The French Revolution 1789-1799. In May 1774, a timid young man of 19 became Louis XVI, king of...

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The French The French Revolution Revolution 1789-1799 1789-1799

Transcript of The French Revolution 1789-1799. In May 1774, a timid young man of 19 became Louis XVI, king of...

Page 1: The French Revolution 1789-1799. In May 1774, a timid young man of 19 became Louis XVI, king of France. In May 1774, a timid young man of 19 became Louis.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution In May 1774, a timid In May 1774, a timid

young man of 19 young man of 19 became Louis XVI, became Louis XVI, king of France.king of France.

The eager-to-please The eager-to-please monarch didn’t have monarch didn’t have the political courage the political courage to reform the to reform the economy or French economy or French politics. politics.

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He had married an He had married an Austrian princessAustrian princess—Marie Antoinette—Marie Antoinette—when he was 15 —when he was 15 (she was 14)…and (she was 14)…and they were married they were married seven years seven years before they had before they had their first child.their first child.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionFrance had about 26,000,000 France had about 26,000,000

inhabitants divided into distinct social inhabitants divided into distinct social classes.classes.

Before the Revolution, French society was stratified into what were known as the three “Estates” or orders:

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The First Estate: the Clergy/Church; they represented .5% of the population, owned 10% of the land, and PAID NO TAXES.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe Second Estate:

the Aristocrats (nobles); they had titles and most had wealth.

They represented 1.5% of the population and owned 20% of the land… but PAID NO TAXES.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe Third Estate: the Commoners (all

non-titled people. Merchants, doctors, lawyers, bankers, professionals, and peasants). They represented 98% of the French population, owned 70% of the land, and PAID ALL the TAXES.

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The philosophe’ found the French system The philosophe’ found the French system too rooted in tradition and proposed that too rooted in tradition and proposed that talent/merit supersede birth as the main talent/merit supersede birth as the main determinant of social standing.determinant of social standing.

They did not believe that social They did not believe that social differences should be defined by law.differences should be defined by law.

Traditionalists countered that a hierarchy Traditionalists countered that a hierarchy of social orders was necessary to hold of social orders was necessary to hold society together.society together.

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The French Revolution began The French Revolution began because of a financial crisisbecause of a financial crisis..

With over 75% of the national budget With over 75% of the national budget going to pay interest on debt from going to pay interest on debt from past wars (including the American past wars (including the American Revolution) and on their military, Revolution) and on their military, king Louis XVI needed to overhaul king Louis XVI needed to overhaul the inefficient and inequitable tax the inefficient and inequitable tax system.system.

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In 1788, the debt crisis was so severe, In 1788, the debt crisis was so severe, Louis XVI was forced to call for a Louis XVI was forced to call for a meeting of Estates General (a legislative meeting of Estates General (a legislative body that hadn’t met since 1614) to find body that hadn’t met since 1614) to find a way out.a way out.

Since the nobility had been freed from Since the nobility had been freed from paying taxes, it would be the job of Louis paying taxes, it would be the job of Louis XVI to convince the nobility to give up XVI to convince the nobility to give up their tax-free status…not an easy job for their tax-free status…not an easy job for a weak man.a weak man.

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The nobles wanted the king to The nobles wanted the king to guarantee that the government guarantee that the government wouldn’t implement any economic wouldn’t implement any economic reforms that would put limits on their reforms that would put limits on their privileges.privileges.

The nobles also demanded that the The nobles also demanded that the Third Estate (commoners) should not Third Estate (commoners) should not have the ability to limit their have the ability to limit their rights/powers.rights/powers.

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The meeting was to take place in one The meeting was to take place in one year and each Estate spent those 12 year and each Estate spent those 12 months preparing a list of grievances months preparing a list of grievances against the government.against the government.

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When the delegates arrived at When the delegates arrived at Versailles in May 1789 (300 in the First, Versailles in May 1789 (300 in the First, 300 in the Second, and 600 in the Third) 300 in the Second, and 600 in the Third) the first two Estates were welcomed the first two Estates were welcomed while members of the Third Estate (the while members of the Third Estate (the commoners) were told to wait.commoners) were told to wait.

The nobles wanted each Estate to meet separately and vote as an entire body (so their one vote plus the one vote of the clergy could thwart any vote from the Third Estate 2-1).

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution In frustration, delegates from the Third Estate In frustration, delegates from the Third Estate

left and on June 10left and on June 10thth, invited the First and , invited the First and Second Estates to join them (some of the Second Estates to join them (some of the more liberal-minded members of each Estate more liberal-minded members of each Estate did join).did join).

On June 17On June 17thth, the Third Estate began the , the Third Estate began the French Revolution by declaring that they French Revolution by declaring that they would not meet as a medieval estate based on would not meet as a medieval estate based on social status but only go before the king as a social status but only go before the king as a National Assembly National Assembly representing the political representing the political will of 98% of the French people.will of 98% of the French people.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionOn June 20On June 20thth, the Third Estate was locked , the Third Estate was locked

out of its meeting hall so it moved to a out of its meeting hall so it moved to a nearby indoor tennis court where the nearby indoor tennis court where the delegates took what became known as delegates took what became known as the the Tennis Court OathTennis Court Oath,, vowing not to vowing not to disband until they had drafted a disband until they had drafted a constitution.constitution.

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In a very famous pamphlet, the Abbe In a very famous pamphlet, the Abbe Sieyes wrote about the Third Estate: Sieyes wrote about the Third Estate: 

““What is the Third Estate? The answer is What is the Third Estate? The answer is simple. What is the Third Estate? simple. What is the Third Estate? EverythingEverything..

““What has it been in the political order What has it been in the political order until now? until now? NothingNothing..

““What does it want to be? What does it want to be? SomethingSomething.”.”

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe king ordered the Third Estate to The king ordered the Third Estate to

disband immediately but they refused, disband immediately but they refused, so on June 27so on June 27thth he ordered the First and he ordered the First and Second Estates to join the Third Estate.Second Estates to join the Third Estate.

Most of the Second Estate refused and Most of the Second Estate refused and joined the king against the Third Estate.joined the king against the Third Estate.

The king then ordered thousands of The king then ordered thousands of troops (including foreign troops) to troops (including foreign troops) to guard Paris and Versailles.guard Paris and Versailles.

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Fearing the king was going to use Fearing the king was going to use troops against them, Parisians began troops against them, Parisians began to arm themselves.to arm themselves.

Tensions also ran high because of Tensions also ran high because of the price of bread. In August of the price of bread. In August of 1788, 50% of an urban worker’s 1788, 50% of an urban worker’s income went just towards bread.income went just towards bread.

By July 1789, it had risen to 80%.By July 1789, it had risen to 80%.

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On July 14, between 800-900 Parisians On July 14, between 800-900 Parisians (mostly women) stormed the (mostly women) stormed the BastilleBastille—a —a fortified prison that symbolized royal fortified prison that symbolized royal authority. They were looking for authority. They were looking for guns/gunpowder (little was actually guns/gunpowder (little was actually captured).captured).

The garrison commander ordered his The garrison commander ordered his troops to open fire on the crowd.troops to open fire on the crowd.

A fierce battle left over 100 people dead, A fierce battle left over 100 people dead, including the garrison commander. including the garrison commander.

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July 14, 1789: the Bastille Prison July 14, 1789: the Bastille Prison

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe fall of the Bastille (which since 1880 the The fall of the Bastille (which since 1880 the

French consider to be French consider to be theirtheir Independence Independence Day) set an important precedent by Day) set an important precedent by demonstrating that common people (not demonstrating that common people (not soldiers) were willing to intervene violently at soldiers) were willing to intervene violently at a crucial political moment.a crucial political moment.

There was now no turning back.There was now no turning back.Louis XVI, at Versailles, heard about the Louis XVI, at Versailles, heard about the

Bastille and asked “Is this a revolt?” to which Bastille and asked “Is this a revolt?” to which an answer came “No sire, it is a revolution.”an answer came “No sire, it is a revolution.”

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution Revolutions then Revolutions then

broke out broke out throughout France throughout France (28 of France’s (28 of France’s largest 30 cities largest 30 cities experienced this) experienced this) causing “causing “TheThe Great FearGreat Fear,” a ,” a panic that ran panic that ran throughout France throughout France in the summer of in the summer of 1789. 1789.

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Besides unrest in the cities, peasants Besides unrest in the cities, peasants in the French countryside, angry with in the French countryside, angry with high rents, high taxes, and frustrated high rents, high taxes, and frustrated with aristocratic privileges, attacked with aristocratic privileges, attacked their landlords.their landlords.

To restore order from the To restore order from the Great FearGreat Fear, , the National Assembly abolished the National Assembly abolished special aristocratic legal privileges special aristocratic legal privileges and serfdom. and serfdom.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionSome historians believe that one of Some historians believe that one of

the causes of the Great Fear was the causes of the Great Fear was consumption of consumption of ergotergot, a , a hallucinogenichallucinogenic fungus. fungus.

In years of good harvests, wheat with In years of good harvests, wheat with ergot was thrown away, but when ergot was thrown away, but when the harvest was poor, the peasants the harvest was poor, the peasants could not afford to be so choosy.could not afford to be so choosy.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution In late August 1789 the National In late August 1789 the National

Assembly adopted the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Rights of Man.

Written by LafayetteWritten by Lafayette and Thomas and Thomas Jefferson, this document (along with the Jefferson, this document (along with the American American Bill of RightsBill of Rights) were products of ) were products of Enlightenment thinking.Enlightenment thinking.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution By arranging the articles on By arranging the articles on

tablets, the artist clearly tablets, the artist clearly meant to associate this meant to associate this document with Moses’ Ten document with Moses’ Ten Commandments. Such a link Commandments. Such a link could establish the could establish the revolutionaries’ handiwork as revolutionaries’ handiwork as equivalent to that of God. equivalent to that of God. Reinforcing this is the all–Reinforcing this is the all–seeing eye located at the top seeing eye located at the top of the tableau. However, this of the tableau. However, this is not the God of biblical is not the God of biblical revelation but a benevolent revelation but a benevolent creator and founder of general creator and founder of general laws. laws.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe most important ideas were:The most important ideas were:Political sovereignty rested with the Political sovereignty rested with the

people, not the monarchy.people, not the monarchy.ALL citizens were equal before the law.ALL citizens were equal before the law.All men are “born and remain free and All men are “born and remain free and

equal in rights.”equal in rights.”All men could enjoy freedom of religion, All men could enjoy freedom of religion,

of speech, of the press, and the ability to of speech, of the press, and the ability to pursue the economic activity of their pursue the economic activity of their choice. choice.

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But the Declaration raised the question But the Declaration raised the question about the inclusion of people of color about the inclusion of people of color (free and enslaved), Jews, Protestants, (free and enslaved), Jews, Protestants, and women.and women.

Jewish men and Protestants received the Jewish men and Protestants received the right to vote, and women were declared right to vote, and women were declared citizens but didn’t get the right to vote.citizens but didn’t get the right to vote.

Lafayette and Jefferson were quite literal Lafayette and Jefferson were quite literal when they referred to the “Rights of when they referred to the “Rights of Man.”Man.”

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Like most men of the period (even Like most men of the period (even enlightened ones), they did not enlightened ones), they did not believe women were entitled to the believe women were entitled to the same rights as men.same rights as men.

The “purpose” of a woman was The “purpose” of a woman was purely domestic; a role which purely domestic; a role which precluded a life beyond the precluded a life beyond the household.household.

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Nevertheless, the language of liberty Nevertheless, the language of liberty tugged at women’s sense of tugged at women’s sense of independence and in 1791, “independence and in 1791, “The Rights of The Rights of WomenWomen” appeared.” appeared.

““The Rights of Women” argued that The Rights of Women” argued that women should also enjoy fundamental women should also enjoy fundamental rights (to an education, to control their rights (to an education, to control their own property, to initiate a divorce).own property, to initiate a divorce).

Women WERE NOT asking for full political Women WERE NOT asking for full political rights…yet.rights…yet.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionAfter the announcement of the After the announcement of the

DeclarationDeclaration, Louis XVI had an , Louis XVI had an extravagant party at Versailles, extravagant party at Versailles, condemning the “revolt.”condemning the “revolt.”

It was reported that troops loyal to the It was reported that troops loyal to the king trampled the flag of the revolution king trampled the flag of the revolution (the tricolor) as a gesture of their (the tricolor) as a gesture of their opposition.opposition.

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Blue means vigilance, truth, loyalty, Blue means vigilance, truth, loyalty, perseverance, and justice.perseverance, and justice.

White stands for peace and honesty.White stands for peace and honesty.Red means hardiness, bravery, Red means hardiness, bravery,

strength, and valorstrength, and valor..

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Louis XVI continued to refuse to accept Louis XVI continued to refuse to accept the demands of the National Assembly. the demands of the National Assembly.

In early October 1789, angry and In early October 1789, angry and frustrated at the king’s insensitivity to frustrated at the king’s insensitivity to their plight, a mob of nearly 8,000 their plight, a mob of nearly 8,000 women (and male supporters) shouting women (and male supporters) shouting “Bread!” marched over 10 miles in a “Bread!” marched over 10 miles in a cold rain to the king’s palace at cold rain to the king’s palace at Versailles to confront the king. Versailles to confront the king.

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The mob of angry women (who The mob of angry women (who believed that there was an “aristocrats believed that there was an “aristocrats plot” to starve the poor) was plot” to starve the poor) was accompanied by Lafayette and the accompanied by Lafayette and the new National Guard (a militia of new National Guard (a militia of mostly middle-class men).mostly middle-class men).

Once at Versailles, the mob searched Once at Versailles, the mob searched for the queen, screaming “Death to for the queen, screaming “Death to the Austrian! We’ll wring her neck! the Austrian! We’ll wring her neck! We’ll tear her heart out!”We’ll tear her heart out!”

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Marie-Antoinette Marie-Antoinette lived extravagantly lived extravagantly (she spent millions (she spent millions on clothes and on clothes and jewels) while many jewels) while many children of the Third children of the Third Estate wore rags Estate wore rags and starved. and starved.

PS. Historians do not PS. Historians do not think she ever said think she ever said “Let them eat cake.”“Let them eat cake.”

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She even had her own “peasant” She even had her own “peasant” village on the palace grounds.village on the palace grounds.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe mob killed several palace guards (and The mob killed several palace guards (and

paraded their heads on pikes) and refused paraded their heads on pikes) and refused to leave Versailles until the king met their to leave Versailles until the king met their demand to return with them to Paris.demand to return with them to Paris.

Reluctantly the king agreed, so the next Reluctantly the king agreed, so the next morning the royal family followed the morning the royal family followed the crowd of women back to Paris.crowd of women back to Paris.

At the head of the procession were women At the head of the procession were women riding on the barrels of seized cannons.riding on the barrels of seized cannons.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe women sang “Now we won’t have to The women sang “Now we won’t have to

go so far when we want to see our king.” go so far when we want to see our king.” The royal family moved into the Tuileres The royal family moved into the Tuileres

(TWEE luh reez) Palace where they were (TWEE luh reez) Palace where they were virtual prisoners for the next three virtual prisoners for the next three years.years.

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Louis XVI finally agreed to the Louis XVI finally agreed to the Declaration Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

The motto and rallying cry of the The motto and rallying cry of the Revolution became:Revolution became:

Liberty, Equality, FraternityLiberty, Equality, Fraternity

(How is this different from the (How is this different from the American Declaration of American Declaration of Independence?)Independence?)

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LibertyLiberty meant: meant:1. Individual freedom from governmental 1. Individual freedom from governmental

constraints and interference: (this is the constraints and interference: (this is the cornerstone of the 19th century cornerstone of the 19th century ideology, ideology, LIBERALISMLIBERALISM).).

22. . LiberalsLiberals see government as the see government as the enemy of individual liberty.enemy of individual liberty.

3. 3. LiberalsLiberals demand representative and demand representative and constitutional government.constitutional government.

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4. Government is to stay out of the 4. Government is to stay out of the economy—few restrictions, etc. economy—few restrictions, etc. (laissez-faire)(laissez-faire)

5. To protect liberty, you must limit 5. To protect liberty, you must limit the power of the government.the power of the government.

6. Jefferson’s idea that a 6. Jefferson’s idea that a “Government that governs least “Government that governs least governs best.”governs best.”

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EqualityEquality meant: meant:1. One law and one tax system for 1. One law and one tax system for

everyone.everyone.2. Equal opportunity to advance based on 2. Equal opportunity to advance based on

merit, not on birth (every Frenchman had merit, not on birth (every Frenchman had an equal right to hold public office “with an equal right to hold public office “with no distinction other than that of their no distinction other than that of their virtues and talents”).virtues and talents”).

3. By 1914, liberals wanted political 3. By 1914, liberals wanted political equality – one man = one vote.equality – one man = one vote.

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FraternityFraternity meant:meant:

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FraternityFraternity meant: meant:1. Fraternity is the idea of brotherhood 1. Fraternity is the idea of brotherhood

of all, in this case all Frenchmen.of all, in this case all Frenchmen.2. From this, 2. From this, NATIONALISMNATIONALISM was was

born, another great 19th century born, another great 19th century ideology. (Before this, men were ideology. (Before this, men were identified by their religion, village, identified by their religion, village, estate, family, etc. (all local identity).estate, family, etc. (all local identity).

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After the Revolution, men were After the Revolution, men were identified by their language, ethnic identified by their language, ethnic background, territory. Men thought of background, territory. Men thought of themselves as Frenchmen.themselves as Frenchmen.

3. Loyalty to one’s nation was one of 3. Loyalty to one’s nation was one of the great unifying ideologies of the the great unifying ideologies of the 19th century.19th century.

Out of the Revolution came the notion Out of the Revolution came the notion that that the rights of the many the rights of the many outweighed the rights of the few.outweighed the rights of the few.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution• Since the Church was part of the “old Since the Church was part of the “old

order,” the National Assembly forced order,” the National Assembly forced reforms on the Church called the “reforms on the Church called the “Civil Civil Constitution of the ClergyConstitution of the Clergy” (1790).” (1790).

The people now elected their bishops The people now elected their bishops and priests, and their salaries were and priests, and their salaries were paid by the state.paid by the state.

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Papal authority was dissolved, and Papal authority was dissolved, and convents and monasteries became convents and monasteries became the property of the government the property of the government (which it sold to raise money to (which it sold to raise money to reduce the national debt). reduce the national debt).

The new French government now The new French government now totally controlled the Church. totally controlled the Church.

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The reaction towards the The reaction towards the Civil Civil Constitution of the ClergyConstitution of the Clergy was swift was swift and angry…The pope condemned it.and angry…The pope condemned it.

Most bishops and priests refused to Most bishops and priests refused to accept it.accept it.

Most French peasants, who were Most French peasants, who were religiously conservative, rejected it.religiously conservative, rejected it.

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When the government punished When the government punished clergy who didn’t support the Civil clergy who didn’t support the Civil Constitution, a large gulf opened Constitution, a large gulf opened between the revolutionaries in Paris between the revolutionaries in Paris and the peasantry in the provinces. and the peasantry in the provinces.

Many historians consider the Many historians consider the Civil Civil Constitution of the ClergyConstitution of the Clergy to be the to be the first major blunder of the National first major blunder of the National Assembly.Assembly.

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Less than ½ of the French clergy Less than ½ of the French clergy and only 7 out of more than 100 and only 7 out of more than 100 bishops took the oath to support it.bishops took the oath to support it.

Though the government declared Though the government declared that clerics that opposed the that clerics that opposed the Constitution were “refractory” and Constitution were “refractory” and had them removed from office, had them removed from office, most defied the governmentmost defied the government..

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Pope Pius VI condemned the Civil Constitution Pope Pius VI condemned the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and declared all of its provisions of the Clergy and declared all of its provisions void.void.

French Catholics now faced a dilemma French Catholics now faced a dilemma between political loyalty and religious between political loyalty and religious devotion. devotion.

This caused a division in the French This caused a division in the French population between those who supported the population between those who supported the constitutional priests and those who followed constitutional priests and those who followed the “refractory” clergy.the “refractory” clergy.

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In April 1791, the king attempted to In April 1791, the king attempted to travel from Paris to his mansion in travel from Paris to his mansion in nearby St. Cloud to celebrate Easter nearby St. Cloud to celebrate Easter with a loyal priest.with a loyal priest.

As he set out, crowds surrounded his As he set out, crowds surrounded his carriage and refused to let him leave.carriage and refused to let him leave.

He realized he was a prisoner in Paris He realized he was a prisoner in Paris and that he and the royal family and that he and the royal family needed to escape.needed to escape.

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Two months later (June 1791), the royal Two months later (June 1791), the royal family disguised themselves and fled family disguised themselves and fled Paris heading for the border of the Paris heading for the border of the Austrian controlled Netherlands (and the Austrian controlled Netherlands (and the protection of Marie-Antoinette’s brother).protection of Marie-Antoinette’s brother).

The king was dressed as a servant, the The king was dressed as a servant, the queen as a governess. queen as a governess.

The king hoped to reach the border where The king hoped to reach the border where he could rally the country against the he could rally the country against the revolution.revolution.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution In a town forty miles from the border, In a town forty miles from the border,

they were stopped, asked to show their they were stopped, asked to show their travel papers, and found out.travel papers, and found out.

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The local postmaster held up a piece The local postmaster held up a piece of money with the king’s face on it of money with the king’s face on it and recognized him. and recognized him.

Soldiers loyal to the Revolution Soldiers loyal to the Revolution brought the royal family back to Paris brought the royal family back to Paris as prisoners.as prisoners.

Along the road back to Paris, people Along the road back to Paris, people hurled insults, spat, and threw things hurled insults, spat, and threw things at the royal family. at the royal family.

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To many, this To many, this showed the showed the king was king was conspiring with conspiring with foreign powers foreign powers to destroy the to destroy the Revolution and Revolution and was therefore a was therefore a traitor.traitor.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionTo make matters worse for the king, a To make matters worse for the king, a

letter was found after his escape that letter was found after his escape that criticized the revolution and railed criticized the revolution and railed against the anarchy of the people and against the anarchy of the people and the idea of unrestrained political the idea of unrestrained political freedom.freedom.

Before this letter was found, many Before this letter was found, many people in France still had some people in France still had some affection for the king…this letter affection for the king…this letter changed that.changed that.

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In August 1791, after In August 1791, after hearing about Louis’ hearing about Louis’ failed escape, failed escape, Austria and Prussia Austria and Prussia openly declared they openly declared they would support Louis would support Louis and the monarchy and the monarchy (the emperor of (the emperor of Austria was Marie-Austria was Marie-Antoinette’s brother, Antoinette’s brother, Leopold II). Leopold II).

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution It took two years (1791) for the National It took two years (1791) for the National

Assembly to finish the new Assembly to finish the new Constitution Constitution (known as the(known as the Constitution of 1791Constitution of 1791), ), but it was completed in September 1791. but it was completed in September 1791.

Almost immediately, the king was forced Almost immediately, the king was forced to accept the new Constitution.to accept the new Constitution.

The constitution stated that if the king The constitution stated that if the king left the country, retracted his oath to the left the country, retracted his oath to the constitution, or led a rebellion against constitution, or led a rebellion against France he would be removed from power.France he would be removed from power.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThis set up a system This set up a system

similar to Britain’s. It similar to Britain’s. It allowed for a king but he allowed for a king but he had to follow the laws of had to follow the laws of the newly created the newly created Legislative AssemblyLegislative Assembly (this replaced the NA).(this replaced the NA).

The absolute monarchy The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for that had ruled France for centuries was over.centuries was over.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution The Legislative Assembly had 745 The Legislative Assembly had 745

members who were mostly members members who were mostly members of the middle class; i.e. of the middle class; i.e. wealthy/property owning.wealthy/property owning.

The Legislative Assembly had the The Legislative Assembly had the power to make laws, collect taxes, power to make laws, collect taxes, and create foreign policy. and create foreign policy.

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Members of the Assembly were elected Members of the Assembly were elected by tax-paying males over the age of 25. by tax-paying males over the age of 25.

The Legislative Assembly made The Legislative Assembly made government more efficient by replacing government more efficient by replacing the old provinces with 83 departments the old provinces with 83 departments of roughly equal size. of roughly equal size.

The old provincial courts were abolished The old provincial courts were abolished and the legal system was reformed.and the legal system was reformed.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionDo you know where the political terms Do you know where the political terms

““left, center, and rightleft, center, and right” came from?” came from? In the Legislative Assembly, those who In the Legislative Assembly, those who

sat on the right felt that reform had sat on the right felt that reform had gone far enough and those who wanted gone far enough and those who wanted to turn the clock back to pre-Revolution to turn the clock back to pre-Revolution days. days.

In the center sat those who wanted In the center sat those who wanted moderate reforms.moderate reforms.

On the left were the On the left were the JacobinsJacobins who who wanted radical changes. wanted radical changes.

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To the moderates, the Revolution had To the moderates, the Revolution had now accomplished its goals…there was now accomplished its goals…there was equality before the law for all male equality before the law for all male citizens and the Church’s power to citizens and the Church’s power to interfere in the government was over. interfere in the government was over.

Fear of similar revolutions (known as the “French plague”) spread throughout Europe as some nobles and clergy escaped from France and told horror stories.

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But faced with unending economic But faced with unending economic problems and war with Austria and problems and war with Austria and Prussia, the Legislative Assembly Prussia, the Legislative Assembly became more radical. became more radical.

As several hostile groups competed As several hostile groups competed for power, one group emerged, for power, one group emerged, known as the known as the JacobinsJacobins (mostly (mostly middle class lawyers and middle class lawyers and intellectuals). intellectuals).

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By early 1792 everyone in France seemed to want war with Austria.

The king and queen hoped this war would end the Revolution, while those who wanted a republic thought a war would end the monarchy.

In April 1792 Louis declared war on Austria. Prussia immediately sided with Austria.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe The Legislative AssemblyLegislative Assembly hoped hoped

the war would spread the ideals of the the war would spread the ideals of the Revolution. Revolution.

But thousands of French aristocrats, But thousands of French aristocrats, including 2/3 of the army officer corps including 2/3 of the army officer corps had fled France (brain drain). had fled France (brain drain).

Here the Legislative Here the Legislative Assembly backed LouisAssembly backed Louisand declared war on and declared war on Austria.Austria.

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Louis’ own brothers had left France Louis’ own brothers had left France and gathered along the eastern and gathered along the eastern border, expecting to join a border, expecting to join a counterrevolutionary army.counterrevolutionary army.

Everyone expected a brief war…Everyone expected a brief war…instead France would be at war with instead France would be at war with Europe for nearly the next 23 years Europe for nearly the next 23 years (through the age of Napoleon).(through the age of Napoleon).

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Initially, the disorganized, untrained Initially, the disorganized, untrained French troops got trounced in battle French troops got trounced in battle which further radicalized French politics. which further radicalized French politics.

The French looked for scapegoats and the The French looked for scapegoats and the king was the biggest target. king was the biggest target.

The commander of the Prussian army The commander of the Prussian army declared that wanted to end the anarchy declared that wanted to end the anarchy and restore the king’s authority. Paris and restore the king’s authority. Paris would be destroyed if the royal family was would be destroyed if the royal family was harmed.harmed.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe Prussian declaration, meant to frighten

Parisians, strengthened their desire to resist any forces wanting to restore power to the king.

In August 1792, the ordinary people of Paris, known as the sans-culottes (means “without breeches” because they wore long trousers instead of the fancy knee breeches of the upper-class), frustrated with military defeat and facing military retaliation, stormed the Tuileries Palace looking for the king and royal family.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe royal family had

to seek shelter in the meeting rooms of the Legislative Assembly (all their guards had been killed).

Mob violence ruled, and the mob forced the Legislative Assembly to suspend the monarchy.

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The Legislative Assembly also voted to disband themselves and call for new elections. The new body would be called the Convention.

The body was named the Convention after the American Constitutional Convention of 1787.

For the first time in history, all men in France would be eligible to elect members to the Convention, eliminating property and tax qualifications for voting, creating universal male suffrage.

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution The National Convention met in

September 1792 and was controlled by the Jacobins.

The first major step of the new National Convention was to declare France a Republic (a system of government where leaders are elected).

Lands of the nobility were seized and all titles of nobility were abolished.

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The republic would now only answer to the people, not to any royal authority. France was now the most democratic nation in the world.

The French, who had never known any government but the monarchy, were now ending that 1000+ year institution.

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With the Jacobins in power, Lafayette, who commanded an army guarding the French border, was denounced as being too conservative and a warrant was issued for his arrest.

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He, and many other liberal aristocrats who supported a constitutional monarchy, fled into exile in Austrian held Holland.

Unfortunately, the Austrians captured Lafayette and held him in a dungeon for five years before releasing him (which actually saved his life).

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Also in September 1792, as Prussian soldiers approached Paris, mobs stormed Parisian prisons looking for traitors who might help the enemy.

Many of the prisoners were priests, nobles, or common criminals.

In what was known as the “September massacres,” over 1200 inmates, many of them innocent, were killed in the hysteria.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe princess of Lamballe, a favorite of

Marie-Antoinette, was hacked to pieces by the mob and her head was put on a pike and displayed under the window where the royal family was under guard.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionAfter the September After the September

massacres, the sans massacres, the sans culottes believed Paris was culottes believed Paris was safe from counter-safe from counter-revolutionaries from within.revolutionaries from within.

Filled with patriotic Filled with patriotic enthusiasm, thousands of enthusiasm, thousands of sans culottes rushed to the sans culottes rushed to the front and overwhelmed the front and overwhelmed the Prussian army.Prussian army.

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One pressing issue of the Convention was the question of what do with the king.

In December 1792, the Convention decided to put the king on trial for treason against the Republic.

Two factions argued over which course to take, but the most radical argued that this king, or any king, challenged their idea of the Revolution and must be executed (Jacobins).

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The other side believed the king should be given a hearing and that the people of France vote on his fate (Girondists).

Some argued the king should be exiled.Louis XVI was convicted and a narrow

majority (380-310) voted to have him executed.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionLouis XVI went to the guillotine January

21, 1793.

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As he mounted the scaffold, the king As he mounted the scaffold, the king said: “Frenchmen, I die innocent. I said: “Frenchmen, I die innocent. I pardon the authors of my death. I pray pardon the authors of my death. I pray God that the blood about to be spilt will God that the blood about to be spilt will never fall upon the head of France…”never fall upon the head of France…”

Unfortunately, only those closest to the Unfortunately, only those closest to the scaffold heard his words because scaffold heard his words because the roll of drums drowned out his voice.

The French Revolution

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The executioner lifted his head out of the basket by the hair and showed the cheering crowds.

With this, the “old order” of France was destroyed, much to the horror of every European monarch.

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One news account reported “We have just convinced ourselves that the king is only a man, and that no man is above the law.”

Nine months later the queen was also convicted of treason and beheaded.

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The execution of Queen Marie The execution of Queen Marie Antoinette.Antoinette.

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Before 1789, only nobles were executed by beheading; commoners were executed by hanging (beheading, if done well was considered quick and painless; hanging, on the other hand, was slow and torturous.

One of the Revolution’s ideals, equality before the law, also meant equality in the application of the death penalty.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionDr. J.I. Guillotin, a member of the Dr. J.I. Guillotin, a member of the

National Assembly and a professor of National Assembly and a professor of anatomy first proposed the device anatomy first proposed the device associated with his name.associated with his name.

Based on the Enlightenment ideal of Based on the Enlightenment ideal of rationality and avoidance of torture, Dr. rationality and avoidance of torture, Dr. Guillotin’s “machine” (actually created Guillotin’s “machine” (actually created by a French physician, Dr. A.Louis) was by a French physician, Dr. A.Louis) was decreed by the Assembly to be the decreed by the Assembly to be the method of execution in June 1791.method of execution in June 1791.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe first victim of the guillotine was a The first victim of the guillotine was a

highwayman (bandit) in April 1792.highwayman (bandit) in April 1792.The last victim was in 1981, when France The last victim was in 1981, when France

abolished the death penalty.abolished the death penalty.

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Initially, most of Europe was ambivalent towards the revolution in France.

Those who favored political reform looked at the revolution as a wise and rational reorganizing of a corrupt and inefficient government.

Most European governments, horrified at what happened to the royal family, secretly hoped France would cease to be a major player in European affairs for many years.

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Even with the execution of the king and Even with the execution of the king and the destruction of the “old order,” the the destruction of the “old order,” the Revolution faced many challenges at Revolution faced many challenges at home and abroad.home and abroad.

In November 1792, a month before the In November 1792, a month before the National Convention condemned Louis National Convention condemned Louis XVI to death, the Convention declared it XVI to death, the Convention declared it would aid all peoples who wished to cast would aid all peoples who wished to cast off aristocratic and monarchial off aristocratic and monarchial oppression. oppression.

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Because of this, and the subsequent execution of the king, an informal coalition of Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and even Russia joined Austria and Prussia by taking up arms against France.

By the late spring of 1793, this coalition was poised to invade France.

If successful, both the Revolution and the revolutionaries would be destroyed, and the Old Regime would be reestablished.

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Adding to the widening crisis was rampant inflation and continued food shortages.

Throughout much of France, there was a sense that protecting the national borders wasn’t the main issue, it was protecting the new political and social order that had emerged since 1789.

The French people understood that the achievements of the Revolution were in danger.

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Thousands of people from all walks of life, peasants, nobles, clergy, business and professional people, etc were arbitrarily arrested, and in many cases executed.

Much of France, including several cities, rejected the authority of the National Convention, creating additional pressures on an already overburdened government.

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Paranoia was rampant.The immediate need to protect the

Revolution from enemies, real or imagined, was considered more important than the security of property or even of life.

The actions to protect the Revolution, silence dissent, and deal with growing crises became known as the Reign of Terror (1793-94).

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionResponding to these

issues, in April 1793 the National Convention gave broad powers to a special committee of 12 men known as the Committee of Public Safety.

The CoPS came to be led by Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins.

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For the year long period 1793-1794, the Committee of Public Safety controlled France with almost dictatorial power (they were not very democratic).

The CoPS had two major problems (among the many) to deal with, wage a war and secure support for the war effort.

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Robespierre believed France could create a “republic of virtue” only through the use of terror… “Liberty cannot be secured unless criminals lose their heads.”

In a speech in early 1794, Robespierre said “…The first maxim of our politics ought to be to lead the people by means of reason and the enemies of the people by means of terror…”

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The Committee of Public Safety, believing they were creating a “republic of virtue” based on Rousseau’s book The Social Contract, set up revolutionary courts to “protect” the Republic from its internal enemies.

The presence of armies closing in on France made it easy to forget about the legal due process.

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Revolutionary court’s promoted the notion that the sacrifice of one’s self and one’s interests for the good of the republic would replace selfish aristocratic and monarchial corruption.

To this end, the courts had an estimated 30,000 people executed between 1793-94.

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Most of the executions occurred in places that openly rebelled against the authority of the National Convention.

The Committee of Public Safety said this bloodletting was only temporary.

Once the war and domestic crises were over, the CoPS said the true republic would follow and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen would be fully realized.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionRevolutionary armies were set up to

bring rebellious cities back under the control of the National Convention.

For example, the city of Lyon rebelled when the Republic was in peril. To punish the city, the CoPS ordered the executions of nearly 2,000 people.

When using the guillotine proved too slow, cannon fire and grapeshot (a cluster of small iron balls) was used by firing squads to blow the condemned into open graves.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionIn the city of Nantes, the prosecutor didn’t

use the guillotine.Over a two month period he executed over

2,000 people by forcing them into the hulls of boats and having them sunk or capsized in the Loire River.

Anyone who attempted to climb out, including children or pregnant women, were hacked to death with swords.

Because of the large number of bodies in the river, disease broke out killing even more.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionTo save the republic from its foreign

enemies, the Committee of Public Safety decreed the first universal draft of men in history (known as the levee en masse).

Mobilization of the nation (including women) began in August 1793.

Almost all men were conscripted into the military and economic production was geared towards military purposes.

The National Convention decreed:

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution Young men will fight. Young men are called to

conquer. Married men will forge arms, transport military baggage and guns, and will prepare food supplies. Women, who at long last are to take their rightful place in the revolution and follow their true destiny…will make clothes for the soldiers, they will make tents, and they will extend their tender care to shelters where the defenders will receive the help that their wounds require. Children will make bandages of old cloth…it is for them that we are fighting. And old men, performing their missions again, as of yore, will be guided to the public squares of cities where they will kindle the courage of young warriors and preach the doctrines of hate for kings and the unity of the Republic.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionIn less than a year, the

French revolutionary government raised an army of over 650,000 men; in 18 months, the army swelled to nearly 1.2 million.

The Republic’s army was the largest ever seen in European history (up to that point).

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The revolutionary army was able to push the invading allies back across the Rhine River, they invaded northern Italy, and they even conquered the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).

Revolution and republicanism was poised to spread beyond France.

The revolutionary army was an important step in the creation of modern nationalism (devotion to one’s country).

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionBefore this, wars had been fought

between governments or ruling dynasties by relatively small armies of professional soldiers.

This new French army was the creation of a people’s government.

Its wars were now the “people’s” wars.Unfortunately, warfare became more

destructive since more segments of the population were involved.

This became the model for the total wars of the 20th century.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionCreating the “Republic of Virtue”

manifested itself in other ways too.A cultural revolution occurred and

everything was “republicanized”.For example, powered wigs and the old

(aristocratic) styles of dress were out.In was dressing in trousers (like the

sans-culottes) and for women, simple dresses or dresses that emulated ancient Greco/Roman styles (to symbolize the democratic ideal) .

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Aristocratic styles…OUT!Aristocratic styles…OUT!

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Styles of the Sans-culottes…IN!

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionRococo style…OUT. Simple, loose Rococo style…OUT. Simple, loose

styles styles were IN:were IN:

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Out: the old forms of addressing someone Monsieur (my lord) and Madame (my lady).

In: addressing someone as Citizen or Citizeness.

Out : the Gregorian calendar, 7 day weeks, old measurements.

In: the new calendar, 10 day weeks, the metric system.

Year 1 started on Sept 22, 1792 (when the Republic was established).

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The French RevolutionThe French Revolution The months of the new The months of the new

republican calendar were republican calendar were as follows (it started in as follows (it started in Autumn):Autumn):

1. Vendemiaire (“Grape 1. Vendemiaire (“Grape harvest”)harvest”)

2. Brumaire (“Fog)2. Brumaire (“Fog) 3. Frimaire (“Frost”)3. Frimaire (“Frost”) Winter:Winter: 4. Nivose (“Snowy”)4. Nivose (“Snowy”) 5. Pluviose (“Rainy”)5. Pluviose (“Rainy”) 6. Ventose (“Windy”)6. Ventose (“Windy”)

Spring:Spring: 7. Germinal 7. Germinal

(“Germination”)(“Germination”) 8. Floreal (“flower”)8. Floreal (“flower”) 9. Prairial (“Pasture”)9. Prairial (“Pasture”) Summer:Summer: 10. Messidor (“Harvest”)10. Messidor (“Harvest”) 11. Thermidor (“Heat”)11. Thermidor (“Heat”) 12. Fructidor (“Fruit”)12. Fructidor (“Fruit”)

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Everything, from the new national anthem (La Marseillaise) to playing cards had revolutionary slogans and symbols.

Everywhere was the symbol and figure of Liberty.

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Even naming your children changed…from traditional Biblical names like John, Paul, Peter, Mary, Sarah, Rachel, etc to those of ancient Roman heroes like Brutus, Gracchus, and Cornelia, or revolutionary heroes, or flowers.

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The most dramatic step taken by the “Republic of Virtue” was the National Convention’s attempt to de-Christianize France starting in the Fall of 1793.

Religion (especially Catholicism) had long been seen as an instrument of the Old Regime…an insensitive and out of touch oppressor, like the aristocracy, that needed to be dealt with.

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When the Convention proclaimed the new republican calendar in November 1793, it eliminated all Christian references and all Christian holidays.

Every tenth day, instead of every seventh, was a day of rest or holiday.

Festivals replaced traditional Christian holidays by trying to create a “moral order of the Republic.”

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionMany revolutionaries hoped the festival

system would replace Catholicism altogether.

In November 1793 the Convention decreed the Cathedral of Notre Dame to be a “Temple of Reason” (and no longer a Catholic church).

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The medieval statues of kings at the Cathedral of Notre Dame were beheaded.

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The Convention sent loyal members out into the country to enforce de-Christianization.

Churches were closed, members of the clergy were persecuted (both priests and nuns), some priests were forced to marry, some members of the clergy were just killed outright.

Churches were desecrated, some were torn down and their stones sold off, some were turned into barns or warehouses.

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The Convention’s most radical members wanted Christianity to be replaced with a new religion, what they called the Cult of Reason.

Rather than being based on the Judeo-Christian God, the Cult of Reason was based on the Goddess of Reason.

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Here the Goddess of Reason sits upon the high altar at the Cathedral of Notre Dame.

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But Robespierre objected to the de-Christianization campaign’s atheism, and other members of the Convention worried about turning the rural, devout population against the republic.

The Committee of Public Safety halted the de-Christianization campaign and in June 1794, Robespierre tried to promote an alternative: the Cult of the Supreme Being.

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Robespierre’s Cult of the Supreme Being was modeled after the Deist inspired religion of Rousseau.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionThe Festival of the Supreme Being

inaugurated Robespierre’s new civic religion. The Festival’s climax occurred when the statue of Atheism was burned and the statue of Wisdom rose from the ashes.

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It became popular for devout revolutionaries to baptize their children not with Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit but with Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity; the motto of the Revolution.

Neither Cult attracted many followers, but it showed the lengths the Convention would go towards overturning the old order and its supporting institutions.

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The French Revolution

Revolutionary laws also changed the rules of family life.

The state took responsibility for all family matters away from the church.

People had to register all births, deaths, and marriages at city hall, not the local parish church (further separating the church from the state).

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Marriage became a civil contract, not bound by religion, so it could be nullified.

A new divorce law (Sept 1792) was the most liberal in Europe: a couple could divorce by mutual consent or because of insanity, abuse, abandonment, or criminal conviction.

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Thousands of unhappy marriages were dissolved, even though the pope condemned the law.

The National Convention also passed a series of laws that created equal inheritance among all children in the family, even girls.

The tradition of most assets going to the eldest son, or the child favored by the father, was seen as aristocratic and anti-republican.

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Not wanting to passively watch the Revolution, in May 1793, a small group of women created the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women.

They sought to root out and fight internal enemies of the revolution. They were initially welcomed by the Jacobins.

They would fill the galleries of the Convention to hear the debates and cheer their favorite speakers.

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But they became increasingly radicalized, seeking stronger controls on the prices of food and other commodities.

They were constantly causing fights with other women they didn’t feel supported the revolution enough.

They also demanded the right to wear the revolutionary cockade that most men wore in their hats.

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By October 1793 the Jacobins feared the turmoil the Society was causing so they banned all women’s clubs and societies.

Perhaps the most famous woman of the Revolution, Olympe de Gouges, (she wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women 1791) was sent to the guillotine in November 1793 because she opposed the Terror and accused the Jacobins of corruption.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionIn July 1793 another young woman,

Charlotte Corday, assassinated the outspoken Convention deputy Jean-Paul Marat who constantly demanded more heads and more blood from those opposed to the revolution.

Corday considered it her patriotic duty to kill Marat (“I killed one man to save 100,000!”).

Marat was now considered a great martyr of the Revolution and Corday went to the guillotine vilified as a monster.

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The Death of Marat, by Jacques-Louis David (1793).

Neoclassical style.

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By November 1793, the Committee of Public Safety had women excluded from public political life.

As part of the “republic of virtue,” men would be active citizens in the military and political spheres and women would only be active in the domestic sphere.

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As the French were becoming successful in their military ventures, there became less need for the Reign of Terror, yet it continued.

Robespierre was obsessed with rooting out all enemies of the Revolution and his power frightened others in power.

To assure expediency, those accused of crimes against the Revolution were denied a public trial and faced a Revolutionary Tribunal.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionRobespierre put thousands of

“enemies” to death each month, including many political rivals in the National Convention.

In April 1794 he had his chief political rival (Jacques Danton) convicted on the flimsy charge of being insufficiently militant on the war. Danton was beheaded.

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionIn late July 1794,

Robespierre spoke before the Convention, declaring leaders of the government were conspiring against him and the Revolution.

No member of the Convention felt safe so the Convention ordered that Robespierre be arrested as an “enemy” of the Revolution.

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He was charged with being a dictator and tyrant (an anti-revolutionary) and sentenced to death.

Desperate, he and his followers congregated in the Hotel de Ville, where Robespierre tried to commit suicide by shooting himself in the head (he missed, sort of—he ended up breaking his jaw).

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The French RevolutionThe French RevolutionHe was arrested, and the next day,

Robespierre and 82 of his supporters were sent to the guillotine.

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Robespierre’s execution was met with cheers from the Parisian crowd.

The end of the Terror came with the end of Robespierre.

FYI, the term terrorist comes from those who were involved with promoting the Reign of Terror.

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After the death of Robspierre, moderates came to power in the National Convention and the Reign of Terror ended.

The National Convention lessened the power of the Committee of Public Safety.

A new constitution was created in 1795, and a new executive authority, called the Directory (five elected Directors), ruled France.

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Within a year, all Jacobin Clubs were Within a year, all Jacobin Clubs were closed.closed.

Leading “Terrorists” were put to Leading “Terrorists” were put to death.death.

Churches reopened, and people Churches reopened, and people sought escape from the atmosphere sought escape from the atmosphere and anxiety of the Terror in a new and anxiety of the Terror in a new pursuit of pleasure.pursuit of pleasure.

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The Directory ruled from 1795-1799. Peace was made with Prussia and

Spain, but war continued with Austria and Britain.

But because of its corruption and internal problems, there was a military take over of France in 1799 (coup d’ etat), under the leadership of a young army general named Napoleon Bonaparte (which takes us to the next part of the story).