o i t s own d e v e l o p - ment. T h i s means t h a t c r i s e s a r e endemic t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o c e s s .

ways, however, depend ing on t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f c i r c u l a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e t i m e . We can see more c l e a r l y how t h i s can be so by examin ing , b r i e f l y , how Marx l o o k s a t p roduc - t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , consumpt!on and r e i n v e s t - ment as s e p a r a t e phases ( o r moments") w i t h i n t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n p rocess . He argues , f o r example, t h a t :

not on ly i s produc t ion immediately con- sumption and consumption immediately p roduc t ion , n o t on ly i s p r o d u c t i o n a means f o r Consumption and consumption the aim of produo t ion ... but a l s o , each of t h e m . . . c r e a t e s the o t h e r i n compte t - ing i t s e l f and c r e a t e s i t s e L f a s t h e o t h e r (Grundr i s se , p . 9 3 ) .

C r i s e s can be m a n i f e s t i n a v a r i e t y o f

I f p r o d u c t i o n and consumpt ion a r e n e c e s s a r i l y d i a l e c t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h each o t h e r w i t h - i n p r o d u c t i o n as a t o t a l i t y , t h e n i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e c r i s e s wh ich a r i s e f r o m s t r u c t u r a l b a r r i e r s t o a c c u m u l a t i o n can be m a n i f e s t i n each and any o f t h e phases i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n o f v a l u e .

Cons ide r , f o r example, a t y p i c a l r e a l i z a - t i o n c r i s i s w h i c h a r i s e s because a c c u m u l a t i o n f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n ' s sake means, i n e v i t a b l y , t h e " tendencv t o Droduce w i t h o u t r e a a r d t o t h e l i m i t s o? t h e ' m a r k e t " ( T h e o r i e s - o f S u r p l u s Value, 2, p. 5 2 2 ) . C a p j t a l i s t s c o n s t a n t l y t e n d t o expand t h e mass and t o t a l v a l u e o f commod i t i es on t h e m a r k e t a t t h e same t i m e as t h e y t r y t o max imize t h e i r p r o f i t s by k e e p i n g wages down w h i c h r e s t r i c t s t h e p u r c h a s i n g power o f t h e masses ( I b i d . . p. 492; C tp i t ; l , 3, p. 484). T h e r e r a c o n t r a d i c t on e r e w h i c h p e r i o d i c a l l y p roduces a r e a l i z a t i o n c r i s i s - - a mass o f commod i t i es on t h e m a r k e t w i t h no pu rchasers i n s i g h t . T h i s o v e r p r o d u c t i o n i s r e l a t i v e o n l y , o f cou rse , and i t has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h a b s o l u t e human needs - - " i t i s o n l y concerned w i t h demand backed by a b i l i t y t o pay" ( T h e o r i e s o f S u r p l u s Va lue , 2, p. 5 0 6 ) . A b s o l u t e o v e r p r o d u c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o a l l human wants and needs i s . i n Marx ' s v iew, i m p o s s i b l e under c a p i t a l i s m .

B u t such r e l a t i v e o v e r p r o d u c t i o n may appear a l s o as underconsumpt ion o r as an o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l ( a c a p i t a l s u r p l u s ) . Marx r e g a r d s t h e s e fo rms as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e same b a s i c o v e r a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o b l e m ( I b i d . , pp. 497-9). The f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a s u r f e i t o f c a p i t a l r e l a t i v e t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o employ t h a t c a p i t a l means t h a t t h e r e has been an o v e r p r o d u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l ( i n t h e f o r m o f an o v e r p r o d u c t i o n o f commod i t i es ) a t a p r e c e e d i n g s t a g e and t h a t c a p i t a l i s t s a r e o v e r - i n v e s t i n g and underconsuming t h e s u r p l u s a t t h e p r e s e n t s tage . I n a l l o f t h e s e cases, o v e r p r o d u c t i o n :

Th a:

i s s p e c i f i c a L t y c o n d i t i o n e d by the general law of t h e produc t ion of c a p i - tat . : t o produce t o t h e l i m i t s e t by t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s , t h a t i s t o s a y , t o e x p l o i t t h e maximum amount of labour w i f h a g i v e n amount of c a p i t a l , w i t h o u t any c o n s i d e r a t i o n for the actuaL l i m i t s of t h e market or the needs backed by a b i l f t y t o pay (w., p p . 5 3 4 - 5 1 .

s same g e n e r a l l a w produces , p e r i o d i c a l l y ,

p l e t h o r a of c a p i t a l [which] a r i s e s f rom the same causes a s those which c a l l f o r t h a r e l a t i v e overpopula t ion , and is, t h e r e f o r e , a phenomenon supplement- ing the l a t t e r , al though they s tand a t o p p o s i t e p o l e s -- unemployed c a p i t a l a t one p o l e , and unemployed worker popula- t i o n a t the o t h e r ( C a p i t a l , 3 , p . 2 5 1 1 .

t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem - - c h r o n i c unemployment and underemployment, c a p i t a l s u r p l u s e s and l a c k o f i n v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s , f a l l i n g r a t e s o f p r o f i t , l a c k o f e f f e c t i v e demand i n t h e marke t , and s o on, can t h e r e f o r e be t r a c e d back t o t h e b a s i c tendency t o ove raccumu la te . S i n c e t h e r e a r e no o t h e r e q u i l i b r i a t i n g f o r c e s a t work w i t h i n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e ana rchy o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t economic system, c r i s e s have an i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n -- t h e y e n f o r c e some k i n d o f o r d e r and r a t i o n a l i t y o n t o c a p i t a l i s t economic deve lopment . T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t c r i s e s a r e themse lves o r d e r l y o r l o g i c a l -- t h e y m e r e l y c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h f o r c e some k i n d o f a r b i t r a r y r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n system. T h i s r a t i o n a l - i z a t i o n e x t r a c t s a s o c i a l c o s t and has i t s t r a g i c human consequences i n t h e f o r m o f bank- r u p t c i e s , f i n a n c i a l c o l l a p s e , f o r c e d d e v a l u a - t i o n o f c a p i t a l a s s e t s and p e r s o n a l s a v i n g s , i n f l a t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f economic and p o l i t i c a l power i n a few hands, f a l l i n g r e a l wages, and unemployment. Fo rced p e r i o d i c c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e c o u r s e o f c a p i t a l accumula- t i o n can a l l t o o e a s i l y g e t o u t o f hand, how- eve r , and spawn c l a s s s t r u g g l e s , r e v o l u t i o n a r y movements and t h e chaos w h i c h t y p i c a l l y p r o - v i d e s t h e b r e e d i n g g round f o r f a s c i s m . The s o c i a l r e a c t i o n t o c r i s e s can a f f e c t t h e way i n wh ich t h e c r i s i s i s r e s o l v e d s o t h a t t h e r e i s no necessa ry u n i q u e outcome t o t h i s f o r c e d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p rocess . A l l t h a t has t o happen i s t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d i t i o n s f o r r e - newed a c c u m u l a t i o n have t o be c r e a t e d i f t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem i s t o be s u s t a i n e d .

e f f e c t o f expand ing t h e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y and renew ing t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f f u r t h e r accumu- l a t i o n , We can c o n c e i v e o f each c r i s i s as s h i f t i n g t h e accumula t io ; p r o c e s s f lnto a new and h i g h e r p lane . T h i s new p l a n e w i l l l i k e l y e x h i b i t c e r t a i n combined c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s o r t s :

( 1 ) The p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l a b o r w i l l be much enhanced by t h e employment o f more s o p h i s - t i c a t e d mach ine ry and equ ipment w h i l e o l d e r f i x e d c a p i t a l equ ipment w i l l , d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c r i s i s , have become much cheaper t h r o u g h a f o r c e d d e v a l u a t i o n .

( 2 ) The c o s t o f l a b o r w i l l be much r e - duced because o f t h e w idesp read unemployment d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , a l a r g e r s u r p l u s can be g a i n e d f o r f u r t h e r accumu la t i on .

( 3 ) The s u r p l u s c a p i t a l w h i c h l a c k e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e c r i s i s w i l l be drawn i n t o new and h i g h p r o f i t l i n e s o f p r o - d u c t i o n .

( 4 ) An expand ing e f f e c t i v e demand f o r p r o d u c t - - a t f i r s t i n t h e c a p i t a l goods i n - d u s t r y b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y i n f i n a l consumpt ion -- w i l l e a s i l y c l e a r t h e m a r k e t o f a l l goods produced.

l a s t e lemen t and c o n s i d e r how a new p l a n e o f e f f e c t i v e demand, wh ich can i n c r e a s e t h e capa- c i t y t o abso rb p r o d u c t s , can be c o n s t r u c t e d . A n a l y s i s sugges ts t h a t i t can be c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f a complex m i x o f f o u r o v e r l a p p i n g e l e - ments:

The v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c r i s i s i n

P e r i o d i c c r i s e s must i n g e n e r a l have t h e

I t i s , perhaps , u s e f u l t o p i c k up on t h e

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Page 3: The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

( 1 ) The p e n e t r a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i n t o new spheres o f a c t i v i t y by ( i ) o r g a n i z l n g p r e - e x i s t i n g fo rms o f a c t i v i t y a l o n g c a p i t a l i s t l i n e s (e.g., t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f peasan t s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e i n t o c o r p o r a t e fa rm- i n g ) , o r by (ii) expand ing t h e p o i n t s o f i n - t e r c h a n g e w i t h i n t h e sys tem o f p r o d u c t i o n and d i v e r s i f y i n g t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r (new s p e c i a l i s t b u s i n e s s e s emerge t o t a k e c a r e o f some a s p e c t o f p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h was once a l l c a r r i e d on w i t h i n t h e same f a c t o r y o r f i r m ) .

d e v e l o p i n g e n t i r e l y new p r o d u c t - l i n e s ( a u t o - m o b i l e s and e l e c t r o n i c goods a r e e x c e l l e n t t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y examples) and organ iz i :g consumpt ion so t h a t i t becomes " r a t i o n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p rocess ( w o r k i n g c l a s s demands f o r good h o u s i n g may, f o r ex- ample, be coop ted i n t o a p u b l i c h o u s i n g p r o - gram w h i c h s e r v e s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e economy and expand t h e demand f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c t s o f a c e r t a i n s o r t ) .

( 3 ) F a c i l i t a t i n g and e n c o u r a g i n g t h e ex - p a n s i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n a t a r a t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h l o n g - r u n a c c u m u l a t i o n ( t h i s o b v i o u s l y i s n o t a s h o r t - r u n s o l u t i o n b u t t h e r e appears t o be a s t r o n g j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r M a r x ' s comment

( 2 ) C r e a t i n g new s o c i a l wants and needs,

( T h e o r i e s o f S u r p l u s Va lue , 2, p. 47; c f . G r u n d r i s s e , p. 764 and p. 771) t h a t "an i n c r e a s - i n g p o p u l a t i o n appears as t h e b a s i s o f accumula- t i o n as a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s " f r o m t h e s t a n d - p o i n t o f expand ing t h e l a b o r s u p p l y and t h e m a r k e t f o r p r o d u c t s ) .

( 4 ) Expand ing g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i n t o new r e g i o n s , i n c r e a s i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e . e x p o r t i n g c a p i t a l and i n g e n e r a l expand ing towards t h e c r e a t i o n o f wha t Marx c a l l e d " t h e w o r l d mar- k e t . "

I n each o f t h e s e r e s p e c t s , o r by some c o m b i n a t i o n o f them, c a p i t a l i s m can c r e a t e f r e s h room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n . The f i r s t t h r e e i t e m s can be v iewed r e a l l y as a m a t t e r o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y , o f mar- k e t s , o f p e o p l e w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e . The l a s t i t e m b r i n g s us. o f cou rse , t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a - t i o n and g e o g r a p h i c a l expans ion as a necessa ry p r o d u c t o f t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p rocess . I n wha t f o l l o w s we s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h i s l a s t a s p e c t i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e o t h e r s . B u t i t i s c r u c i a l t o r e a l i z e t h a t i n p r a c t i c e v a r i o u s t r a d e - o f f s e x i s t be tween i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n and s p a t i a l ex - t e n s i o n -- a r a p i d r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h and t h e easy c r e a t i o n o f new s o c i a l wants and needs w i t h i n a c o u n t r y may r e n d e r c a p i t a l ex - p o r t and an e x p a n s i o n o f f o r e i g n t r a d e unneces- s a r y f o r t h e expans ion o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . The more d i f f i c u l t , i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n becomes, t h e more i m p o r t a n t g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n s i o n i s f o r s u s t a i n i n g c a p i t a l accumu la t i on . B e a r i n g t h i s i n mind, we w i l l p roceed t o examine t h e way i n wh ich t h e t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s .

I I . TRANSPORTATION RELATIONS, SPAITAL INTECRA- TION A N D THE "ANNIHILATION O F SPACE BY TIME"

We w i l l s t a r t f r o m t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e " c i r c u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l r e a l i g e s v a l u e w h i l e l i v i n g l a b o u r c r e a t e s v a l u e ( G r u n d r i s s e , p. 543). C i r c u l a t i o n has two aspec ts ; t h e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l movement o f commod i t i es f r o m p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i o n t o p o i n t o f consumpt ion and t h e a c t u a l o r i m p l i c i t c o s t s t h a t a t t a c h t o t h e t i m e t a k e n up and t o t h e s o c i a l med ia- t i o n s ( t h e c h a i n o f w h o l e s a l e r s , r e t a i l e r s , b a n k i n g o p e r a t i o n s , and t h e l i k e ) w h i c h a r e necessa ry i n o r d e r f o r t h e p roduced commodity t o f i n d i t s u l t i m a t e u s e r . Marx r e g a r d s t h e f o r m e r as i n t e g r a l t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n p rocess

and t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c t i v e o f v a l u e (Ca I t a l , 2. p. 150; G r u n d r i s s e , p. 533-4). The -f- a t t e r a r e r e g a r d e d as necessa ry c o s t s o f c i r c u l a t i o n w h i c h a r e n o t , however, p r o d u c t i v e o f v a l u e -- t h e y a r e t o be regarded, t h e r e f o r e , as neces- s a r y d e d u c t i o n s o u t o f s u r p l u s , because t h e c a p i t a l i s t has t o pay f o r them.

i n d u s t r y w h i c h s e l l s change i n l o c a t i o n (C;pit;l, 2, p. 52) i s d i r e c t l y p r o d u c t i v e o f va ue ecause " e c o n o m i c a l l y cons ide red , t h e s p a t i a l c o n d i t i o n , t h e b r i n g i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t t o marke t , b e l o n g s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n p rocess i t s e l f . The p r o d u c t i s r e a l l y f i n i s h e d o n l y when i t i s on t h e m a r k e t " (Grundr i sse , pp. 533- 4). However, t h e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t l o n and communica t ion , because t h e y a r e made up a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f f i x e d c a p i t a l , have t h e i r own p e c u l i a r l a w s o f r e a l i z a t i o n (m., p. 523) -- l a w s w h i c h stem f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t r a n s - p o r t a t i o n i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p roduced and con- sumed a t t h e moment o f i t s use. A l t h o u g h t h e t r a n s p o r t i n d u s t r y i s o t e n t f a l l a sou rce o f s u r p l u s va lue , t h e r e a w s o n s f o r c a p i t a l n o t t o engage i n i t s p r o d u c t i o n e x c e p t under c e r t a i n f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . The s t a t e i s o f t e n , t h e r e f o r e , v e r y a c t i v e i n t h i s sphere o f p r o d u c t i o n (m., pp. 531-3).

i n s o f a r as t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m a r k e t and t h e e x c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t a r e con- n e c t e d w i t h i t " ( I b i d . , p. 534). P r i c e s , b o t h o f raw m a t e r i a l s = f i n i s h e d goods, a r e s e n s i - t i v e t o t h e c o s t s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and t h e a b i l i t y t o d raw i n raw m a t e r i a l s o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s and t o d i s p a t c h t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t t o a d i s t a n t m a r k e t i s o b v i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by t h e s e c o s t s . The c o s t s o f c i r c u l a t i o n "can b e r e d u c e d by impj;oved. cheaper and more r a p i d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n (Ca i t a l 2, p. 142) . One b y - p r o d u c t o f t h i h i h e a p e n i n g o f many e lemen ts o f c o n s t a n t c a p i t a l ( raw m a t e r i a l i n p u t s ) and t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l marke t . d u c t i o n as a t o t a l i t y , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e c o s t s o f r e a l c i r c u l a t i o n [ i n space] be longs t o t h e deve lopment o f t h e f o r c e s o f p r o d u c t i o n b y c a p i t a l " ( G r u n d r i s s e , pp. 533-4) .

g e n e r a l , improvements i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and communicatior! a r e seen t o be i n e v i t a b l e and necessa ry . The r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e modes o f p r o d u c t i o n o f i n d u s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r e made necessa ry a r e v o l u t i o n ... i n t h e means o f com- m u n i c a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t " so t h a t t h e y "became g r a d u a l l y adap ted t o t h e modes o f p r o d u c t i o n o f mechan ica l i n d u s t r y , by t h e c r e a t i o n o f a sys tem o f r i v e r steamer;, r a i l w a y s , ocean s teamers and t e l e g r a p h s ( C a p i t a l , 1, p. 384) . The i m p e r a t i v e t o accumu la te c o n s e q u e n t l y i m p l i e s t h e i m p e r a t i v e - t o overcome s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s :

The t r a n s p ! r t a t i o n and communicatio;s

The c o s t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n " i s i m p o r t a n t

Viewed f r o m th: s t a n d p o i n t o f p r o -

P l a c e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c c u m u l a t f o n i n

The more p r o d u c t i o n comes t o r e s t on exchange v a l u e , hence on exchange, t h e more impor tan t do t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of exchange -- t h e means of communioation and t r a n s p o r t -- become f o r t h e c o s t s of c i r c u l a t i o n . C a p i t a l by i t 8 na ture d r i v e s beyond e v e r y s p a t i a t b a r r i e r . Thus t h e c r e a t i o n of the p h y s i c a l con- d i t i o n s of exchange ... becomes an e x t r a - o r d i n a r y n e c e s s i t y fo r i t f&YmdPiS8e, p . 5 2 4 ) .

The c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n p r o - motes t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f cheap and r a p i d fo rms o f commun ica t i on and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n o r d e r t h a t " t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t can be r e a l i z e d i n d i s t a n t m a r k e t s i: mass q u a n t i t i e s " a t t h e same t i m e as new s p h e r e s n o f r e a l i z a t i o n f o r l a b o u r , d r i v e n by c a p i t a l can be opened up (-. G.). The r e d u c t i o n i n r e a l i z a t i o n

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and c i r c u l a t i o n c o s t s h e l p s t o c r e a t e , t h e r e - f o r e . f r e s h room f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . P u t t h e o t h e r way around, c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n i s bound t o b e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y e x p a n s i o n a r y and t o be so by p r o g r e s s i v e r e d u c t i o n s i n t h e c o s t s o f communica t ion and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

new sources o f raw m a t e r i a l s and o f new oppor - t u n i t i e s f o r t h e employment o f l a b o r under t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l i s m , has t h e e f f e c t , however, o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e o f c a p i t a l u n l e s s t h e r e a r e compensat ing improve - ments i n t h e speed o f c i r c u l a t i o n . The t u r n - o v e r t i m e o f a g i v e n c a p i t a l i s equa l t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n t i m e p l u s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e ( C a p i t a l , 2, p. 248) . The l o n g e r t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e o f a g i v e n c a p i t a l , t h e s m a l l e r i s i t s annua l y i e l d o f s u r p l u s v a l u e . More d i s t a n t marke ts t i e c a p i t a l up i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n p r o - cess f o r l o n g e r t i m e p e r i o d s and t h e r e f o r e have t h e e f f e c t o f reducing t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f s u r p l u s v a l u e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c a p i t a l . By t h e same token , any r e d u c t i o n i n c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e i n c r e a s e s s u r p l u s p r o d u c t i o n and enhances t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p rocess . Speedin; up t h e v e l o c i t y o f c i r c u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p rocess . Under t h e s e con- d i t i o n s "even s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e reduces i t s e l f t o t i m e : t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s n o t t h e mar- k e t ' s d i s t a n c e i n space, b u t t h e speed ... w i t h wh ich i t can be reached" ( G r u n d r i s s e , p. 538 ) . There i s t h u s a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e t o reduce t h e c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e t o a minimum f o r , , t o do so i s t o m i n i m i z e " t h e wander ing p e r i o d o f com- m o d i t i e s (Ca i t a l 2, p. 249) . A d u a l need, b o t h t o r e d h i ; c o s t and t h e t i m e i n v o l v e d i n movement, t h u s emanates f r o m t h e i m p e r a t i v e t o accumula te :

%bile c a p i t a l must on one s i d e s t r i v e t o t e a r down e v e r y s p a t i a l b a r r i e r t o i n t e r - counse, i . e . , t o exchange, and conquer the whole e a r t h f o r i t s market , i t s t r i v e s on t h e o t h e r s i d e t o a n n i h i l a t e t h i s space w i t h t i m e . .. The more deve loped t h e c a p i - t a l . . . t h e more does i t s t r i v e s imul tan- e o u s l y f o r an even g r e a t e r e x t e n s i o n of the market and f o r g r e a t e r a n n i h i l a t i o n of space by t ime" (Grundr i s se , p . 5 3 9 ) .

p r o d u c t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n by a l o n g t i m e i n - t e r v a l , may s t i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l o n g t u r n o v e r p e r i o d and a l a c k o f c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e employment o f c a p i t a l . T h i s k i n d o f t r a d e , and "ove rseas commerce i n g e n e r a l " t h u s fo rms "one o f t h e m a t e r i a l bases , ... one o f t h e sou rces o f t h e c r e d i t sys tem" (Ca i t a l , 2, pp. 251-2). deve lops t h i s argument a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h :

TAe open ing up o f more d i s t a n t marke ts ,

Long d i s t a n c e t r a d e , because i t s e p a r a t e s

I n t h e G r u n d r i s s e (p. h r x

I t i s c l e a r . . . t h a t c i r c u l a t i o n appears a s an e s s e n t i a l p r o c e s s of c a p i - t a l . The produc t ion p r o c e s s cannot be begun anew b e f o r e the t rans format ion of the commodity i n t o money. The c o n s t a n t c o n t i n u i t of t h i s p r o c e s s , the un- d and f l u i d t r a n s i t i o n of va lue from one form i n t o t h e o t h e r , o r from one phase of t h e p r o c e s s i n t o t h e n e x t , appears a s a fundamental c o n d i t i o n f o r produc t ion based on c a p i t a l t o a much g r e a t e r degree than f o r a l l e a r l i e r forms of p r o d u c t i o n . [ B u t ] w h i l e t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h i s c o n t i n u i t y i s g i v e n , i t s phases a r e s e p a r a t e i n t ime and s p a c e . . . I t thus appears a s a m a t t e r of chance . . .whe ther o r n o t i t s e s s e n - t i a l c o n d i t i o n , the c o n t i n u i t y of t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o o e s s e s which c o n s t i t u t e i t s p r o c e s s a s a whole, i s a c t u a l l y brought abou t . The suspens ion of t h i s chance element by c a p i t a l i t s e l f i s c r e d i t .

The c r e d i t sys tem a l l o w s o f a g e o g r a p h i c a l ex- t e n s i o n o f t h e m a r k e t by e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t ' i n - u i t y where t h e r e was none b e f o r e . The neces- s i t y t o a n n i h i l a t e space by t i m e can i n p a r t be compensated f o r by an emerg ing sys tem o f c r e d i t .

The need t o m i n i m i z e c i r c u l a t i o n c o s t s as w e l l as t u r n o v e r t i m e s promotes a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n a few l a r g e u r b a n c e n t r e s w h i c h become, i n e f f e c t , t h e workshops o f c a p i - t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n ( C a p i t a l , 1, p. 352; Grundr i sse , p. 587) . The " a n n i h i l a t i o n o f :pace b y ;4imeii i s h e r e accomp l i shed b y a

t o each o t h e r so as t o m i n i m i z e t h e c o s t s o f movement o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p r o d u c t s i n p a r t i - c u l a r . "A long w i t h t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f masses o f men and c a p i t a l t h u s a c c e l e r a t e d a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s , t h e r e i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s e masses o f c a p i t a l i n t h e hands o f t h e few" ( { a p i t a l , 2, p. 250). economize on c i r c u l a t i o n c o s t s depends, how- e v e r , on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e - l a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d and h e r e t h e r e appears t o be a dynamic tendency towards c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Improvements i n t h e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n tend :

i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t - ing market , t h a t i s t o s a y , towards the g r e a t c e n t r e s of p r o d u c t i o n and popula- t i o n , towards p o r t s of e x p o r t , e t c . . .. These p a r t i c u l a r l y g r e a t t r a f f i c f a c i l i - t i e s and t h e r e s u l t a n t a c c e l e r a t i o n of the c a p i t a l turnover . . . g i v e r i s e t o q u i c k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n of b o t h the c e n t r e s of p r o d u c t i o n and t h e markets" (CapitaZ, 2 , p . 2 5 0 ) .

r a t i o n a l l o c a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s w i t h r e s p e c t

The a b i l i t y t o

T h i s tendency towards a g g l o m e r a t i o n i n l a r g e u r b a n c e n t e r s may be d i m i n i s h e d o r en- hanced by s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . On t h e one hand we f i n d t h a t " t h e t e r r i t o r i a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r ... c o n f i n e s s p e c i a l b ranches o f f l roduc- t i o n t o s p e c i a l d i s t r i c t s o f a c o u n t r y ( C a p i k a l , 1 , p. 353) . On t h e o t h e r hand, " a l l b r a n c es o f p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r p r o d u c t a r e dependent m a i n l y on l o c a l consumpt ion , such as b r e w e r i e s , a r e ... deve loped t o t h e g r e a t e f t e x t e n t i n t h e p r i n c i p l e c e n t r e s o f p o p u l a t i o n ( C a p i t a l , 2, p. 251).

The g e o g r a p h i c a l r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p rocesses o f p r o d u c t i o n i s i n p a r t dependent upon t h e chang ing s t r u c t u r e o f t r a n s p o r t f a c i - l i t i e s , t h e raw m a t e r i a l and m a r k e t i n g demands o f t h e i n d u s t r y and t h e i n h e r e n t t endency t o - wards a g g l o m e r a t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f c a p i t a l i t s e l f . The l a t t e r r e q u i r e d a t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n t o s u s t a i n i t , how- e v e r . Hence t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e steam en- g i n e wh ich "per; i t ted p r o d u c t i o n t o be concen- t r a t e d i n towns and wh ich "was o f u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n , and, r e l a t i v e l y speak ing , l i t t l e a f f e c t e d i n i t s c h o i c e o f r e s i d e n c e by l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s " ( C a p i t a 1 , 1, p. 378) .

I n n o v a t i o n s o f t h i s s o r t , w h i c h r e l a t i v e l y speak ing f r e e p r o d u c t i o n f r o m l o c a l power sou rces and wh ich p e r m i t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n i n l a r g e u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s accom- p l i s h t h e same pu rpose as t h o s e t r a n s p o r t i n - n o v a t i o n s w h i c h s e r v e t o a n n i h i l a t e space w i t h t i m e . G e o g r a p h i c a l e x p a n s i o n and g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e b o t h t o be r e g a r d e d as t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e same s t r i v i n g t o c r e a t e new o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , i t appears t h a t t h e i m p e r a t i v e t o accumu la te p roduces c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p roduc - t i o n and o f c a p i t a l a t t h e same t i m e as i t c r e a t e s an expans ion o f t k e m a r k e t f o r r e a l i z a - t i o n . As a consequence, f l o w s i n space" i n - c r e a s e remarkab ly , w h i l e t h e "marke t expands s p a t i a l l y , and t h e p e r i p h e r y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e

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c e n t r e . . . i s c i r c u m s c r i b e d b y a c o n s t a n t l y ex - p a n d i n r a d i u s ( T h e o r i e s o f S u r p l u s Va lue , 3 , p. 2883 . Some s o r t o f c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y r e l a - t i o n i s bound t o a r i s e o u t o f t h e t e n s i o n be- tween c o n c e n t r a t i o n and g e o g r a p h i c a l expan- s i o n . We w i l l examine c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n f u r t h e r i n t h e s e c t i o n on f o r e i g n t r a d e .

t i e s does n o t r e m a i n cons ta r i t , we f i n d a s h i f t i n g and r e l o c a t i o n o f p l a c e s o f p roduc - t i o n and o f m a r k e t s as a r e s u l t o f t h e changes i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s caused b y :he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s (Ca i t a l , 2, p. 250). These t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a h h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e s o f p l a c e s o f p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t h e l a E g e r m a r k e t s and con- s e q u e n t l y b r i n g a b o u t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f o l d and t h e r i s e o f new c e n t r e s o f p r o d u c t i o n " (w., p. 249) .

The emergence o f a d i s t i n c t s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e r i s e o f c a p i t a l i s m i s n o t a c o n t r a d i c t i o n - f r e e p rocess . I n l l o rde r t o overcome s p a t i a l u b a r r i e r s and t o a n n i h i l a t e space w i t h t ime , s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e c r e a t e d w h i c h themse lves u l t i m a t e l y a c t as a b a r r i e r t o f u r t h e r a c c u m u l a t i o n . These s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e expressed, o f cou rse , i n t h e f i x e d and immovable f o r m o f t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s , p l a n t , and o t h e r means o f p r o - d u c t i o n and consumpt ion w h i c h c a n n o t be moved w i t h o u t b e i n g d e s t r o y e d . Once t h e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s b r o u g h t i n t o be ing , i t " e s t a b l i s h e s i t s r e s i d e n c e on t h e l a n d i t s e l f and t h e s e e m i n g l y s o l i d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s g i v e n by n a t u r e themse lves [appear ] i n l a n d e d p r o p e r t y as m e r e l y ( G r u n d r i s s e , p. 740p. r e p r e s e n t i t s e l f i n t h e f o r m o f a p h y s i c a l l andscape c r e a t e d i n i t s own image, c r e a t e d as use v a l u e s t o enhance t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l on an expand ing s c a l e . The g e o g r a p h i c a l l andscape w h i c h f i x e d and immob i le c a p i t a l compr i ses i s b o t h a c r o w n i n g g l o r y o f p a s t c a p i t a l deve lopment and a p r i s o n w h i c h i n h i b i t s t h e f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s o f accumu- l a t i o n because t h e v e r y b u i l d i n g o f t h i s l a n d - scape i s a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e " t e a r i n g down o f s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s " and u l t ima te131 even t o t h e " a n n i h i l a t i o n o f space by t i m e .

T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g r o w i n g dependency o f c a p i t a l i s m on f i x e d c a o i t a l o f a l l k i n d s . W i t h " f i x e d c a o i t a l t h e

S i n c e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t r a n s p o r t f t c i l i -

o s i t e d by i n d u s t r y " C a p i t a l t h u s comes t o

va iue I I i s i m p r i s o n e d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c ' use v a l u e (Grundr i sse . p. 728) w h i l e t h e degree o f f i x i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h d u r a b i l i t y . o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g equa l (Ca i t a l 2, p . -160) . The necessa ry i n c r e a s e i h i e o f f i x e d c a p i t a l o f t h e i m m o b i l e s o r t w h i c h t h e i m p e r a t i v e t o accumu la te i m p l i e s imposes a f u r t h e r impera - t i v e :

The va lue of f i x e d c a p i t a l is r e - produced on ly i n s o f a r as i t is used u p i n the produo t ion p r o c e s s . Through d i s u s e i t l o s e s i t s va lue w i thou t i t s va lue pass ing on t o the p r o d u c t . Hence the g r e a t e r the s c a l e on which f i x e d c a p i t a l deve lops ... the more does the c o n t i n u i t y of t h e produc t ion p r o c e s s or the cons tan t f l o w o f r eproduc t ion become an extsrnaEZy oompett ing a o n d i t i o n f o r t h e mode of p roduc t ion founded on c a p i t a l (Crundr ie se , p , 7 0 8 ) .

C a p i t a l i s t deve lopment has t o n e g o t i a t e a k n i f e - e d g e p a t h between p r e s e r v i n g t h e v a l u e s o f p a s t c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s i n t h e b u i l t en- v i r o n m e n t and d e s t r o y i n g t h e s e i n v e s t m e n t s i n o r d e r t o open u p f r e s h r o o m - f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n ( f o r a s p e c i f i c example o f t h i s see Harvey , 1975). As a consequence we can e x p e c t t o w i t n e s s a p e r p e t u a l s t r u g g l e i n w h i c h c a p i t a l -

i s m b u i l d s a p h y s i c a l l andscape a p p r o p r i a t e t o i t s own c o n d i t i o n a t a p a r t i c u l a r moment i n t ime , o n l y t o have t o d e s t r o y f t , u s u a l l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f a c r i s i s . a t a subsequent p o i n t i n t i m e . ves tment , o f t e n exp ressed as long-waves i n economic deve lopment (see, e.g., Kuznets, 1961, B r i n l e y Thomas, 1972) a r e t h e r e f o r e u s u a l l y exp ressed as p e r i o d i c r e - s h a p i n g s o f t h e geo- g r a p h i c e n v i r o n m e n t t o a d a p t i t t o t h e needs o f f u r t h e r a c c u m u l a t i o n .

I n p a r t t h e d r i v e t o overcome s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s and t o a n n i h i l a t e space w i t h t i m e i s des igned t o c o u n t e r a c t what Marx saw as a p e r v a s i v e t e n - dency under c a p i t a l i s m f o r t h e p r o f i t r a t e t o f a l l . The c r e a t i o n o f b u i l t env i ronmen ts i n t h e s e r v i c e o f c a p i t a l i s m means a g r o w t h o f t h a t p o r t i o n o f s o c i a l w e a l t h wh ich , i n s t e a d o f s e r v i n g as d i r e c t means o f p r o d u c t i o n , i s i n - v e s t e d i n means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and communi- c a t i o n and i n t h e f i x e d and t i r c u l a t i n g c a p i t a l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r o p e r a t i o n p. 251) . I n v e s t m e n t i n t h e means o t r a n s p o r - t a t i o n i s bound t o i n c r e a s e t h e o r g a n i c compo- s i t i o n o f s o c i a l c a p i t a l w h i c h t e n d s t o gener - a t e a f a l l i n t h e r a t e o f p r o f i t a t t h e same t i m e as i t s e f f e c t s a r e supposed t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f p r o f i t . Aga in , c a p i t a l i s t deve lop - ment has t o n e g o t i a t e a k n i f e - e d g e between t h e s e two c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e n d e n c i e s .

more s p e c i f i c t h a n t h i s ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s much i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f f i x e d and immovable c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t w h i c h i s o f i n t e r e s t b u t w h i c h space p r e c l u d e s f r o m c o n s i d e r i n g h e r e ) . The v i r t u e o f t h e s e f r a g m e n t a r y a n a l y s e s l i e s n o t i n t h e i r s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . I t l i e s , r a t h e r , i n t h e way i n w h i c h t h e y can be t i g h t l y i n t e - g r a t e d i n t o t h e fundamenta l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v a l u e and t h e dynamics o f accumu- l a t i o n . I n t h i s t h e M a r x i a n approach i s funda- m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t t y p i c a l o f b o u r g e o i s economic a n a l y s i s o f l o c a t i o n a l phenomena. The l a t t e r t y p i c a l l y s p e c i f i e s an o p t i m a l con- f i g u r a t i o n under a s p e c i f i c s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s and p r e s e n t s a p a r t i a l s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m a n a l y s i s . Dynamics a r e c o n s i d e r e d a t t h e end o f t h e a n a l y s i s -- u s u a l l y as an a f t e r t h o u g h t - - and t h e dynamics n e v e r g e t much beyond com- p a r a t i v e s t a t i c s . Consequent ly . i t i s g e n e r a l - l y acknowledged t h a t b o u r g e o i s l o c a t i o n t h e o r y has f a i l e d t o d e v e l o p a s a t i s f a c t o r y dynamic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i t s e l f . The M a r x i a n t h e o r y , on t h e o t h e r hand, commences w i t h t h e dynamics o f a c c u m u l a t i o n and seeks t o d e r i v e o u t o f t h i s a n a l y s i s c e r t a i n n e c e s s i t i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o g e o g r a p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . The landscape wh ich c a p i t a l i s m c r e a t e s i s a l s o seen as t h e l o c u s o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n and t e n s i o n , r a t h e r t h a n as an e x p r e s s i o n o f harmon ious e q u i l i b r i u m . And c r i s e s i n f i x e d c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s a r e seen as synonymous i n many r e s p e c t s w i t h t h e d i a - l e c t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f g e o g r a p h i c a l space. The c o n t r a s t be tween t h e two t h e o r e t i c a l s tances i s i m p o r t a n t . I t sugges ts t h a t t h e two t h e o r i e s a r e r e a l l y concerned w i t h q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s . Bourgeo is l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s i s o n l y adequate as an e x p r e s s i o n o f o p t i m a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s under s e t c o n d i t i o n s . The M a r x i a n t h e o r y teaches us how t o r e l a t e , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , a c c u m u l a t i o n and t h e t r a n s f o r - m a t i o n o f s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s and u l t i m a t e l y , of cou rse , i t p r o v i d e s us w i t h t h e k i n d o f t h e o r e t i c a l and m a t e r i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g wh ich w i l l a l l o w us t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between geography and h i s t o r y .

Temporal c r i s e s i n r i x e d c a p i t e l i n -

T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n has a f u r t h e r d imens ion .

( C a p i i a l , 2,

The l o c a t i o n t h e o r y i n Marx i s n o t much

I I I . FOREIGN TRADE

Marx c o n s i d e r s f o r e i g n t r a d e f r o m two r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t s ; f i r s t , as an a t t r i b u t e o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n

13

Page 6: The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

and second, as an h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon r e l a t - i n g an e v o l v i n g c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n w l t h p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s o c l e t i e s and e n e r a t i n g v a r i o u s i n t e r m e d i a t e s o c i a l f o rms !such as c o l o n i e s , p l a n t a t i o n economies, dependent economies, and t h e l i k e ) .

Marx i n v a r i a b l y a b s t r a c t s f rom q u e s t i o n s o f f o r e i g n t r a d e i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e c a p i - t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n ( C a p i t a l , 1, p. 581). He concedes, o f cou rse , t h a t " c a p i t a l - i s t p r o d u c t i o n does n o t e x i s t a t a l l w i t h o u t f o r e i g n commerce" b u t sugges ts t h a t c o n s i d e r a - t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r m e r e l y s e r v e s t o " c o n f u s e w i t h o u t c o n t r i b u t i n g any new e lemen t o f t h e p rob lem [ o f accumu la t i on ] , o r o f i t s s o l u t i o n " (Ca i t a l , 2, p . 4 7 0 ) . He a l s o a c c e p t s t h a t f h t r a d e may c o u n t e r a c t t h e tendency t o a f a l l i n g r a t e o f p r o f i t because i t cheapens t h e e lemen ts o f c o n s t a n t c a p i t a l as w e l l as n e c e s s i t i e s and s o p e r m i t s a r i s i n g s u r p l u s v a l u e t o be a p p r o p r i a t e d . B u t s i n c e t h i s r a i s e s t h e r a t e o f accumu la t i on , i t m e r e l y has tens t h e f a l l i n t h e r a t e o f p r o f i t i n t h e l o n g run (Ca i t a l , 3, p. 237) . The i n c r e a s e i n fo re ign* w h i c h i n e v i t a b l y ari:es w i t h t h e expans ion o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . m e r e l v t r a n s - f e r s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t o a w i d e r sphere and g i v e s them g r e a t e r l a t i t u d e " ( C a p i t a l , 2, p. 408 ) .

Most o f M a r x ' s comments on f o r e i g n t r a d e r e l a t e t o i t as an h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon and a r e t h e r e f o r e p e r i p h e r a l t o h i s ma in pu rpose i n Ca i t a l . F o r e i g n t r a d e i s t r e a t e d as a p r e b i o n f o r c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n as w e l l as a consequence o f t h e expans ion o f t h e marke t . S i n c e consequences a t one s t a g e become p r e - c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e n e x t , t h e deve lop - ment o f f o r e i g n t r a d e and c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s a r e seen as i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d .

S p e c i a l f a c t o r s " a l s o a r i s e i n r e l a t i o n t o f o r e i g n t r a d e w h i c h can con fuse , concea l and d i s t o r t m a t t e r s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f such f a c t o r s t o a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i s n o t d e n l e d - - t h e y a r e j u s t n o t r e g a r d e d as c r u - c i a l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n n e r l o g i c o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .

i n t e r s e c t a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s , however. Some o f Marx ' s s t a t e m e n t s on f o r e i g n t r a d e can be i n - t e r p r e t e d as l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n s o f h i s t h e o r e t - i c a l v iews on how t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p rocess g e n e r a t e s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e l a t i o n s and l o c a - t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . These v iews a r e u s u a l l y p r o j e c t e d i n t o a p r e - e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e o f n a t i o n s t a t e s , t e r r i t o r i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s and non- c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n systems.

p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f l a b o u r i s f e t t e r e d b y p h y s i - c a l c o n d i t i o n s " ( C a p i t a l , 1 , p. 5 1 2 ) . I n a g r i c u l t u r e he e x p e c t s unequa l r e t u r n s on c a p i t a l advanced t o r e s u l t f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s i n b o t h f e r t i l i t y and r e l a t i v e i o c a t i o n (Ca i t a l 3, p. 650) . n a t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s f h i r e f o r e , a " p h y s i t a l b a s i s f o r t h e s o c i a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r ( C a p i t a l , 1, p. 514) . a l t h o u g h t h e y p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o n l y (and n o t u n m o d i f i a b l e ones a t t h a t ) because i n !he l a s t i n s t a n c e t h e p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f l a b o u r Is a g i f t , n o t o f Na tu re , b u t o r a h i s t o r y

embrac ing thousands o f c e n t u r i e s (m., p. 512).

t ends t o t r a n s f o r m t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t o an i n t e g r a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l sys tem o f p r o d u c - t l o n and exchange wh ich se rves t h e purposes o f c a p f t a l i s t accumu la t i on . I n t h e p rocess c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s may e s t a b l i s h a monopoly o v e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r commod i t i es (C;P:fal. 3 , p. 1191, w h i l e c e n t e r - p e r i p h e r y r e a ons w i l l be p roduced on a g l o b a l s c a l e :

The t h e o r e t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s e s

Marx r e c o g n i z e s , f o r example, t h a t " t h e

C a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n and c i r c u l a t i o n

"A new and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n of labour, a d i v i s i o n s u i t e d t o t h e r e q u i r s - ments of the c h i e f c e n t r e s of modern i n - d u s t r y s p r i n g s up, and c o n v e r t s one p a r t of t h e g lobe i n t o a c h i e f l y a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d of produc t ion , f o r supp ly ing t h e o t h e r p a r t which remains a c h i e f l y indus- t r i a l f i e l d " (CapitaZ. 1, p . 4 5 1 ) .

C a p i t a l i s t s i n t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s may a l s o g a i n a h i g h e r r a t e o f p r o f i t b y s e l l i n g t h e i r goods above t h e i r v a l u e i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h " commod i t i es p roduced i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n f e r i o r p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . . . i n t h e same way t h a t a m a n u f a c t u r e r e x p l o i t s a new i n - v e n t i o n b e f o r e i t has become g e n e r a l " ( C a p i t a l , 3, p. 238 ) . R e l a t i v e p r o d u c t i v e advantages y i e l d excess p r o f i t s and i f t h f y a r e pe rpe tuaE- ed i n t h e f o r m o f a permanent t e c h n o l o g y - g a p i t f o l l o w s ( a l t h o u g h Marx d i d n o t a p p a r e n t l y make t h e p o i n t ) t h a t t e c h n o l o g y - r i c h r e g i o n s a lways have t h e c a p a c i t y t o e a r n h i g h e r p r o f i t s w i t h i n a g i v e n l i n e o f p r o d u c t i o n compared t o t e c h n o l o g y - p o o r r e g i o n s .

The i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r e d i t sys tem a l s o has a v i t a l r o l e t o p l a y i n c r e a t i n g t h e w o r l d m a r k e t and f a s h i o n i n g i t s s t r u c t u r e :

"The e n t i r e c r e d i t s y s t e m . . . r e s t s on the n e c e s s i t y of expanding and l eap ing over the b a r r i e r t o c i r c u l a t i o n and the sphere of exchange. T h i s appears more c o l o s s a l l y , c l a s s i c a l l y , i n the r e l a - t i o n s between p e o p l e than i n t h e r e l a - t i o n s between i n d i v i d u a l s . Thus, e . g . , t h e Eng l i sh [ a r e ] f o r c e d t o lend t o f o r e i g n n a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o have them a s customers" (Grundriase p . 416; c f . , Theor ie s of W l u e , 3 , p . 1 2 2 ) .

C a p i t a l e x p o r t -- a theme w h i c h L e n i n (1963, pp. 715-19) e l a b o r a t e s on as c r u c i a l t o t h e t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m as t h e h i g h e s t s t a g e of c a p i t a l i s m -- can, i n Marx ' s v iew, p r o v i d e tempora ry o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s u r p l u s c a p i t a l . B u t ca i t a l e x p o r t can t a k e d i f f e r e n t fo rms as we w i l e s h o r t l y see and be engaged i n f o r q u i t e d i f f e r e n t reasons .

The g e n e r a l d r i v e t o overcome a l l s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s p roduces a v a r j e t y o f r e s u l t s i n r e l a - t i o n t o n o n - c a p i t a l i s t f o rms o f p r o d u c t i o n and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n :

"When an i n d u s t r i a 1 p e o p l e , producing on the founda t ion of c a p i t a l , such as t h e Eng l i sh , e . g . , exchange o i t h t h e Chinese, and absorb va lue ... by drawing the l a t t e r w i t h i n the sphere of c i r c u l a t i o n of c a p i - t a l , then one s e e s r i g h t away t h a t t h e Chinese do no t t h e r e f o r e need t o produce a s c a p i t a l i s t s " (Grundriese, p . 7291.

The i n t e r a c t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t and non- c a p i t a l i s t modes o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n t h e sphere o f c i r c u l a t i o n c r e a t e s s t r o n g i n t e r - dependenc ies . The c i r c u l a t i o n o f v a l u e w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem becomes dependent on t h e c o n t i n u e d c o n t r i b u t i o n o f p r o d u c t s and money f r o m n o n - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t f e s -- " t o t h i s ex - t e n t t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n i s con- d i t i o n a l on modes o f p r o d u c t i o n l y i n g o u t s i d e o f i t s own s t a g e o f deve lopment " (Cap;tal, 2, p . 1 1 0 ) . T h l s i s a theme w h i c h Luxem u r g (1968) deve lops a t g r e a t l e n g t h i n h e r The Accumu la t i on o f C a p i t a l - - she argues , in e f f e c t , t h a t t h e f r e s h room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n w h i c h c a p i t a l i s m must d e f i n e can e x i s t o n l y I n t h e f o r m o f p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s w h i c h p r o v i d e un tapped m a r k e t s t o abso rb what i s a p e r p e t u a l t endency f o r t h e o v e r p r o d u c t i o n o f commod i t i es under c a p i t a l i s m . Once t h e s e s o c i e t i e s a r e a l l b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t ne twork then, i n h e r v iew, a c c u m u l a t i o n must cease.

1 4

Page 7: The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

Marx a l s o a rgued t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c t e n d - ency o f c a p i t a l i s m i s t o d e s t r o y and abso rb n o n - c a p i t a l i s t modes o f p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e same t i m e as i t uses them t o c r e a t e f r e s h room f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . I n i t i a l l y , t h e mere p e n e t r a t i o n 0: t h e money f o r m has a d i s r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e -- i t must d i s s o l v e t h e communitv and "draw new

where money i s n:t t h e community,

c o n t i n e n t s i n t o t h e m e t a b o l i s h o f c i r c u l a t i o n " ( G r u n d r i s s e , pp. 224-5) . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s c a D i t a l i s accumu la ted o u t o f t h i s "me tabo l i sm o f ' c i r c u l a t i o n " - - i ndeed , such a c c u m u l a t i o n i s an h i s t o r i c a l p remise f o r t h e deve lopment o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n . The towns accumu- l a t e use v a l u e s and hence v a l u e s f r o m t h e c o u n t r y s i d e w h i l e m e r c h a n t ' s c a p i t a l , as an h i s t o r i c a l l y p r i o r f o r m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t o p r o d u c e r ' s c a p i t a l :

" a p p r o p r i a t e s an overwhelming p o r t i o n of t h e S U P p l U S produc t p a r t l y a s a med ia tor between commodit ies which s t i l l subs tan - t i a l l y produce f o r u s e value. . .and p a r t - l y because under t h o s e e a r l i e r modes of p r o d u c t i o n t h e p r i n c i p l e owners o f t h e s u r p l u s produc t w i t h whom t h e merchant d e a l t , namely, t h e s lave-owner, t h e f e u d a l l o r d , and t h e s t a t e (for i n - s t a n c e , t h e o r i e n t a l d e s p o t ) r e p r e s e n t t h e consuming w e a l t h and l u x u r y which t h e merchant s e e k s t o t r a p .... Mer- c h a n t ' s c a p i t a l , when i t ho lds a p o s i - t i o n o f dominance, s t a n d s everywhere for a s y s t e m o f robbery , so t h a t i t s de- velopment among t h e t r a d i n g n a t i o n s of o l d and modern t i m e s i s always d i r e c t l y connected w i t h p l u n d e r i n g , p i r a c y , k i d - napping, s l a v e r y and c o l o n i a l conques t .... The development of merchan t ' s c a p i t a l g i v e s r i s e everywhere t o t h e tendency towards p r o d u c t i o n of exchange v a l u e s . . . . Commerce, t h e r e f o r e , has a more or l e s s d i s s o l v i n g i n f l u e n c e euery - where on t h e producing o r g a n i a a t i o n which it f i n d s a t hand and whose d i f - f e r e n t forms a r e mainly c a r r i e d on w i t h a view t o u s e va lue" ( C a p i t a l , 3, p p . 331-2) .

The r e s u l t a n t f o rms w h i c h emerge f r o m such d i s r u p t i o n s depend, however, upon t h e f o r m o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g s o c i e t y and t h e e x t e n t o f c a p i t a l i s t p e n e t r a t i o n . One e f f e c t , f o r ex - ample, i s t o c r e a t e s c a r c i t i e s i n t h e non- c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y where t h e r e were none be- f o r e . N e c e s s a r i e s a r e t h e r e b y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o l u x u r i e s and t h i s :

"de te rmines t h e whote s o c i a 2 p a t t e r n of backward na t ions . . .wh ich a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a world market based on c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n . No m a t t e r how large t h e surplus p r o d u c t , t h e y ( t h e n o n - c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c e r s ) e x t r a c t from t h e s u r p l u s labour o f t h e i r s l a v e s i n t h e s imp le form of c o t t o n or corn, t h e y can adhere t o t h i s s imp le u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d Zabour be- cause f o r e i g n t r a d e e n a b l e s them t o con- v e r t t h e s e s imp le p r o d u c t s i n t o any k ind o f u se va lue" ( T h e o r i e s o f Surplus Value , 3 , p . 243) .

The c r e a t i o n o f "underdeve lopmen t " by means o f a c a p i t a l i s t p e n e t r a t i o n w h i c h t r a n s f o r m s non- c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s f r o m r e l a t i v e l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f use -va lues t o s p e c i a l i z e d and dependent u n i t s p r o d u c i n g exchange va lues , i s a theme w h i c h has been e x p l o r e d by con tempora ry w r i t e r s such as Baran (1957) and F rank (1969) . The l a t t e r , f o r example, c o i n s t h e ph rase " t h e deve lopment o f underdeve lopment " t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e k i n d s o f p rocesses t h a t Marx had i n mind .

o n l y a f t e r c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n had come t o These fo rms o f dependency a r e p o s s i b l e

domina te m e r c h a n t ' s c a p i t a l so t h a t t h e l a t t e r now b a s i c a l l y s e r v e s t h e purposes o f t h e f o r m e r . We t h e n f i n d :

" t h e cheapness of t h e a r t i c l e s produced by machinery, and t h e improved means of t r a n s p o r t and communication f u r n i s h t h e weapons for conquering f o r e i g n markets . B y r u i n i n g h a n d i c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , machinery f o r c i b l y con- v e r t s them i n t o f i e l d s for t h e supp ly o f i t s raw m a t e r i a l . I n t h i s way, Eas t I n d i a was compeZled t o produce c o t t o n , wool, hemp, j u t e and i n d i g o for Great B r i t a i n " ( C a p i t a l , I, p . 451) .

The manner o f such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s o f i n - t e r e s t and I n d i a p r o v i d e s a good example. O r i g i n a l l y a f i e l d f o r " d i r e c t e x p l o i t a t i o n " - - t h e d i r e c t a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f use v a l u e s - - I n d i a was t r a n s f o r m e d a f t e r 1815 i n t o a marke t f o r B r i t i s h t e x t i l e p r o d u c t s :

"But t h e more t h e i n d u s t r i a l i n - t e r e s t became dependent on t h e I n d i a n market , t h e more i t f e l t t h e n e c e s s i t y of c r e a t i n g f r e s h p r o d u c t i v e powers i n I n d i a , a f t e r having r u i n e d h e r n a t i v e in- d u s t r y . You cannot c o n t i n u e t o inunda te a coun t ry w i t h your manu fac tures , u n l e s s you enable it t o g i v e you some produce in r e t u r n " (On Colon ia l i sm , p . 5 2 ) .

C a p i t a l e x p o r t i n t h i s case s e r v e d a d i f f e r e n t purpose f r o m t h e mere l o a n o f money t o f i n a n c e i m p o r t s o f manu fac tu res . C a p i t a l was e x p o r t e d t o I n d i a t o p romote commodity p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h c o u l d , v i a f o r e i g n t r a d e , p r o v i d e t h e where- w i t h a l t o pay f o r t h e goods w h i c h were b e i n g i m p o r t e d f r o m B r i t a i n . B r i t a i n had t o b u i l d up commodity p r o d u c t i o n f o r exchanges i n I n d i a if i t was t o m a i n t a i n I n d i a as an i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t .

r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s , a p p l i e s t o t h e deve lopment o f c o l o n i e s t h r o u g h s e t t l e m e n t . Marx i n s i s t s h e r e on d r a w i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n :

"There are t h e coZoniea proper, such a s t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s , A u s t r a l i a , e t c . Here t h e mass of t h e farming c o l o n i s t s , aZthough t h e y b r i n g w i t h them a Larger o r s m a l l e r amount of c a p i t a l f rom t h e motherland, a r e n o t c a p i t a l i s t s , nor do t h e y carry on c a p i t a l i s t p roduc t ion . They are more or l e s s peasan t s who work themse lves and whose main o b j e c t , i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i s t o produce t h e i r own l i v e l i h o o d .... I n t h e second t y p e o f c o l o n i e s -- p l a n t a t i o n s -- where commer- c i a l s p e c u l a t i o n s f i g u r e from t h e s t a r t and p r o d u c t i o n i s i n t e n d e d for t h e world market , t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode of produc- t i o n e x i s t s , a l though on ly i n a fo rmal s e n s e , s i n c e t h e s l a v e r y of Negroes p r s - c l u d e s f r e e wage labour , which i s t h e b a s i s of c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n . But t h e b u s i n e s s inTwhich s l a v e s a r e used i s

The same s o r t o f l o g i c , o p e r a t i n g under

conducted by c a p i t a l i s t s " ( T h e o r i e s o f Surplus Value , 2, p p . 302-31.

C o l o n i e s o f t h e l a t t e r s o r t h o l d o u t t h e p r o s p e c t f o r h i g h p r o f i t s because o f t h e h i g h e r r a t e s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n , t h e l o w e r p r i c e o f n e c e s s a r i e s and, u s u a l l y , h i g h e r n a t u r a l p r o - d u c t i v i t y . C a p i t a l may move i n t o such c o l o n l e s and i n t h e p rocess reduce t h e excess p r o f i t t h e r e , b u t i n t h e p rocess t h e ave rage r a t e o f p r o f i t w i l l r i s e (w., pp. 436-7) . There e x i s t s h e r e a p o s i t i v e inducement t o t h e ex- p o r t o f c a p i t a l :

rrIf c a p i t a l i s s e n t abroad, t h i s i s n o t done because i t a b s o l u t e l y could n o t be a p p l i e d a t home, b u t because i t

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can be employed a t a h igher r a t e o f p ro - f i t i n a f o r e i g n country" (Capital , 3, p . 2 5 6 ) .

W i t h comp le te m o b i l i t y , o f cou rse , t h e p r o f i t r a t e w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be e q u a l i z e d a l t h o u g h a t a h i g h e r ave rage r a t e t h a n b e f o r e . B u t c o l o n i e s o f t h i s second s o r t a r e s t i l l advan- tageous because t h e y p e r m i t t h e i m p o r t a t l o n o f cheap raw m a t e r i a l s on t h e b a s i s o f a h i g h e r r a t e o f e x p l o i t a t i o n ( w h i c h presumes, by t h e way, c e r t a i n i m m o b i l i t i e s t o l a b o u r power, such as t h a t imposed b y s l a v e r y ) .

C o l o n i e s o f t h e f i r s t s o r t e x i s t i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n , however:

"There t h e c a p i t a l i s t regime every- where comes i n t o c o l l i s i o n w i t h t h e r e - s i s t a n c e o f t h e producer, who, a s owner o f h i e own c o n d i t i o n s o f labour, em- p loys t h a t labour t o e n r i c h h i m s e l f , i n s t e a d of t h e c a p i t a l i s t . The contra- d i c t i o n o f t h e s e two d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed economic aystems, m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f here p r a c t i c a l l y i n a s t r u g g l e between them. !?here t h e c a p i t a l i s t has a t h i s back t h e power o f t h e mother- country , he t r i e s t o c l e a r o u t o f his way by f o r c e , t h e modes o f product ion and appropr ia t ion , based on t h e inde- pendent labour o f t h e producer" (CapitaZ, 1, p . 765).

C o l o n i e s made up o f s m a l l i ndependen t p r o - duce rs , t r a d i n g some s u r p l u s i n t o t h e marke t , a r e t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a b o r s h o r t - ages and a h i g h wage r a t e w h i c h i s n o t a t t r a c - t i v e t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t f o r m o f e x p l o i t a t i o n ( t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e case where t h e r e i s an abundance o f f r e e l a n d f o r s e t t l e m e n t ) . Commodity p r o d u c t i o n does n o t e x i s t i n t h e comp le te c a p i t a l i s t sense. C o l o n i a l f o rms o f t h i s s o r t may be, t h e r e f o r e , j u s t as r e s i s - t a n t t o t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n as t r a d i t i o n a l more l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d n o n - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s . B u t s i n c e such n o n - c a p i t a l i s t c o l o n i e s a r e c r e a t e d by s p i n - o f f s o f s u r p l u s p o p u l a t i o n and s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f c a p i t a l f r o m t h e c e n t r e s o f ac- c u m u l a t i o n , and s i n c e t h e y a l s o f o r m marke ts f o r c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y a r e t o be v iewed as b o t h t h e r e s u l t o f p a s t a c c u m u l a t i o n and a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r f u r t h e r c a p i t a l accumu- l a t i o n . The U n i t e d S t a t e s p r i o r t o t h e C i v i l War, f o r example, p r o v i d e d an i m p o r t a n t , l a r g e - l y n o n - c a p i t a l i s t m a r k e t f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f commod i t i es p roduced under c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n B r i t a i n .

i s t h a t w h i c h comes w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n a l o n g c a p i t a l i s t l i n e s . I n 1867 Marx n o t e d how t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m an independen t , l a r g e l y non- c a p i t a l i s t , p r o d u c t i o n sys tem i n t o a new c e n t r e f o r c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . " C a p i t a l i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n advances t h e r e w i t h g i a n t s t r i d e s , even though t h e l o w e r i n g o f wages and t h e de- pendence o f t h e wage w o r k e r a r e l e t f a r f r o m b e i n g down t o t h e European l e v e l p. 773 ) . Marx expec ted a s i m i l a r t r a n s orma- t f o n i n I n d i a :

"when you have once introduced machinery i n t o t h e locomotion o f a country , which pOSSeSSe8 i r o n and Coals, Y O U are unable t o wi thhold i t from i t 8 f a b r i c a t i o n . You cannot maintain a n e t o f ra i lways over an immense country wi thout i n t r o - ducing a l l those i n d u s t r i a l processes necessary t o meet t h e immediate and cur- r e n t wants of rai lway locomotion, and o u t o f which t h e r e must grow t h e appl ica- t i o n o f machinery t o those branches o f

The f i n a l s t a g e o f c a p i t a l i s t p e n e t r a t i o n

(Cap iFa l , 1,

i n d u s t r y n o t immediately conneoted w i t h ra i lways . The Paii?WaY8 eyetem W i l t t h e r e f o r e beoome, in I n d i a , t r u l y t h e forerunner o f modern industry ... fwhioh) w i l l d i8eolVe t h e h e r e d i t a r y divisions o f labour, upon whioh r e s t t h e I n d i a n

I n d i a n progress and I n d i a n power. ... The bourgeois per iod o f h i e t o r y has t o oreate t h e mater ia l b a s i s o f t h e new world ... Bourgeois i n d u s t r y and oommeroe c r e a t e t h e r e m a t e r i a l condi t ione o f a new world i n t h e same way t h a t geologi - c a l revoZution8 have created t h e eur face o f t h e ear th" (On Colonial ism, p p . 8 6 - 7 1 .

Such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r i n I n d i a b u t i t d i d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The f a i l u r e t o p r e d i c t c o r r e c t l y i n t h e I n d i a n case has no b e a r i n g wha tsoever on t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n under t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n . A l l t h e t h e o r y says i s t h a t c a p i t a l i s m i s bound t o expand t h r o u g h b o t h an i n t e n s l f i c a t f o n o f r e l a t i o n - s h i p s i n t h e c e n t r e s o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n and a g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h o s e r e l a t i o n - s h i p s i n space. The t h e o r y does n o t p r e t e n d t o p r e d i c t where, when and e x a c t l y how t h e s e i n - t e n s i f i c a t i o n s and g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n s i o n s w i l l o c c u r -- t h e l a t t e r a r e a m a t t e r f o r c o n c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l ana lyses . M a r x ' s f a i l u r e t o p r e - d i c t c o r r e c t l y i n t h e case o f I n d i a was a f a i l u r e o f h f s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s , n o t o f t h e o r y .

B u t i t so happens t h a t t h e r e a r e a l s o good t h e o r e t i c a l reasons f o r b e l i e v l n g t h a t t h e c a p i t a r o d u c t i o n sys tem c o u l d n o t and c a n n o t becli:tu-n i t s scope. F o r t h i s t o be t h e case wou ld r e q u i r e t h e e q u a l - i z a t i o n o f p r o f i t s , t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n , on a g l o b a l s c a l e . To b e g i n w i t h , o f cou rse , t h e r e a r e a l l k i n d s o f b a r r i e r s t o be overcome be- f o r e such an e q u a l i z a t i o n i n p r o f i t r a t e s c o u l d o c c u r . We wou ld have t o presume t h e comp le te m o b i l i t y o f c a p i t a l and l a b o u r (Ca i t a l 3, p. 196) and adequa te i n s t i t u t i o n h A g e - ments ( fCee t r a d e , u n i v e r s a l money and c r e d i t system, t h e a b o l i t i o n o f a l l l aws p r e v e n t i n g t h e l a b o u r e r s f r o m t r a n s f e r r i n g f r o m one sphere t o p r o d u c t i o n i , t o a n o t h e r and f r o m one l o c a l i t y t o a n o t h e r , and so on ) . Under c a p i t a l i s m , t h e r e a r e a lways t e n d e n c i e s push- i n g i n t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s . F o r example:

"it is only f o r e i g n t r a d e , t h e develop- ment o f t h e market t o a world market, which causes money t o develop i n t o world money and a b s t r a c t labour i n t o s o c i a l labour. A b s t r a c t weal th , m l u e , money, hence a b s t r a c t labour, develop i n t h e measure t h a t concre te labour becomes a t o t a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t modes of labour embracing t h e world market. C a p i t a l i s t product ion r e s t s on t h e va lue or t h e t rans format ion o f t h e labour embodied i n t h e product i n t o s o c i a l labour. But t h i s is o n l y p o s s i b l e on t h e b a s i s of f o r e i g n t rade and t h e world market. T h i s is a t once t h e m e - c o n d i t i o n and t h e r e s u l t of

Castes , tho88 deUi8iVe impediments t o

c a p i t a l i s ' t product ion" (Theor ies of Sur- p l u s Value, 3, p . 2 5 3 1 .

The tendency o f c a p i t a l i s m , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o es t ;b l i sh a u n i v e r s a l s e t o f va lues , f ounded on a b s t r a c t s o c i a l l a b o u r " as d e f i n e d on a g l o b a l s c a l e . There i s , i n l i k e manner, a tendency f o r c a p i t a l e x p o r t t o e q u a l i z e t h e r a t e o f p r o f i t on a g l o b a l s c a l e . An accumu- l a t i o n p rocess i m p l i e s a tendency f o r t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n - t o a l l a s p e c t s o f p r o d u c t i o n and exchange t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d .

c a p i t a l be tween c o u n t r l e s , d i f f e r e n t p roduc - t i v i t i e s o f l a b o u r a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r a l

B u t d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i c c o m p o s i t i o n s o f

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d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f " n e c e s s i t i e s " a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r a l and c u l - of t h e mode of p r o d u c t i o n r e s t i n g on i t" t u r a l s i t u a t i o n , mean t h a t t h e s e e q u a l i z a t i o n s (Grundr i s se , p . 651). w i l l n o t be accompanied by an e o u a l i z a t i o n i n

of i t s d i s s o l u t i o n and of the d i s s o l u t i o n

t h e r a t e o f e x p l o i t a t i o n be tween c o u n t r i e s (Ca i t a l 3, pp. 150 -1 ) . I t f o l l o w s t h a t " t h e f h ' c o u n t r y r e c o v e r s more l a b o u r i n ex- change f o r l e s s l a b o u r , a l t h o u g h t h i s d i f f e r - ence, t h i s excess i s pocke ted , as i n any ex - change be tween c a p i t a l and l a b o u r , by a c e r t a i n c l a s s " (u., p. 238) . Marx t h e n n o t e s t h a t :

"Here t h e law of va lue undergoes e s s e n t i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n . The r e l a t i o n - s h i p between labour days of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s may be s i m i l a r to t h a t e x i s t - ing between s k i l l e d , complex labour and u n s k i l l e d , s imple labour w i t h i n a c o u n t r y . I n t h i s c a s e the r i c h e r country e x p l o i t s t h e poorer one, even where t h e l a t t e r ga ins by t h e exchange" (Theor ie s of Surplus Value, 3 , p p . 105- 6).

These a r e t h e k i n d s o f " s p e c i a l f a c t o r s " w h i c h make o f f o r e i g n t r a d e a v e r y complex i s s u e , w h i c h g e n e r a t e c e r t a i n p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n t h e te rms o f t r a d e between deve loped and un- deve loped s o c i e t i e s ( T h e o r i e s o f S u r p l u s Va lue , 2. pp. 474-5) and w h i c h p r e v e n t any d i r e c t " l e v e l l i n g o u t o f v a l u e s by l a b o u r t i m e and even t h e l e v e l l i n g o u t o f c o s t p r i c e s by a g e n e r a l r a t e o f p r o f i t " be tween d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ( I b i d . , p . 201) . These k i n d s o f f a c t o r s a r e p i c k e d up on by Emmanuel (1971) i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f i m p e r i a l i s m as "unequa l ex - change. "

These c o m p l e x i t i e s do n o t d e r i v e f r o m t h e f a i l u r e o f c a p i t a l i s t deve lopment t o overcome t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s t o i t s pene- t r a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h t h e s e b a r r i e r s can be ex - c e e d i n g l y r e s i s t a n t ) . They stem, r a t h e r , f r o m t h e i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t o r y and hence i m p e r f e c t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f . They a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d , t h e r e f o r e , as g l o b a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e i n t e r n a l con- t r a d i c t i o n s o f c a p i t a l i s m . And u n d e r l y i n g a l l o f t h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i s t h e f a c t t h a t c a p i t a l i s m u l t i m a t e l y becomes t h e g r e a t e s t b a r r i e r t o i t s own deve lopment . L e t us con- s i d e r how t h i s i s m a n i f e s t on t h e w o r l d s tage .

t i o n o n l y t h r o u g h expand ing . Expans ion i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ( o f s o c i a l wants and needs, o f p o p u l a t i o n t o t a l s , and t h e l i k e ) and e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n s i o n . F resh room f o r a c c u m u f a t i o n must e x i s t o r be c r e a t e d i f c a p i t a l i s m i s t o s u r v i v e . I f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n domina ted i n e v e r y r e s p e c t , i n e v e r y sphere and i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , t h e r e wou ld be l i t t l e o r no room l e f t f o r f u r t h e r a c c u m u l a t i o n ( p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h and t h e c r e a t i o n o f new s o c i a l wants and needs wou ld be t h e o n l y o p t i o n s ) . Long b e f o r e such a s i t u a t i o n was reached t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o - cess wou ld s low . S t a g n a t i o n wou ld s e t i n a t t e n d e d by a who le gamut o f economic and s o c i a l p rob lems . I n t e r n a l checks w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n wou ld b e g i n t o be f e l t p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e sphere o f c o m p e t i - t i o n :

C a p i t a l i s m can escape i t s own c o n t r a d i c -

"As long a s c a p i t a l i s weak, i t s t i l l i t s e l f r e l i e s on the c r u t c h e s of p a s t modes of produc t ion , or of those which w i l l p a s s w i t h i t s r i s e . As soon a s i t f e e l s s t r o n g , i t throws away the c r u t c h e s and moves i n accordance w i t h i t s own laws . As soon a s i t b e g i n s t o sense i t s e l f and becomes consc ious of i t s e l f a s a b a r r i e r t o development , i t s e e k s re fuge i n forms which, by r e s t r i c t i n g f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n , seem t o make t h e r u l e of c a p i t a l more p e r - f e c t , bu t a re a t t h e same t ime t h e h e r a l d s

IV. SOME COMMENTS ON THE THEORY OF IMPERIALISM

Marx h i m s e l f n e v e r p roposed a t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m . I n h i s comments on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e l a t i o n s , l o c a t i o n t h e o r y and f o r e i g n t r a d e he c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s , however, t h a t he has i n mind some s o r t o f g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l accumu- l a t i o n on an expand ing and i n t e n s i f y i n g geo- g r a p h i c a l s c a l e . We have, i n t h e p r e c e e d i n g two s e c t i o n s . a l r e a d y s k e t c h e d i n some o f t h e ma in f e a t u r e s o f t h a t g e n e r a l t h e o r y , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t Marx a r t i c u l a t e d i t .

The t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m w h i c h has emerged pos t -Marx o b v i o u s l y has someth ing t o c o n t r i b u t e towards an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t g e n e r a l t h e o r y and t h e r e f o r e t o an unders tand - i n g o f t h e ways i n w h i c h c a p i t a l i s m c r e a t e s f r e s h room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n . The t r o u b l e i s , however, t h a t t h e r e i s n o t one t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m , b u t a who le h o s t o f r e p r e s e n t a - t i o n s o f t h e m a t t e r - - M a r x i s t , n e o - M a r x i s t , Keynes ian , n e o - c l a s s i c a l and s o on. And t h e r e a r e i n n u m e r a b l e d i v e r g e n c e s and d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n each s c h o o l ( B a r r a t t Brown, 1974, p r o - v i d e s a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w ) . I s h a l l c o n f i n e m y s e l f t o some g e n e r a l comments.

The p rob lem f o r t h e M a r x i s t s and neo- M a r x i s t s , i t i s g e n e r a l l y argued, i s t o d e r i v e a t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m o u t o f Marx. And i t i s g e n e r a l l y ag reed t h a t no one has y e t suc- ceeded i n d o i n g so a l t h o u g h many have t r i e d . There i s a f a i r l y s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . Marx c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i f n fo: a c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o - d u c t i o n i n a p u r e s t a t e w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o any p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . On t h i s b a s i s , as we have seen, he demons t ra tes t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n and expans ion as a c o n c o m i t a n t o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . The t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m , as i t i s u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d o f i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s , by way o f c o n t r a s t , a t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y . I t i s t o be used t o ex - p l a i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l deve lopment o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s on t h e w o r l d s tage . I t has t o add ress t h e way i n w h i c h c o n f l i c t i n g f o r c e s and c l a s s i n t e r e s t s r e l a t e t o each o t h e r i n s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s , d e t e r m i n e o u t - comes t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s and t h e r e b y s e t t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e n e x t s t a g e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s . 4 a r x n e v e r c o n s t r u c t e d such an h i s t o r i c a l t h e o r y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s some ev idence t h a t he i n t e n d e d t o do so i n u n w r i t t e n books on t h e S t a t e , F o r e i g n T rade and t h e Wor ld M a r k e t (Marx-Enge ls Cor respondence, pp. 112-3).

M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n p l a i n l y c a n n o t be used as t h e b a s i s f o r d e r i v i n g an h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m i n any d i r e c t manner. Yet, as we have seen i n t h e p r e c e e d i n g s e c t i o n on f o r e i g n t r a d e , M a r x ' s t h e o r e t i c a l i n s i g h t s i n t e r s e c t w i t h h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s e s a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s . And t h e c r u c i a l m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e . wh ich most o f t h e w r i t e r s on i m p e r i a l i s m i g n o r e , i s t h e necessa ry tendency t o overcome s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s and t o a n n i h i l a t e space w i t h t i m e - - t e n d e n c i e s wh ich Marx d e r i v e s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . M a r x ' s t h e o r i e s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e l a t i o n s , l o c a - t i o n and g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , expand ing spheres o f r e a l i z a t i o n - - i n s h o r t t h e gener - a l t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n on an expand ing and i n t e n s i f y i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l s c a l e -- i n f a c t compr i se M a r x ' s own t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m ( a l t h o u g h he d i d n o t c a l l i t t h a t ) . S ince most w r i t e r s i g n o r e t h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r y embed- ded i n Marx i t wou ld appear t h a t t h i s p r o v i d e s us w i t h t h e m i s s i n g l i n k between M a r x ' s t h e o r y

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o f a c c u m u l a t i o n and t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s o f i m p e r i a l i s m t h a t have been p u t f o r w a r d s i n c e .

v a t i o n s . M a r x ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y t e l l s us o f t h e n e c e s s i t y t o expand and i n t e n s i f y geo- g r a p h i c a l l y . B u t i t does n o t t e l l us e x a c t l y how, when o r where. L o o k i n g a t t h e i n t e r - s e c t i o n o f t h e s e g e n e r a l arguments w i t h con- c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l ana lyses , we w i l l u s u a l l y be a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c d i c t a t e d by c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n a t work . B u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c does n o t , and i n d e e d c a n n o t u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e outcomes. The l a t t e r have t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n te rms o f t h e b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s - - economic, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , i d e o l o - g i c a l , c o m p e t i t i v e , l e g a l , m i l i t a r y , and t h e l i k e -- t h r o u g h wh ich i n t e r e s t g roups and c l a s s e s become c o n s c i o u s o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c and seek by t h e i r a c t i o n s t o " f i a h t i t o u t " t o some s o r t o f r e s o l u t i o n

B u t even h e r e we c a n n o t make d i r e c t d e r i -

( c f : A C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e C r i t i q u e o f P o l i t i - c a l Economy, p. 21) . To s p e c i f y t h e r e l a t i o n - s h i p s between t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f accumula- t i o n and t h e t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l j s m as i t i s u s u a l l y c o n s t r u e d poses, t h e r e f o r e , a d o u b l e d i f f i c u l t y . We have t o s p e c i f y how t h e " i n n e r l o g i c " o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o - d u c t i o n , a b s t r a c t l y conce ived , r e l a t e s t o t h e c o n c r e t e r e a l i t i e s , t h e phenomenal forms, o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p rocess . And we a l s o have to t a k e accoun t o f t h e m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , m i l i t a r y and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s wh ich , a l t h o u g h t h e y must be g e n e r a l l y o r g a n i z e d s o as t o be c o h e r e n t w i t h t h e c o u r s e o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , a r e n o t u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d by i t .

Most a n a l y s e s o f i m p e r i a l i s m u s u a l l y s t a r t i n f a c t f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e work o f T h i r d Wor ld w r i t e r s , such as Fanon (1967) , Amin (1973) and Frank (1969) , whose s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f d o m i n a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n by t h e advanced c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s . T h i s e x p e r i e n c e i s t h e n p r o j e c t e d i n t o t h e M a r x i a n f ramework f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n i n g e n e r a l . The consequence o f t h i s i s a v a r i e t y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m . Each r e p r e - s e n t a t i o n may be a c c u r a t e f o r i t s own p l a c e and t ime , b u t each ends up d r a w i n g upon j u s t one o r two f a c e t s o f M a r x ' s own t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n f o r s u p p o r t . By i m p l i c a - t i o n , and sometimes q u i t e e x p l i c i t l y , i t i s sugges ted t h a t o t h e r f a c e t s o f M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n a r e e i t h e r i r r e l e v a n t o r wrong.

Luxemburg (1968) i s an e x c e l l e n t case i n p o i n t . She b e g i n s h e r a n a l y s i s w i t h a concen- t r a t e d c r i t i c i s m o f M a r x ' s r e p r o d u c t i o n schemes i n Volume 2 o f Ca i t a l and, r e a c t i n g v e r y s t r o n g l y t o t h e d k 7 m p l i e d t h e r e t h a t c a p i - t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n can c o n t i n u e i n p e r p e t u i t y , she seeks t o show t h a t Marx had f a i l e d t o demon- s t r a t e where t h e e f f e c t i v e demand f o r commodi- t i e s was t o come f r o m i f a c c u m u l a t i o n was t o be s u s t a i n e d . Luxemburg 's own s o l u t i o n i s t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e demand has t o be f o u n d o u t s i d e o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem i n p r e - c a p i t a l i s t econom- i c f o r m a t i o n s . I m p e r i a l i s m i s t o be e x p l a i n e d as " t h e p o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e accumula- t i o n o f c a p i t a l i n i t s c o m p e t i t i v e s t r u g g l e f o r what s t i l l r ema ins open o f t h e non- c a p i t a l i s t e n v i r o n m e n t " (Luxemburg, 1968, p. 446 ) . As ev idence , Luxemburg assembles des- c r i p t i o n s o f t h e v i o l e n t p e n e t r a t i o n o f non- c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s , such as China, by c a p i - t a l i s t s i n s e a r c h o f m a r k e t s as w e l l as des- c r i p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s i m p e r i a l i s t r i v a l r i e s amongst t h e c a p i t a l i s t powers t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d.

b o t h c o m p e l l i n g and b r i l l i a n t . B u t h e r a n a l y - s i s amounts t o a o n e - s i d e d deve lopment o u t o f

Luxemburg 's argument i s , i n many r e s p e c t s ,

Marx. The o b j e c t i o n i s n o t t h a t she i s wrong -- indeed, we have a l r e a d y seen t h a t c a p i t a l i s t deve lopment may become c o n t i n g e n t upon o t h e r modes o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t t h e p e n e t r a t i o n and d i s r u p t i o n o f n o n - c a p i t a l i s t ! o c i e t i e s a r e i m p l i e d b y t h e i m f e r a t i v e t o s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s , and t h a t v i o l e n c e , mak ing use o f s t a t e power, can e a s i l y b e r e s o r t e d t o . The o b j e c t i o n i s t h a t Luxemburg sees t h e con- sequences o f t h e i m p e r a t i v e t o accumu la te s o l e l l i n t h e s e te rms. The o t h e r means where- by c a p i t a l i s m can c r e a t e f r e s h room f o r accumu- l a t i o n a r e i g n o r e d .

happen i f a l l o t h e r means f o r c r e a t i n g f r e s h room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n a r e s e a l e d o f f , Luxemburg 's work i s a b r i l l i a n t e x p o s i t i o n . Read as a documen ta t i on o f how t h e l o g i c o f c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n u n d e r l i e s t h e p e n e t r a - t i o n and d i s r u p t i o n o f n o n - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e - t i e s , t h e work i s c o m p e l l i n g . B u t r e a d as a d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r i m p e r i a l i s m o u t o f a c o r r e c t i o n o f M a r x ' s e r r o r s i n h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t r e p r o d u c t i o n , Luxemburg 's work i s b o t h e r roneous and miscon- c e i v e d . To p u t t h e c r i t i c i s m t h i s way i s n o t t o say, however, t h a t t h e p rocesses t o w h i c h Luxemburg draws a t t e n t i o n may n o t become, a t a c e r t a i n s t a g e i n c a p i t a l i s t h i s t o r y . v i t a l t o t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r . Whether o r n o t t h i s t u r n s o u t t o be t h e case depends, however, upon t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem t o c r e a t e f r e s h room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n b y o t h e r means.

The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i m p e r i a l i s m i n t h e works o f Baran (1957) and Frank (1969) can be c o n s i d e r e d i n a s i m i l a r way. C l e a r l y i m p l i e d i n M a r x ' s l o c a t i o n t h e o r y i s t h e emergence o f a g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f c e n t e r - p e r i p h e r y r e l a - t i o n s i n p r o d u c t i o n and exchange, w h i l e t h e t e a r i n g down of s p a t i a l b a r r i e r s t o exchange may c r e a t e dependencr and " t r a n s f o r m neces- s a r i e s i n t o l u x u r i e s f o r t h e economy new ly b r o u g h t i n t o t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f exchange. These k i n d s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e examined i n d e t a i l i n t h e work o f Baran and F rank and t h e y can r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e M a r x i a n f rame when t h e l o g i c o f a c c u m u l a t i o n i s p r o j e c t e d i n t o an a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a - t i o n . Baran and F rank a r e t h e r e f o r e on s t r o n g t h e o r e t i c a l g rounds when t h e y c l a i m t h a t back- wardness and underdeve lopment can and must be p roduced and p e r p e t u a t e d by t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n t o n o n - c a p i t a l i s t economles. They may a l s o be on s t r o n g f a c t u a T grounds when t h e y c l a i m t h a t t h i s i s t h e gener - a l r e l a t i o n s h i p wh ich e x i s t s be tween t h e T h i r d Wor ld and t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t r e s o f accumula- t i o n . But , as w i t h t h e work o f Luxemburg, t h e a n a l y s i s has t o be r e g a r d e d as a s i n g l e - f a c e t e d deve lopment o u t o f M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f accumula- t i o n . I t wou ld be b o t h e r roneous and miscon- c e i v e d t o r e g a r d t h i s deve lopment e i t h e r as a c o r r e c t i o n t o or a u n i q u e d e r i v a t i o n o u t o f Marx. F resh room f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n can be c r e a t e d by a v a r i e t y o f s t ra tegems i n a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . Whether o r n o t a d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s t o t h a t ex - p l o r e d by Baran and F rank i s p o s s i b l e depends - n o t on t h e t h e o r y b u t on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s con- t a i n e d i n a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s .

L e n i n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e M a r x i s t t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m i s , o f cou rse , f undamenta l . And i n some r e s p e c t s i t i s t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s c o n t e n t and i t s method. L e n i n d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o d e r i v e t h e t h e o r y o u t o f Marx. He r e g a r d e d t h e phenomena o f i m p e r i a l - i s m as sqmeth ing t o be r e v e a l e d by m a t e r i a l i s t h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , he was con- ce rned t o : x p l a i n t h e 1914-18 war as an i m p e r i - a l i s t war f o r t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d , f o r t h e p a r t i t i o n and r e p a r t i t i o n o f c o l o n i e s and spheres o f i n f l u e n c e . o f f i n a n c e c a p i t a l , e t c . "

t e a r down

Read a s a t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t i s e on what must

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( L e n i n , 1963, p. 673) . The method i s t h e r e - f o r e h i s t o r i f ; a l and L e n i n uses t h e t e r m

t e r i s t i c s o f t h e phenomenal f o r m assumed by c a p i t a l i s m d u r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f i t s deve lopment - - s p e c f f i c a l l y , d u r i n g t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . I n t h i s he r e l i e s v e r y h e a v i l y on t h e work o f a n o n - M a r x i s t , Hobson (1938) . Yet L e n i n a l s o seeks t o un:over " t h e economic essence o f i m p e r f a l i s m and t o r e l a t e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomenal appearance o f i m p e r i a l i s m t o M a r x ' s t h e o r e t i c a l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .

i n t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s t a g e o f i t s deve lopment i s summarized i n te rms o f f i v e b a s i c f e a t u r e s :

(1 ) t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n and c a p i t a l has deve loped t o such a high s t a g e t h a t i t has c r e a t e d monopolies which p l a y a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n economic l i f e ; (2) the merging of bank c a p i t a l w i t h i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l , and t h e c r e a - t i o n , on the b a s i s of t h i s " f inance c a p i t a l , of a f i n a n c i a l o l i g a r c h y ; (3) the e x p o r t of c a p i t a l a s d i s t i n - guished from the e x p o r t of commodities a c q u i r e s e x c e p t i o n a l importance; ( 4 1 t h e format ion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l mono- p o l i s t a s s o c i a t i o n s which share the worZd among themse lves , and ( 5 ) t h e t e r r i t o r i a l d i v i s i o n of the whole world among t h e b i g c a p i t a l i s t powers i s completed (Lenin, 1963, p . 7 3 7 ) .

i m p e r i a l i s m t o d e s c r i b e t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c -

The phenomenal appearance o f c a p i t a l i s m

The tendency towards c o n c e n t r a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s , i n M a r x ' s a n a l y s i s , i n t e g r a l t o t h e g e n e r a l p rocess o f a c c u m u l a t i o n ( C a p i t a l , 1, Chap te r 2 5 ) . The p h y s i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n t o a c h i e v e economies o f s c a l e i n a l o c a t i o n a l sense i s a l s o , i n M a r x ' s t h e o r y , p a r a l l e l e d by a g r o w i n g c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f c a p i t a l . L e n i n a l s o grounds t h e l o g i c o f c a p i t a l e x p o r t i n M a r x ' s t h e o r y . He r e b u t s t h e argument t h a t c a p i t a l i s m c o u l d e v e r a c h i e v e an equa l deve lop - ment i n a l l spheres o f p r o d u c t i o n o r a l l e v i a t e t h e m i s e r y o f t h e mass o f worke rs :

"If c a p i t a l i s m d i d t h e s e t h i n g s i t would no t be c a p i t a l i s m ; f o r b o t h un- even development and a s e m i - s t a r v a t i o n l e v e l of e x i s t e n c e of t h e masses a r e fundamental and i n e v i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s and c o n s t i t u t e t h e premises of t h i s mode of p r o d u c t i o n . As long a s c a p i - t a l i s m remains what i t i s , surplus c a p i t a l w i l l be u t i l i z e d no t f o r t h e purpose of r a i s i n g the s tandard of l i v i n g of t h e masses i n a g i v e n coun- t r y , f o r t h i s would mean a d e c l i n e i n p r o f i t s f o r t h e c a p i t a l i s t s , but f o r t h e purpose of i n c r e a s i n g p r o f i t s by e x p o r t i n g c a p i t a l abroad t o the back- ward c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e s e backward c o u n t r i e s p r o f i t s a r e u s u a l l y high, f o r c a p i t a l i s s c a r c e , t h e p r i c e of land i s r e l a t i v e l y low, wages are low, raw m a t e r i a l s a r e cheap ... The ex - p o r t of c a p i t a l i n f l u e n c e s and g r e a t - l y a c c e l e r a t e s t h e development of c a p i t a l i s m i n those c o u n t r i e s t o which i t i s e x p o r t e d . While , t h e r e f o r e , t h e expor t of c a p i t a l may t end t o a c e r - t a i n e x t e n t t o a r r e s t development i n the c a p i t a l - e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s , i t can on ly do s o by expanding and deepen- ing t h e f u r t h e r development of c a p i t a l - ism throughout the world" (Lenin, 1963, p p . 7 1 6 - 8 ) .

L e n i n i s h e r e emphas iz ing c e r t a i n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n when p r o j e c t e d

i n t o an a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . P l a i n l y , he i s n o t e x c l u d i n g t h e deve lopment o f c a p i t a l - i s t p r o d u c t i o n i n new c e n t r e s , a l t h o u g h t h e c a r v i n g up o f t h e w o r l d i n t o spheres o f i n - f l u e n c e w i t h c e n t r e s o f a c c u m u l a t i o n and f p h e r e s tf r e a l i z a t i o n i s r e g a r d e d as a

managed r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , accomp l i shed by f i n a n c e c a p i t a l i s m t h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l man ipu la - t i o n s , o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e uneven deve lopment o f c a p i t a l i s m . B u t L e n i n a l s o argues t h a t i m - p e r i a l i s m "can and must be d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y i f we b e a r i n m i n d n o t o n l y t h e b a s i c , p u r e l y economic concep ts ... b u t a l s o t h e h i s t o r i c a l p l a c e o f t h i s s t a g e o f c a p i t a l i s m i n r e l a t i o n t o c a p i t a l i s m i n g e n e r a l , o r t h e r e l a t i o n be tween i m p e r i a l i s m and t h z two main t r e n d s i n t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s movement (u., p. 737). I m p e r i a l i s m t h u s has t h e e f f e c t o f " e x p o r t i n g " some o f t h e t e n s i o n s c r e a t e d by t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h e c e n t r e s o f accum;lation t o p e r i p h e r a l a reas . The " s u p e r p r o f i t s o f i m p e r i a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n make i t " p o s s i b l e t o b r i b e t h e l a b o u r l e a d e r s and t h e upper s t r a t u m o f t h e l a b o u r a r i s t o c r a c y . And t h a t i s j u s t wha t t h e c a p i t a l i s t s o f t h e "advanced" c o u n t r i e s a r e d o i n g " ( I b i d . , p. 677) . T h i s l a s t a s p e c t o f i m p e r i a m has t o be rega rded as t h e j o i n t outcome o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e uneven deve lopment o f c a p i t a l i s m on a w o r l d s c a l e and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g uneven deve lopment o f t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e . C a p i t a l becomes m o b i l e i n o r d e r t o escape t h e consequences o f a c l a s s s t r u g g l e waged a t a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e and t i m e o r e l s e i t r e p a t r i a t e s s u p e r p r o f i t s t o buy o f f i t s home l a b o u r f o r c e w i t h m a t e r i a l advancement. I n e i t h e r case a g e o g r a p h i c a l expans ion o f deve lopment must o c c u r .

L e n i n b l e n d s c o n c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s , based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l - ism, w i t h some fundamenta l i n s i g h t s f r o m Marx ' s t h e o r y . An e v a l u a t i o n o f L e n i n ' s t h e o r y must r e s t , t h e r e f o r e , on an assessment o f h i s h i s - t o r i c a l a c c u r a c y and a c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e way i n w h i c h t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y i n t e r s e c t s w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l s . On t h e f o r m e r s c o r e t h e r e a r e grounds f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t L e n i n ' s r e l i a n c e on Hobson and H i l f e r d i n g l e d h i m i n t o some f a c t u a l e r r o r s . I n t h e l a t t e r r e s p e c t , L e n i n , l i k e most o t h e r w r i t e r s on i m p e r i a l i s m , deve lops M a r x ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y i n a o n e - s i d e d r a t h e r t h a n an a l l - e m b r a c i n g manner. As a consequence t h e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l i s t a c c u m u l a t i o n i s p a r - t i a l l y obscu red f r o m v iew .

i m p e r i a l i s m i n g e n e r a l , i s t h a t i t has become a t h e o r y " u n t o i t s e l f , " d i v o r c e d f r o m M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . As a conse- quence, t h e argument o v e r what i m p e r i a l i s m i s , has degenera ted i n t o an argument o v e r wh ich o f s e v e r a l compe t ing p r i n c i p l e s s h o u l d be used t o d e f i n e i t . marke ts? The a t t a i n m e n t o f cheaper raw m a t e r i a l s ? The s e a r c h i n g o u t o f a more e a s i l y e x p l o i t e d and a more d o c i l e l a b o u r f o r c e ? Is i t p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n a t t h e expense o f n o n - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s ? Does i t i n v o l v e c h e a t i n g t h r o u g h exchange? Is i t t h e neces- s a r y e x p o r t o f c a p i t a l t o s e t up new c e n t r e s o f i n d u s t r i a l a c c u m u l a t i o n ? Is i t t h e concen- t r a t i o n o f r e l a t i v e s u r p l u s v a l u e on a l o c a l - i z e d b a s i s ? I s i t t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f monopoly power, exp ressed t h r o u g h t h e p o l i t i - c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a sys tem o f n a t i o n s t a t e s ? I s i t f i n a n c e c a p i t a l o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h m u l t i - n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s and government coop ta - t i o n ? I s i t s i m p l y t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r ? Is i t a p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f any o f t h e above? Under M a r x ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y a l l o f t h e above a r e p o s s i b l e and none a r e t o be exc luded . I t i s . t h e r e f o r e , t h e t a s k o f c a r e f u l h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s t o d i s c o v e r w h i c h o f t h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i s dominant a t a p a r t i - c u l a r s t a g e o f deve lopment o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l

The p r o b l e m w i t h t h e M a r x i s t t h e o r y o f

The deve lopment o f pve rseas

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f o r m a t i o n s . M a r x ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y does n o t p r e t e n d t o p r e d i c t p a r t i c u l a r f o rms and man i - f e s t a t i o n s . A l l i t does i s t o i n d i c a t e t h e u n d e r l y i n g i m p e r a t i v e , c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t system, t o accumu la te c a p i t a l and t o do i t , o f n e c e s s i t y , on an expand ing and i n t e n s i f y i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l s c a l e .

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n i s i m p o s s i - b l e . Indeed, a g r e a t dea l can be done he re . And we can a l s o p l a c e one b e t . The s u r v i v a l o f c a p i t a l i s m i s p r e d i c t e d on t h e c o n t i n u e d a b i l i t y t o accumula te , by wha teve r means i s e a s i e s t . The p a t h o f c a p i t a l i s t accumula- t i o n w i l l move t o whereve r t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s weakest. I t i s t h e t a s k o f h i s t o r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l ana lyses t o i d e n t i f y t h e s e p o i n t s o f l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e , o f g r e a t e s t weakness. L e n i n once a d v i s e d a l l r e v o l u t i o n a r y move- ments t o l o o k f o r t h e weakes t l i n k i n c a p i t a l - ism. I r o n i c a l l y , c a p i t a l i s m manages, by t r i a l and e r r o r and p e r s i s t a n t p r e s s u r e , t o d i s - c o v e r t h e weakes t l i n k s i n t h e f o r c e s opposed t o c o n t i n u e d a c c u m u l a t i o n and by e x p l o i t i n g t h o s e l i n k s t o open up f r e s h p a s t u r e f o r t h e b o u r g e o i s i e t o a c c o m p l i s h i t s h i s t o r i c a l m i s - s i o n - - t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l .

T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t a t h e o r e t i c a l

V . MARX'S THEORY OF CAPITAL ACCUMULATION ON AN EXPANDING GEOGRAPHICAL SCALE A S A WHOLE

M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n on an expand ing g e o g r a p h i c a l s c a l e i s q u i t e com- p l e x . We have d e l v e d i n t o Marx t o t r y t o d i s - c o v e r i n h i s w r i t i n g s some o f i t s b a s i c com- ponen ts . B u t t o be a p p r e c i a t e d p r o p e r l y t h e s e components have t o be seen i n r e l a t i o n b o t h one t o each o t h e r and t o t h e v a r i o u s mode ls w h i c h Marx d e v i s e d t o u n d e r s t a n d c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , exchange and r e a l i z a t i o n as a t o t a l i t y . I n a r a t h e r s p e n d i d passage i n t h e G r u n d r i s s e (pp . 4 0 7 - l o ) , Marx p r o v i d e s a k i n d o f " o v e r v i e w s k e t c h " o f h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r y :

The c r e a t i o n by c a p i t a l o f a b s o l u t e s u r p l u s v a l u e ... is c o n d i t i o n a l upon an expans ion , s p e c i f i c a l l y a c o n s t a n t ex - pans ion , o f t h e sphere of c i r c u l a t i o n .... A p r e c o n d i t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n based on c a v i t a t i s t h e r e f o r e t h e v r o d u c t i o n

h e e n c y on one s i d e t o c r e a t e e v e r more s u r p l u s labour, so i t has t h e complementary tendency t o c r e a t e more p o i n t s of exchange.

From t h i s , o f cou rse , we can d e r i v e " t h e t e n d - ency t o c r e a t e t h e w o r l d m a r k e t [ w h i c h ] i s d i r e c t l y g i v e n i n t h e concep t o f c a p i t a l n i t - s e l f " and t h e need, i n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , t o s u b j u g a t e e v e r y moment o f p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f t o exchange and t o suspend t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t use v a l u e s n o t e n t e r i n g i n t o exchange." Marx t h e n goes on t o say t h a t :

t h e produc t ion of r e l a t i v e s u r p ~ u s - va lue ... r e q u i r e s t h e produc t ion of new consumvtion; r e a u i r e s t h a t t h e con- suming- c i r c i e w i t h i n c i r c u l a t i o n ex- pands a s d i d t h e p r o d u c t i v e c i r c l e p r e v i o u s l y . F i r s t l y q u a n t i t a t i v e ex - pans ion of e x i s t i n g consumption; second ly , c r e a t i o n of new needs by pro- paga t ing e x i s t i n g ones i n a wide c i r - c l e ; t h i r d l y , p r o d u c t i o n of net, needs and d i s c o v e r y and c r e a t i o n o f new u s e v a l u e s .

As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e e x p a n s i o n a r y tenden- c i e s , c a p i t a l i s m c r e a t e s :

a sys t em o f genera l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e

n a t u r a l and human q u a l i t i e s .... Bence t h e g r e a t c i v i Z i a i n g i n f l u e n c e o f c a p i t a l ; i t s p r o d u c t i o n o f a s t a g e o f s o c i e t y i n comparieon t o which a l l e a r l i e r one8 appear a s mere l o c a l deve tovmen t s of humanity and a8 n a t u r e i d o l a t o r y . t h e f i r s t t i m e , n a t u r e becomes p u r e l y an o b j e c t f o r humankind, p u r e l y a m a t t e r of u t i l i t y .... In accord w i t h t h i s t endency , c a p i t a l d r i v e s beyond n a t i o n a l b a r r i e r s and p r e j u d i c e s a s much a s beyond n a t u r e worsh ip , a s w e l l a s a l l t r a d i t i o n a l , con- f i n e d , e n c r u s t e d s a t i s f a c t i o n e of p r e s e n t needs , and r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f o l d ways of l i f e . I t i s d e s t r u c t i v e towarde a l l o f t h i s , and c o n s t a n t l y r e v o l u t i o n i z e s i t , t e a r i n g down a l l ' t h e b a r r i e r s which hem i n t h e development o f t h e f o r c e s of pro- d u c t i o n , t h e expans ion o f needs , t h e a l l - s i d e d development o f p roduc t ion , and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n and exchange of n a t u r a l and mental f o r c e s .... d i c t s i t s c h a r a c t e r , i t s p r o d u c t i o n moves i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which a r e c o n s t a n t l y overcome b u t j u s t a s c o n s t c n t t y p o s i t e d . Furthermore, t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y towards which i t i r r e s i s t a b l y s t r i v e s encoun ter s b a r r i e r s i n i t s own n a t u r e , which w i l t , a t a c e r t a i n s t a g e of i t s development , a l l o w i t t o be recogniaed a s be ing i t - s e l f t h e g r e a t e s t b a r r i e r t o t h i s t end- ency , and hqnce w i l l d r i v e towards i t 8

For

B u t . . . s i n c e e v e r y such b a r r i e r con t ra -

Own SUSpenSl-OTl."

M a r x ' s s k e t c h does n o t i n c o r p o r a t e a l l o f t h e e lemen ts w h i c h we have i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s paper b u t i t does convey a f e e l i n g f o r what he had i n m ind i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a t h e o r y o f accumu- l a t i o n on an expand ing g e o g r a p h i c a l s c a l e . P l a i n l y , t h e d r i v e t o accumu la te l i e s a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t h e o r y . T h i s d r i v e i s exp ressed p r i m a r i l y i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p rocess t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n o f a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e s u r p l u s v a l u e . B u t t h e c r e a t i o n o f v a l u e i s c o n t i n - g e n t upon t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a l i z e i t t h r o u g h c i r c u l a t i o n . F a i l u r e t o r e a l i z e v a l u e means, q u i t e s i m p l y , t h e n e g a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e c r e a t - ed p o t e n t i a l l y i n p r o d u c t i o n . Thus, i f t h e sphere o f c i r c u l a t i o n does n o t expand t h e n a c c u m u l a t i o n comes t o a h a l t . C a p i t a l , Marx n e v e r t i r e s o f emphas iz ing , i s n o t a t h i n g o r a s e t o f i n s t i t u t i o n s ; i$ i s a p rocess o f c i r - c u l a t i o n be tween p r o d u c t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n . T h i s p rocess , w h i c h must expand, must accumu- l a t e , c o n s t a n t l y re -shapes t h e work p rocess and t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n p r o d u c t i o n as i t c o n s t a n t l y changes t h e d imens ions and fo rms o f c i r c u l a t i o n . Marx h e l p s us t o under - s t a n d t h e s e p rocesses t h e o r e t i c a l l y . B u t u l t i m a t e l y we have t o b r i n g t h i s t h e o r y t o b e a r on e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s t r u c - t u r e o f c a p i t a l l s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s t o r y . We have t o f o r c e an i n t e r - s e c t i o n be tween t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n s , on t h e one hand, and t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i n v e s t i - g a t i o n s o f a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s on t h e o t h e r . To c o n s t r u c t and r e - c o n s t r u c t M a r x ' s t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n on an expand ing g e o g r a p h i c a l s c a l e as a t o t a l i t y r e q u i r e s such an i n t e r s e c t i o n . We have i n d e e d t o d e r i v e t h e t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m o u t o f t h e M a r x i a n t h e o r y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . B u t t o do so we have t o move c a r e f u l l y t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s . I n M a r x ' s own t h o u g h t i t appears t h a t t h e c r u c i a l i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s encompass a t h e o r y o f l o c a t i o n and an a n a l y s i s o f f i x e d and i m m o b i l e i n v e s t m e n t ; t h e necessa ry c r e a - t i o n o f a g e o g r a p h i c a l l andscape t o f a c i l i t a t e a c c u m u l a t i o n t h r o u g h p r o d u c t i o n and c i r c u l a - t i o n . B u t t h e s t e p s f r o m t h e t h e o r y o f accumu- l a t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y o f i m p e r i a l i s m , o r more g e n e r a l l y t o a t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y , a r e n o t s i m p l e mechan ica l d e r i v a t i o n s because down t h i s p a t h we have t o a c c o m p l i s h a l s o t h a t

20

Page 13: The geography of capitalist accumulation: a reconstruction of the Marxian theory.

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e g e n e r a l t o t h e con- c r e t e w h i c h compr i sed t h e c e n t r a l t h r u s t o f Marx ’ s u n f i n i s h e d work. We have t o l e a r n , i n s h o r t , t o comp le te t h e p r o j e c t w h i c h Marx undersco res a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Volume 3 o f Ca i t a l - - we have t o b r i n g a s y n t h e t i c under - dim-- ng o f t h e p rocesses o f p r o d u c t i o n and c i r c u l a t i o n under c i p i t a l i s m t o b e a r on c a p i - t a l i s t h i s t o r y and t h u s approach s t e p by s t e p t h e f o r m wh ich t h e y assume on t h e s u r f a c e o f soc i e t y . ”

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Baran, P. , 1957, The P o l i t i c a l Economy o f

( M o n t h l y Review Press , New York ) .

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Emmanuel, A., 1972, Unequal Exchange (New L e f t Books, London).

Fanon, F., 1967, The Wretched o f t h e E a r t h (Pengu in Books, Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x ) .

F rank , A . G., 1969, C a p i t a l i s m and Underdeve lop - ment i n L a t i n Amer ica ( M o n t h l y Review Press , New Y o r k ) . /

F rank , A . G., 1969, C a p i t a l i s m and Underdeve lop - ment i n L a t i n Amer ica ( M o n t h l y Review , Press , New Y o r k ) . ,

Harvey , D., 1975, “The P o l i t i c a l Economy o f U r b a n i z a t i o n i n Advanced C a p i t a l i s t C o u n t r i e s - t h e Case o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ” i n 6. Gapper t and H. Rose, eds., Urban A f f a i r s Annual No. 9 - The S o c i a l Economy o f C i t i e s (Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s , B e v e r l e y H i l l s , C a l i f o r n i a ) .

Hobson, J . A . , 1938, I m p e r i a l i s m ( A l l e n and Unwi n , London) .

Kuznets , S., 1961, C a p i t a l i n t h e Amer ican Economy; I t s F o r m a t i o n and F i n a n c i n g ( N a t i o n a l Bureau o f Economic Research. P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) .

S tage o f C a p i t a l i s m ” i n S e l e c t e d Works, Vo l . 1 ( P r o g r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , Moscow).

L e n i n . V . I . . 1963, “ I m p e r i a l i s m , t h e H i g h e s t

Luxemburg, R., 1951, The A c c u m u l a t i o n o f Cap i - - t a l (Rou t ledge and Kegan Pau l , London).

Marx, K., 1967, C a p i t a l (Th ree Volumes; I n t e r - n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s , New York ) .

, 1970, A C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e C r i t i q u e o f P o l i t i c a l Economy ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Pub- l i s h e r s , New York ) .

, 1973, G r u n d r i s s e (Pengu in Books,

, 1971, On C o l o n i a l i s m ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Harmondsworth, M i d d l esex ) .

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, 1967; 1968 and 1972, T h e o r i e s o f Su r - l u s Va lue (Th ree P a r t s ; P rog ress Pub-

b o s c o w ) .

, and Enge ls , F., 1955, S e l e c t e d Cor - respondence (P rog ress P u b l i s h e r s , Moscow).

ment (Methuen, :ondon). Thomas, B., 1972, M i r a t i o n and Urban Deve lop -

F J R T H C O M I N G I N THE l l E X T Y E A R

Underdeve lopment i n L a t i n Amer ica - - i s s u e e d i t e d by L u i s Ch ives , p r e s e n t l y b e i n g t r a n s - l a t e d .

Underdeve lopment i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld -- two j s s u e s e d i t e d by M i l t o n Santos , w i t h some 40 papers by T h i r d and F i r s t Wor ld w r i t e r s .

R u r a l Amer ica - - i s s u e e d i t e d by I n g o l f Voge le r .

S e v e r a l o t h e r s p e c i a l i s s u e s a r e v i r t u a l l y com- p l e t e .

Genera l I s s u e s . Our comrades i n L i s b o n have p romised a paper on t h e s i t u a t i o n i n P o r t u g a l and t h e r o l e p l a y e d by geographers t h e r e . Bob C o l e n u t t has a paper on t h e London p r o p e r t y m a r k e t wh ich i s i n t h e f i n a l s tages o f p r e p a r a - t i o n . S e v e r a l exchange papers f r o m Espaces e t S o c i e t i e s a r e b e i n g t r a n s l a t e d .

Your f i n a n c i a l h e l p i n t h e f o r m o f s u b s c r i p - t i o n s t o more t h a n t h e u s u a l f o u r i s s u e s , l o a n s o r g i f t s can be p u t t o good use a t t h i s t i m e .

TRANS L AT I 0 N HELP URGE i’iT 1 Y NEEDED

o f m a t e r i a l i n Span ish and F rench w h i c h has ove rbu rdened o u r t r a n s l a t i o n r e s o u r c e s . We u r g e n t l y need h e l p i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e s e papers i n t o E n g l i s h , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m p e o p l e w i t h backgrounds i n Marx ism and T h i r d Wor ld under - deve lopment . I f you can h e l p p l e a s e w r i t e t o R i c h a r d Peet , An t ipode , Box 225, West S i d e S t a t i o n , Worces te r , Mass., 01602.

A n t i p o d e i s r e c e i v i n g an i n c r e a s i n g volume

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