The Fishery of Spring Creek - Pennsylvania Fish & Boat ...€¦ · In addition, Spring Creek was...

The Fishery of Spring Creek

ByRobert F. CarlineRebecca L. DunlapJason E. DetarBruce A. Hollender

A WatershedUnder Siege

Pennsylvania Fish and Boat CommissionTechnical Report Number 1

Pennsylvania Fish and Boat CommissionP.O. Box 67000.

Harrisburg, PA 17106-7000www.fishandboat.com

© 2011 Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission

All rights reserved.No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC), or its agent, with the

exception for inclusion of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly citation.

Printed in the United States of America

Carline, R. F., R. L. Dunlap, J. E. Detar, and B. A. Hollender. 2011. The fishery of Spring Creek – a watershed under siege. Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, Technical Report Number 1, Harrisburg, PA. Mailing address for inquiries about this publication: Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission Bureau of Policy, Planning and Communications Division of Communications P.O. Box 67000 Harrisburg, PA 17106-7000

This publication is available online at www.fishandboat.comThe printed version of this publication is provided on recycled paper.

photo-PFBC Archives

Table of Contents

2 Foreword

2 About the Authors

3 Abstract

5 Introduction

7 Study Area

9 Human Populations Trends and Land Use

10 Historical and Contemporary Water Quality • WastewaterTreatmentFacilities • WaterQualityinthefirsthalfofthe 20thCentury • WaterQualitysince1950 • KeponeandMirexContamination • StreamflowandWaterQualityTrends attheAxemannGage

15 Historical Notes on the Trout Fishery

16 Trout Production • EarlyYears • FishCultureFacilitiesintheSpringCreek Watershed •PleasantGapStateFishHatchery •BellefonteStateFishHatchery •BennerSpringStateFishHatchery

19 Fisherman’s Paradise

20 Fish Community Composition and Biomass

22 Contemporary Assessment Methods • PopulationAssessments • Growth •LengthatAge •SeasonalVariation • ReddSurveys • AnglerSurveys

24 Results • Fisherman’sParadise1980-2000 • MainStem •DensityandBiomass •SizeStructure •LengthatAge •SpatiotemporalVariationsinGrowth •Reproduction •RecreationalFishery • Tributaries •LoganBranch •GapRun •BuffaloRun •SlabCabinRun •GalbraithGapRun •UpperSpringCreek •CedarRun

33 Threats from Invasive Species

35 Response to Landscape Alterations • RiparianRestoration • I-99Construction

37 Using a Biotic Index to Assess Stream Condition

39 Threats from Increasing Urbanization

42 Managing Treated Wastewater and Storm Water • PSULandTreatmentArea • BeneficialReuse • StormWaterManagement • RiparianBufferRestoration

43 Summary

45 Acknowledgements 45 Literature Cited

53 Figures

70 Tables

80 Appendices

The Fishery of Spring CreekA Watershed Under Siege

Foreword

Rebecca DunlapservesasManagerforNationalTroutUnlimited’sEasternAbandonedMineProgramwhichfocusesontheconservation,protection,andrestorationofthecoldwaterfisheriesandwatershedsthathavebeenimpactedbyhistoriccoalminingthroughouttheAppalachianregion.PriortojoiningTroutUnlimited,sheservedastheWaterResourcesCoordinatorfortheClearWaterConservancyandmanagedtheSpringCreekWatershed’sWaterResourcesMonitoringProgram.BeckyhasaB.S.degreeinBiologyfromMansfieldUniversityandaM.S.degreeinBiologyfromtheUniversityofNorthTexas.

Jason DetarjoinedthePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommissionin2004andiscurrentlytheAreaFisheries

Dr. Robert Carlinedevotedhisentireprofessionalcareertofisheriesresearch.HebeganworkingwiththeWisconsinDepartmentofNaturalResourcesin1967,thentookapositionwiththeU.S.FishandWildlifeServicein1976,andcametoPennsylvaniain1984,wherehewasLeaderofthePennsylvaniaCooperativeFishandWildlifeResearchUnit,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,untilhisretirementinApril2007.HeservedasAdjunctProfessorofFisheriesintheSchoolofForestResourcesatThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity(PSU),wheretheUnitishoused.HebeganhisfirstresearchprojectonSpringCreekin1985andhasbeenactivelyinvolvedinawidevarietyofprojectsinthewatershedsincethen.

About the Authors

Afisheryconsistsofthreeelements:theanimalsthatarebeingpursued,thehabitatinwhichtheanimalslive,andthepeoplewhoarepursuingtheanimalsforeithersportorcommercialpurposes.Hence,inattemptingtodescribethehistoricalandcontemporaryfisheryofSpringCreek,weputconsiderableemphasisonhabitatfeatures,particularlywaterquality,whiledescribingthetroutpopulationsandtheanglerswhowereandareengagedinthisfishery.Wehavewrittenthisbulletinwithseveralaudiencesinmind:fisheriesmanagersandresearchers,regulatoryagencies,municipalplanners,electedofficials,andanglers.Weusemetricunitsbecausemuchofourdatawerecollectedusingthatsystem,anditispreferredforscientificpublications.WehaveincludedequivalentEnglishunitsafterthefirstuseofametricunit,exceptforflow,wherewealwaysgivetheEnglishequivalents.Thechallengeofaddressingaudienceswithsuchabroadrangeofinterestsisfindingtherightbalancebetweentechnicaldetailandeaseofcomprehension.Weleaveittothereaderstotellusifwecameclosetothatbalance.

Managerforthenorthcentralregion.DuringhistimewiththeCommission,JasonhasbeeninvolvedwithseveralfisheriesmanagementandhabitatenhancementandrestorationprojectsintheSpringCreekwatershed.JasonearnedaB.S.degreeinWildlifeandFisheriesSciencefromPSUandaM.S.degreeinBiologyfromTennesseeTechnologicalUniversity.

Bruce HollenderbeganasabiologistwiththePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommissionin1971andwentontobecometheAreaFisheriesManagerforthenorthcentralregion;heretiredin2007.Duringhistenurehesurveyedanddevelopedmanagementplansformostofthestreams,rivers,andlakesintheregion.HeearnedB.S.andM.S.degreesinNaturalResources,majoringinFisheries,fromtheUniversityofWisconsin-StevensPoint.

2 The Fishery of Spring Creek: A Watershed Under Siege

Abstractthewatershed.Thesespringsprovideadequateyear-roundstreamflow,andtheymoderatewatertemperaturesinsummerandwinter.

Whilethesespringshavelongbenefitedwaterquality,rawsewagefrompopulationcentersintheearly1900sprobablypollutedcertainstreamreaches.Between1913and1968,fivewastewatertreatmentplantswereconstructedinthewatershed,butdischargesfromseveraloftheseplantsoftendegradedwaterquality.Inaddition,SpringCreekwassubjectedtonumeroustoxicspills,someofwhichkilledthousandsoffish.Inrecent

Spring Creek in the scenic canyon section, upstream of Fisherman’s Paradise.

3The Fishery of Spring Creek: A Watershed Under Siege

TheSpringCreekwatershed(378km2;146mi2)hasundergonesubstantialchangesinlandusesincesettlementinthelate1700s.Eventhoughurbanizationandpopulationgrowthareincreasingatarapidpace,SpringCreekcontinuestosupportwildtroutandaheavily-usedsportfishery.ThepurposeofthisbulletinistotracethehistoryoftheSpringCreekfishery,attempttorelatechangesinthefisherytohumanactivities,andassesspotentialthreats.ThepersistenceofwildtroutinSpringCreekislinkedtothekarstgeology,whichischaracterizedbymanylimestonespringsthroughout

years,wastewatertreatmentplantshavebeenconsolidatedintotwofacilities,andtreatedwastewaterfromPSUisbeingsprayirrigatedontoagriculturalandforestlands.ItislikelythatwaterqualityinSpringCreekisbetternowthanithasbeensince1900.

Deterioratingwaterqualityandstockingofbrowntroutinthe1890sprobablycontributedtothedeclineofnativebrooktroutinthewatershed.SomewildbrooktroutpersistedinthemainstemofSpringCreekuntilthe1950s,butbythenbrowntrouthadtakenoverthemainstemandmuchofthetributaries.ContaminationofSpringCreek

photo-PFBC Archives


withkeponeandmirexledtothecessationofstockingcatchablesizetroutandimpositionofno-harvestregulationsin1982topreventconsumptionoftaintedfish.Thesemanagementchangesappeartohavebenefitedbrowntrout;between1980and1988,densityofage-1andolderbrowntroutincreasedby180%andin1988densityrangedfrom678to1,327trout/ha.Densitycontinuedtoincreaseuntil2000anddeclinedsomewhatin2006,whendensityrangedfrom368to1,563trout/ha.Growthofbrowntroutwastypicaloflimestonestreamsstatewide;age-4browntroutaveraged318mm(12.5in)totallength.Streamflowandtemperature,ratherthantroutdensity,seemedtohavethemostinfluenceongrowth.Above-averagetemperaturesandbelow-averagestreamflowinsummersuppressedgrowth,whileabove-averagetemperaturesandflowinwinterenhancedgrowth.Countsofbrowntroutreddsfrom1987to2005indicatethatspawningefforthasincreased,withthemostnotableincreasesoccurringinthelowerandmiddlereachesofthemainstem.

Bythelate1800s,SpringCreekhadareputationasanexcellenttroutfishery.Thisreputationwasfurtherenhancedin1934withtheestablishmentofaspeciallyregulated1.8-kmreachthatlaterbecameknownasFisherman’sParadise.Terminaltacklewasrestrictedtofliestiedonbarblesshooks,andanglers

wereinitiallyallowedtoharvesttwotroutperday.Thereachwasheavilystockedwithlargetrout,andfishingpressurewasintenseoverthetwo-monthseason.Angler-usepeakedin1952withmorethan44,000anglertrips.Poorwaterqualityandhighcostoftheprogramledtoitsclosurein1961.Thereafter,Fisherman’sParadisewasmanagedasa‘fish-for-fun’program,tacklerestrictionsremainedinplace,andstockingoftroutwasdiscontinuedafterthe1981season.Fishingpressureremainshigh.FromApriltoJune2006,estimatedpressurewas5,063angler-h/km,whichwas34timeshigherthantheestimatedaveragefishingpressureonwildtroutstreamsstatewidein2004.

MostofSpringCreekhadbeenstockedwithcatchablesizetrout,andliberalharvestregulationswereineffectuntilthe1982fishingseason,atwhichtimeharvestwasprohibited,therewerenotacklerestrictions,andthestreamwasopenforfishingyear-round.Anglersurveysin1988-1989revealedhighfishingpressureinsectionswithnotacklerestrictionsandcatchratesthatexceeded1.2trout/h.Fishingpressurehasbeenincreasinginrecentyears,andinApriltoJune2006,weestimated4,344angler-h/kminasectionwithgoodpublicaccess,whichrepresentsa400%increasecomparedtoasimilartimeperiodin1989.

Conversionofforestsandagriculturallandtourbanareasandtotransportationnetworksrepresentsthebiggestthreattothewatershedandthetroutfishery.WemonitoredtwositesonSpringCreekduringconstructionofInterstateHighway99(I-99)andfoundthatsedimentloadingtothestreamincreasedduringconstruction,buttherewasnoevidencethattroutspawninghabitatormacroinvertebratecommunitieswereaffected.Whenmacroinvertebratecommunitieswereusedtoassessstreamhealth,itseemedthaturbanizationintheupperone-halfofthewatershedwasimpairingwaterquality.Inotherwatersheds,impervioussurfaceareahasbeenusedasagoodsurrogateofurbandevelopment;whenimperviousnessreached 7-11%,troutpopulationswerelost.TheSpringCreekwatershedhad12%imperviouscoverin1995,andintheupperone-halfofthewatershed,imperviouscoverwas19%.WesuggestthatthereasonSpringCreekisstillabletosustainwildtroutwiththisdegreeofurbanizationistherelativelylargeinputofgroundwaterintothestream.Furtherdevelopmentthatincreasesimperviouscover,reducesgroundwaterrecharge,orboth,willcertainlyincreasethestressonSpringCreekandreduceitsabilitytosupport wildtrout.

The trout fishery in Spring Creek, Centre County, Pennsylvania, like many trout fisheries in the New England and mid-Atlantic states, has undergone substantial alterations since the 1800s, owing primarily to changes in the landscape brought about by ever-increasing perturbations from an expanding human population. Unlike many coldwater fisheries close to population centers, the Spring Creek fishery, though altered, has persisted quite well, and remains as one of the best trout fisheries in the Commonwealth.

Inthisbulletin,wetracethehistoryoftheSpringCreekfishery,attempttorelatechangesinthefisherytohumanactivities,andlookaheadtopotentialthreatswiththehopethatthishighlyvaluedresourcecanbeconservedthroughinformeddecisionmakingbylocalandstateagencies.

ThetroutfisheryinSpringCreekhasplayedanimportantroleinthecultureofthewatershedcommunity(Figure1,page53).Bellefontewasadestinationfortroutanglersbeginninginthelate1800s.

TheformerBushHouseonthebanksofSpringCreekinBellefonteprovidedlodgingforanglersandhadalongverandaextendingoverthestreamfromwhichanglerscouldcatch“speckledbeauties.”LocalofficialsundoubtedlyrecognizedtheimportanceoffishinganddemonstratedthisbymountingtheoutlineofatroutontheweathervanethatstillsitsatopoftheCentreCountyCourthouseinBellefonte.

ThetroutfisheryinSpringCreekowesitsprominencetotheunderlyingkarstgeologyofthewatershed.Thelimestoneanddolomitebedrockfavorsrapidinfiltrationofsurfacewaterintotheground,whereitreplenishesthegroundwaterreserve.Thislargegroundwaterreservoir,inturn,emergesinmanylargespringsthataccountforabout80%ofthestreamflowinthemainstemofSpringCreek(Giddings1974).Thesespringsservetomaintainadequatestreamflow,evenduringdryperiods,andhelptomaintainmoderatewatertemperatures,becausetemperatureofthespringsisabout10oC(50oF)year-round,whichapproximatesthemeanannualairtemperature.SomeoftheprecipitationthatinfiltratesintothegroundwateroftheadjacentSpruceCreekwatershedflowsinanortheasterlydirectionandcontributestotheaquiferoftheSpringCreekwatershed.TheportionoftheSpruceCreekwatershedthatcontributestotheSpringCreekaquiferencompassesGatesburgFormationbedrock,whichcapturesasignificantlyhigherpercentageofrechargethanothervalleyfloorbedrocksettings(Taylor1997).Thus,a

The distribution of native brook trout in the Spring Creek watershed is now confined to a few small tribitaries.

Brook Trout

photo by B. Hollender

Introduction


geologicanomalyhasprovidedSpringCreekwithanamplesupplyofgroundwaterthathasnurturedanexceptionalwildtroutpopulation.

Originally,nativebrooktrout(seeTable1,page70,forscientificnames)sustainedthefishery(Cooper1983).Intheearly1900s,introducedbrowntroutestablishedasolidfootholdinthestream,and,bythelate1950s,theyhadcompletelydisplacedbrooktroutinthemainstemofSpringCreek.Additionally,theincreasinghumanpopulationalongwithincreasedpollutioninthefirsthalfofthe20thCenturymayhavecontributedtothedemiseofbrooktrout.Fishkillsinthe1950sprovidedtheimpetusforaseriesofstudiesbyDr.EdwinL.Cooper,ProfessorofIchthyologyatPSU,andstateagencies.CooperandhisstudentsproducedthefirstcomprehensivedescriptionofthefishcommunityalongthelengthofSpringCreek,andtheymadethefirstquantitativeestimatesofdensityandbiomassoftroutandotherspecies.Hollenderetal.(1981)completedacomprehensiveassessmentofthefishcommunitywithemphasisontroutin1980,andhecollaboratedwiththeseniorauthortocontinueperiodicassessmentsuntil2006.Here,werelyprimarilyontheseassessmentstomakesome

generalizationsaboutthetroutfisheryandtotrytounderstandhowthefisheryhasrespondedtonaturalandhuman-inducedperturbations.

Theeffectsofurbanizationonfishcommunitieshavereceivedconsiderableattentionrecently.Forexample,Schueler(1994)reviewedstudiesdealingwitheffectsofurbanizationonphysicochemicalandbiologicalcharacteristicsofstreamsandsuggestedthatwhenawatershed’sareaofimpervioussurfacesexceeded10%,streambiodiversitydeclined.Similarly,Wangetal.(2003)foundthattroutwerelargelyeliminatedwhenconnectedimperviousnessexceeded10%ofthewatershed

area.IntheBaltimoreregionofMaryland,Strankoetal.(2008)showedthatbrooktroutwereextirpatedfrommoststreamswhenimpervioussurfacereachedabout7%ofthewatershed.Thesetypesofstudiesprovideconvincingevidencethatthereissomeupperlimittotheamountofurbanization,particularlyimperviousness,abovewhichcoldwaterfishcommunitiesarenotlikelytopersist.PartofourmotivationforthisstudywastoassessthestatusoftheSpringCreekwatershedinrelationtourbanizationandtoforecastpotentialchangesinthewildtroutfishery.

photo by R. Carline

Spring Creek flowing through Bellefonte.


SpringCreekflows36km(22mi)fromitssourcenearBoalsburgtoitsconfluencewithBaldEagleCreekinMilesburg.Itdrainsa378-km2(146mi2)watershed,whichislocatednearthegeographiccenterofthestateandispartofthelargerWestBranchSusquehannaRiverdrainage(Figure1,page53).ThewatershedlieswithintheRidgeandValleyPhysiographicProvinceofthefoldedAppalachianMountains(Cuffetal.1989).Theterrainischaracterizedbylong,highridgesandbroadvalleysthatruninanortheast-southwestdirection.Theridgesarecomprisedprimarilyofsandstoneandsomeshales,whilethevalleysareunderlainbycalcareousformationsthatare1,800to2,400m(5,900to7,874ft)thick(Giddings1974).Soilsontheridgesarecoarse-grainedandrelativelythin.Inthevalleys,soilsarederivedfromcarbonates,arecomposedlargelyofsiltandclay,andvaryinthicknessfromafewcentimeterstomorethan60m.

Themeanannualairtemperatureis9.7oC(49.5oF)attheStateCollegeClimatologicalStation,onthePSUcampus.Meanannualprecipitationis97cm(38in),andaveragemonthlyprecipitationrangesfrom6.2cminFebruaryto9.8cminMay.Firstandsecondorderstreamsthatflowdownthesteepridgesoftenencountersinkholesatthebaseoftheslope,andmuchofthe

Study AreaSpring Creek flows 36 km (22 mi) from

its source near Boalsburg to its confluence with

Bald Eagle Creek in Milesburg. It

drains a 378-km2 (146 mi2)

watershed, which is located

near the geographic center of the state and is part of the larger

West Branch Susquehanna

River drainage.

surfaceflowdisappearsbelowthelandsurfaceandbecomespartofthegroundwater.

Fultonetal.(2005)provideaconcisesummaryofthegeologicandhydrologicsettingoftheSpringCreekwatershed.Prominentfeaturesofthekarstgeologyincludesinkholesanddissolutioncracksin

thelimestoneanddolomitebedrock,whichprovideasubstantialstoragecapacityforgroundwater,andarethesourceofmanylargesprings.Sinkholesformwheretheroofsofdissolutioncavitiescollapse;manyofthesearefoundatthebasesoftheridges.Sinkholesoftenhavedirectconnectionstocavernsandlargecracks,whichactasconduitsfortherapidtransmissionofgroundwater(White1988).Thereareatleastsevenspringsinthewatershedwithanoutflowgreaterthan0.04m3/s(1mgd),thelargestofwhichisBigSpringinBellefonteBorough,whichyieldsabout0.83m3/s(19mgd;WRMC2006).Theselargesprings,togetherwithmanysmallerspringsandseeps,providearelativelyconstantflowofgroundwatertoSpringCreekanditstributaries.

TheaveragedailyflowofSpringCreekattheMilesburggageis6.62m3/s(234cfs),andthecontributingsurfacedrainageareais368km2(USGS2008a).Thegageislocatedabout1kmupstreamofthemouthofSpringCreek,suchthatthetotalsurfacedrainageareaofthebasinis378km2.ThewateryieldofSpringCreekisrelativelyhigh,becausethegroundwaterdrainageareaisabout17%largerthanthesurfacewaterdrainagearea(Taylor1997).

OfthefivemajortributariestoSpringCreek,LoganBranchcontributes35%ofthetotalstreamflowandtheotherfour


Of the five major tributaries to Spring Creek, Logan Branch

contributes 35% of the total stream flow

and the other four tributaries together

contribute 29% . The Benner Spring and Bellefonte State

Fish Hatcheries discharge into the

main stem and provide 9% of the

flow, two wastewater treatment plants add 5%, and Big Spring contributes 5% of

the total flow. The remaining 17%

of the flow comes from unmeasured

springs that feed the main stem.

tributariestogethercontribute29%(WRMC1999).TheBennerSpringandBellefonteStateFishHatcheriesdischargeintothemainstemandprovide9%oftheflow,twowastewatertreatmentplantsadd5%,andBigSpringcontributes5%ofthetotalflow(Figure1,page53).Theremaining17%oftheflowcomesfromunmeasuredspringsthatfeedthemainstem.

Thechemicalmake-upofsurfacewatersislargelydependentonthesourcelocationsinthewatershed.Firstordertributariesthatoriginateonthesandstone-shaleridgesaretypicallylowindissolvedmaterials.Forexample,GalbraithGapRunhadthesecharacteristics:pH7.25,totalhardness16mg/LasCaCO3,nitratenitrogen0.34mg/L,andorthophosphate<0.01mg/L(datafromDecember2007;G.Smith,WaterResourcesMonitoringProject).Incontrast,firstorderstreamsthatarisefromlimestonespringsinthevalleyfloorhaverelativelyhighconcentrationsofdissolvedmaterials.TheAxemannSpring,whichflowsintoLoganBranch,hadthefollowingaveragevalues:pH7.40,totalhardness328mg/LasCaCO3,nitratenitrogen5.8mg/L,andtotalorthophosphate<0.01mg/L(datafrom2005-2007;G.Smith,WaterResourcesMonitoringProject).MostofthestreamflowinSpringCreekoriginatesfromlimestonesprings;hence,themainstemhashighconcentrationsofdissolvedmaterials.SpringCreekatthe

Milesburggagehadthefollowingaveragevalues:pH8.3,totalhardness230mg/LasCaCO3,nitratenitrogen3.5mg/L,andtotalorthophosphate0.026mg/L(datafrom2005-2007;G.Smith,WaterResourcesMonitoringProject).

Likewaterchemistry,streamtemperatureisstronglyinfluencedbyproximitytolargesprings,whichhaveanaverageannualtemperatureofabout 10oC.Amongmonitoringstationsatthemouthsoftributariesandthemainstem,thelowestJulytemperatures(12.6oC)wereattheupperSpringCreeksite,neartheconfluencewithCedarRun(Figure2,page54;WRMC2003).Thereisalargespringimmediatelyupstreamofthissite.WiththeexceptionofBuffaloRun,tributariesprovidedwatercoolerthanthatinthemainstem.Aswatermovesdownthemainstem,itgraduallywarms.But,asSpringCreekpassesthroughtheBoroughofBellefonte,LoganBranchandBigSpringenterandtemperatureinthemainstemdeclinesbyabout2oCinJuly.

DuringJanuary,largespringstendtoincreasestreamtemperature.Waterenteringthemainstemfromtributariesisslightlywarmerthanthatinthemainstem,but,asthewatermovesdownthemainstem,itcoolsduringwinter.Hereagain,additionofflowfromLoganBranchandBigSpringincreasestreamtemperaturebyabout2oCinJanuary.Owingtothemoderatingeffectofgroundwaterinputs,SpringCreekrarelyfreezesover inwinter.


TheSpringCreekwatershedwasfirstcolonizedbywhitesettlersaround1770,andCentreCounty,withapopulationofabout4,000,wasestablishedbytheCommonwealthin1800.Thepopulationgrewsteadilyuntil1890,aperiodcharacterizedbyresourceextractionindustries(Figure3,page55).Forthenext50years,thepopulationremainedstableuntiltheonsetofWorldWarII,whichstimulatedthegrowthofdiversifiedindustriesandserviceactivities,includingtheexpansionofPSU.By2005,thecounty’spopulationhadexceeded140,000,and

morethanone-halfofthepopulationresidedintheSpringCreekwatershed.Wecanonlyapproximatethenumberofpeopleresidinginthewatershed,becauseboundariesofthewatershedandthemunicipalitiesdonotcoincide.Partsorallof10townshipsandtheboroughsofBellefonte,CentreHall,Milesburg,andStateCollegeareinthewatershed,andin2005thepopulationofthese14municipalitieswas110,290.

Human Population Trends and Land Use

Fisherman’s Paradise section of Spring Creek offers the most scenic angling experience.

ClearWater Conservancy photo archives

ThetownshipsofBenner,College,Harris,Patton,andSpringhaveallormost(>80%)oftheirlandareainthewatershed,and,togetherwiththreeboroughs(excludesCentreHall),thesemunicipalitieshadapopulationof84,013in2005.Hence,thepopulationoftheSpringCreekwatershedwasbetween80,000and110,000peoplein2005.TheCentreCountyPlanningOffice’sestimatesoflandusein2002was45%forest,28%agriculture,18%developed,and9%undeveloped(Figure2,page54).


Wastewater Treatment Facilities

PSUbuiltthefirstwastewatertreatmentplantinthewatershedin1913atitspresentlocationneartheintersectionofEastCollegeAvenueandUniversityDrive.TheplantreceivedwastesfromcampusandpartoftheBoroughofStateCollege.Theplanthasundergoneseveralrenovationsandexpansionssinceitsinitialconstruction.Perhapsthemostnotableeventintheplant’shistoryoccurredin1958,when2,000troutinthePennsylvaniaFishCommission’s(renamedthePennsylvaniaFish

andBoatCommission,PFBC,in1991)BennerSpringStateFishHatcherydied,owingtolowlevelsofdissolvedoxygeninSpringCreek,whichsuppliedwatertotherearingfacilities.RespirationfromahugebiomassofaquaticplantsinSpringCreekcauseddissolvedoxygentofalltoverylowlevelsatnight.Theaquaticplantswereabundantbecauseofhighlevelsofphosphatesinthetreatmentplantdischarge(CooperandWagner

1976).Atthattime,phosphateswereusedinhouseholddetergents,andelevatedphosphateconcentrationswereprobablycommoninmostwastewatertreatmentdischarges.PennsylvaniaDepartmentofHealthfiles(nowlocatedwithPennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection(DEP),notedhighconcentrationsofammoniaandahighbiologicaloxygendemand(BOD)inthetreatmentplanteffluent,sothatthefishkillwasprobablynotduesolelytohighrespirationratesandsubsequentoxygendepletioncausedbyexcessiveplantbiomass.Theplantwasupgradedin1963andpartofthetreatedeffluentwassprayirrigatedoncropsandwoodlandsintheToftreesareaabout5kmfromtheplant.By1983,alltreatedeffluentwassprayirrigatedanddischargetoThompsonRunwascompletelyeliminated.

The1958fishkillwasnotable,becauseitresultedinaseriesofinvestigationsbyPennsylvaniaDepartmentofHealthbiologists,PennsylvaniaFishCommissionpersonnel,andfacultyandstafffromPSU.Priortothe1958incident,therewasverylittleinformationonwaterqualityinSpringCreekinagencyfiles.Theresultinginvestigationsexaminedwaterquality,benthicmacroinvertebrates,andfishes

ThehistoryofwaterqualityintheSpringCreekwatershedseemscloselylinkedtochronicdischargesofpollutantsfrompointsources,suchaswastewatertreatmentplantsandfishhatcheries,andfromepisodicspillsofpollutantsthatoftenresultedinfishkills,someofwhichwereratherspectacular.

The University Area Joint Authority’s (UAJA) wastewater treatment plant provides service to most residents in the State College area.

UAJA

photo by J. Brown

Historical and Contemporary Water Quality


inSpringCreek,whichprovidedthefirstquantitativeestimatesoffishpopulations(CooperandWagner1976).

TheStateCorrectionalInstitutionatRockview(SCIRockview)openedin1912,butitwasnotuntilabout20yearslaterthatawastewatertreatmentplantwasconstructedtoaccommodate900prisoners.TheplantdischargedintoSpringCreek3.5km(2.2mi)upstreamofFisherman’sParadise.In1961,Fisherman’sParadisewasclosedtoanglingbecauseofpoorwaterqualitythatwastracedbacktotheSCIRockviewtreatmentplant.Theplantwasupgradedin1967,butwaterqualityproblemspersisted.Between1969and1994,theplantwasfrequentlycitedfornon-compliancewithitsdischargepermit.In1992,allwastewaterfromtheprisonwaspipedtoBellefontefortreatmentandtheInstitution’sdischargetoSpringCreekwaseliminated.Theprisonalsooperatedacannery;wastewaterwassprayirrigatedontoadjacentcroplands.In2001,cannerywasteswereappliedtoaman-madewetland,andafewyearslater,thecannerywasclosed.

Bellefonteconstructeditsfirstwastewatertreatmentplantin1939,anditdischargedintoSpringCreekdownstreamoftheborough.Anewplantwasconstructedin1971,anditwasexpandedin1990whenitscapacitywasincreasedfrom0.08m3/s(1.75mgd)to0.11m3/s(2.4mgd).TheplanthasbeentreatingwastewaterfromSCI

Rockviewsince1992,anditspermittedcapacityis0.14m3/s(3.22mgd).

TheFergusonTownshipwastewatertreatmentplantinPineGroveMillswasfirstpermittedin1966(Personalcommunication,JoshCollins,FergusonTownshipEngineer);itdischargedintoSlabCabinRun.Althoughtherearenorecordsofwaterqualityproblemsdownstreamfromtheplant,aseriesofpermitviolationsduringthe1980sand1990sledtotheplant’sclosurein2000.WastewaterthathadbeentreatedbythisplantwasthenreroutedtotheUniversityAreaJointAuthority(UAJA)plantinCollegeTownship.Inaddition,theHanoverCanningCo.operatedacanneryinOakHallfromaround1950to1972.OverflowsfromitswastewaterholdingpondoccasionallyaffectedwaterqualityinSpringCreek,buttherearenorecordsoffishkillsrelatedtothesespills.

TheUAJA’swastewatertreatmentplantwentintooperationin1969.TheplantdischargesintoSpringCreekabout2.5kmupstreamoftheBennerSpringHatchery.Theplantwasexpandedin1992,anditspermittedmaximumdischargewasincreasedfrom0.17to0.26m3/s(3.84to6.0mgd).Inresponsetoadischarge

permitconditionthatlimitsthetemperatureoftreateddischarge,theAuthorityimplementedawaterreuseproject.Someoftheplant’streatedwastewaterisfurtherpurifiedwithnewtechnology,suchthattheresultingwatermeetsdrinkingwaterstandards.Thishighlytreatedwaterisbeingpipedtoagolfcourseforirrigation,alaundryservice,andaconstructedwetland.

ThePFBCoperatesthreefishhatcheriesintheSpringCreekwatershed.ThePleasantGapStateFishHatcherydischargesintotheheadwatersofLoganBranch.TheBennerSpringandBellefonteHatcheriesdischargedirectlyintoSpringCreek.Collectively,thesethreefacilitiesdischargeabout0.81m3/s(18.4mgd)oftreatedwastewater,andthequalityoftheirdischargeisregulatedbyDEPpermits.

Inadditiontotheabove-mentioneddischargesintheSpringCreekwatershed,thereareseveralsmallpermitteddischargesandperhapsseveralthousandprivate,on-lotsepticsystemsthatmaycontributepollutantstosurfacewatersandgroundwater.

Water Quality in the First Half of the 20th CenturyTheabsenceofwaterquality

reportsuntilthe1950sforcesonetospeculateabouttheconditionsinSpringCreekintheearlypartofthe20thCentury.Therewerenowastewatertreatmentplantsinthewatersheduntil1913.Hence,rawsewagewas


flowingintothestreamfromBellefonteBoroughandprobablyfromSCIRockviewstartingin1912,andtheboroughsofStateCollege,Lemont,andBoalsburg.Priorto1913,PSU’swastewaterwasbelievedtohavebeendischargedintoasinkholeorcavenearCollegeAvenue.ThisrawsewagecouldhaverapidlyemergedinThompsonSpring.Giventhesemultiplesourcesofrawsewage,itislikelythatSpringCreekfromLemonttoMilesburghadpoorwaterqualitycomparedtotoday’sstandards.AfterPSUconstructeditsplantin1913,SCIRockviewfollowed,and,finally,BellefonteBoroughconstructeditsfirstplantin1939.Presumably,waterqualitywasreasonablygoodthroughthe1940s.

Water Quality since 1950Conditionsthenbeganto

deteriorateintheearly1950s.AfishkillbelowtheBellefontetreatmentplantwasattributedtolowlevelsofdissolvedoxygen,possiblyduetotheplantexceedingitstreatmentcapacity(Table2,page71).Then,pointsourcedischargesproducedseveralfishkills.The1954spillfromtheTitanMetalCo.onLoganBranchdecimatednearlyallaquaticlifeinLoganBranchandfor2.4kmofSpringCreekdownstreamoftheconfluencewithLoganBranch.

Themostfamousfishkilloccurredin1956whensodiumcyanidewaspoureddownadrainintheNavalOrdinance

ResearchLaboratoryonthePSUcampus(Glover1957).Asthecyanidepassedthroughthewastewatertreatmentplant,itprobablykilledmostofthemicroorganismsinthetreatmentsystemandthenflowedoutintoThompsonRun,thentoSlabCabinRun,andfinallytoSpringCreek.Morethan147,000troutwerekilledintheBennerSpringandBellefontehatcheries,whichindicatesthatthisspillwasstilltoxic16kmdownstreamfromthePSUtreatmentplant.Anunknownnumberoffish(probably>100,000)inthesetwotributariesandSpringCreekperished.Thisspillmayhavealsohadlong-lastingeffectsonstreaminvertebrates.AccordingtoGeorgeHarvey,thegreendrakemayfly(Ephemeraguttulata)wasneverseenafterthecyanideincident.Thedeadly1950sendedwiththe1958fishkillattheBennerSpringHatchery,whichwastraced backtothePSUwastewatertreatmentplant.

Toxicspillscontinuedduringthe1960s,andseveraloftheseoriginatedfromNeaseChemicalCo.,whichwaslocatedalongStateRoute26,1.2kmfromSpringCreek(Table2,page71).The1965spillcausedacompletekilloffishfor2.4kmdownstreamofStateRoute26.SpillsfromNeaseChemicalCo.continuedintothe1970s.The1971spillresultedinfishmortalityfor4.0km.NeaseChemicalCo.

mayhaveaccountedformorefishkilledthananyothersinglesource.But,perhapstheNeaseChemicalCo.’smostsignificantlegacyisthecontaminationofgroundwaterwithtwotoxicandhighlypersistentchemicals–keponeandmirex.Inafollowingsection,weaddressthekeponeandmirexpollutioningreaterdetail.

Onthepositiveside,in1968,theUAJAbeganoperationofanewtreatmentplantthatrelievedthePSUplantofsomesewageloadandbroughtservicetohomesthathadbeenusingon-lotsepticsystems.ThecanneryoperationinOakHallclosedin1972.ThePSUplantceaseddischargingtoThompsonRunandbegansprayirrigatingallofitseffluentin1983.SCIRockviewceaseddischargingtoSpringCreekin1992,andtheFergusonTownshiptreatmentplantclosedin2000.Thus,by2001,thenumberofmajordomesticwastewatertreatmentplantsdischarginginthewatershedhadbeenreducedfromfivetotwoplants.Thetworemainingdomesticwastewaterplants,BellefonteandtheUAJA,havebeenoperatingincompliancewiththeirdischargepermits.Thethreestatefishhatcherieshavebeenorarebeingupgradedtoimprovethequalityoftheirdischarge.Thus,givenallofthesechanges,wearecomfortableinstatingthatthewaterqualityinSpringCreekanditstributariesisbetternowthanithasbeensince1900,andperhapsmuchearlier.


Kepone and Mirex Contamination

MarkHartle,fisheriesbiologistwiththePFBC,providedthefollowingsynopsisofthekeponeandmirexcontaminationofSpringCreek.Duringthelate1950sthroughmid-1970s,theNeaseChemicalPlant(nowRütgersOrganicsCorporation)manufacturedspecialtychemicals,includingthepesticideskepone(chlordecone)andmirex(dechlorane).Releasesofkeponeandmirexfromhandlingandwastemanagementpracticesresultedinthesecontaminantsenteringsoil,groundwater,surfacewater,andsediment.Keponeandespeciallymirexarelong-livedcompoundsthatadsorbtosoil,aretransportedthroughthemovementofcontaminatedsoilandsediment,andcanaccumulateinhighconcentrationsinbothstreamsedimentandbiota.ThecontaminantsweretransportedfromthechemicalplantsitetoSpringCreekviaasurfacewaterdrainageditchandthroughThorntonSpring,whichdischargesgroundwaterintoSpringCreek.

In1976,keponeandmirexwerefirstdetectedinthefleshofbrowntroutfromSpringCreekcollectednearSpringCreekParkduringinvestigationsbythePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalResources(nowtheDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection).Subsequentanalysesindicatedthatconcentrationsofthe

contaminantsinbrowntroutexceededtheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrations(FDA)actionlevels(mirex,100μg/kg;kepone,300μg/kg).IntheyearsleadinguptothediscoveryofkeponeandmirexinSpringCreek,thestreamwasheavilystockedwithtrout.However,in1977duetothediscoveryofthecontaminants,theFishCommissionreducedthestockingrateoftroutdownstreamfromtheareawherekeponeandmirexwerefirstidentifiedandthendiscontinuedstockingthisreachin1978toeliminatehumanhealthrisktoanglersandothersconsumingtroutcaughtincontaminatedareas.In1982,theFishCommissionestablisheda‘No-KillZoneDuetoContamination’thatprohibitedtheharvestofallfishinSpringCreekinthe28.5-kmreachfromtheSR3010bridgeinOakHalldownstreamtothemouth.

TheNeaseChemicalPlantsitewasaddedtotheNationalPrioritiesListofcontaminatedsitesin1983bytheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Remedialactivitiesaffectingthesurfacewaterdrainageditch,soil,andgroundwaterhavesinceproceededundertheComprehensiveEnvironmentalResponse,Compensation,andLiabilityAct(CERCLA)of1980,

andthesitewasregulatedbytheU.S.EPAasaSuperfundSite.Cleanupactivitiesarenearingcompletionattheplantsite,andmonitoringofcontaminantscontinues.

Keponelevelsdeclinedratherquicklythroughtime,butmirexlevelspersistedintroutinexcessofU.S.FDAactionlevelsuntil2001.In2000,thePFBCestablishedtheSpringCreekTroutManagementArearegulationsonthesame28.5-kmreachofstreamdesignatedin1982asaNo-KillZoneduetothekeponeandmirexcontamination,exceptforthe1.6-kmreachofstreamknownasFisherman’sParadiseandthe0.8-kmreachknownastheExhibitionAreainBellefonteBorough.No-harvestregulationswerealreadyineffectforFisherman’sParadise,andanglingisprohibitedintheExhibitionArea.In2001,thePFBCremovedtheNo-KillZoneregulations,becausemirexlevelsintroutfilletshadfallenbelowtheU.S.FDAactionlevel.SpringCreekcontinuestobemanagedunderno-harvestregulationsfortrout.Harvestofotherspecies,suchaswhitesuckers,ispermittedunderthecurrentregulations,exceptforFisherman’sParadise,wherethetakingofbaitfishisprohibited.

Stream Flow and Water Quality Trends at the

Axemann GageTheU.S.GeologicalSurvey

(USGS)installedthefirstpermanentstreamgagingstation


onSpringCreekin1942,about1.6kmdownstreamoftheBellefonteStateFishHatchery.Thissiteis2.6kmwestofthevillageAxemann;hence,itwaslabeledtheAxemanngage.Annualmeandailyflowhasrangedfrom1.22m3/s(43cfs)in1965to4.87m3/s(172cfs)in2004,andithasaveraged2.49m3/s(88cfs)overa66-yearperiod(USGS2008b).Annualvariationsinflowwerecloselylinkedtoprecipitation(Figure4,page56).Whenweusedamultiplelinearregressiontopredictannualmeandailyflowusingprecipitationduringtheyearofflowmeasurementandthepreviousyear,ahighlysignificantrelationresulted (R2=0.75,P<0.001)Theadditionofyearasanindependentvariabledidnotimprovetherelationship,whichindicatestherehavebeennolong-termchangesinannualmeandailyflow.Similarly,therehavebeennostrikingchangesinshorttermlowflows.Infact,theannual7-daylowflowsfrom1941to2005showaslightincrease,whichsuggeststhatgroundwaterreserveshavebeenincreasingratherthandecreasing(personalcommunication, L.Fennessey,PSU).

ThePennsylvaniaDepartmentofHealthbegancollectingwaterqualitydataatquarterlyintervalsattheAxemanngagesitein1950.Samplingfrequencyincreasedthroughtimeuntil1977,whenmonthlysamplingwasinitiated.Attheprogram

onset,waterwasanalyzedforpH,alkalinity,acidity,aluminum,iron,andsulfate.Totalphosphorus,nitrate,nitrite,ammonia,andseveralotheranalyseswereaddedin1972.StreampHhasnotvariedgreatly,andhasaveraged7.9(EPA2007).Interestingly,totalalkalinityhasincreased,onaverage,fromabout160mg/LasCaCO3in1950to180mg/LasCaCO3in2004(Figure5,page57).Thischangeinalkalinitymayreflectanincreaseinwaterwithdrawalfromalkalinewellsforhouseholduseandsubsequenttreatmentanddisposalviawastewatertreatmentplantstothestreamduringthepast50years.Inthefirsthalfofthe21stcentury,moreresidentswererelyingonsurfacewatersupplies,whichtypicallycamefromsoftwatersourcesonthesandstoneridges.Thesesmallwatersystemshavenowbeenlargelyreplacedbylargerwaterauthoritiesthatrelyonwellsdeepintothelimestonebedrock.

Since1972therehavebeensubstantialchangesinstreamnutrientconcentrations.Themostnotableofthesehasbeenthereductionintotalphosphorus,whichdeclinedfrom0.9mg/LasPin1972tolessthan0.05mg/Linrecentyears(Figure6,page58).Severalfactorshavecontributedtothisdecline.Thediversionoftreatedeffluentfromthe

PSUtreatmentplanttosprayirrigationin1983eliminatedamajorsourceofnutrientstothestream,and,morerecently,theclosureoftreatmentplantsatSCIRockviewandFergusonTownshiphasfurtherreducednutrientloading.ThemajorwastewaterdischargerintheupperSpringCreekbasin(UAJA)hasbeenusingtertiarytreatmenttoremovephosphorusfromitsdischargesincetheplantbeganoperationsin1969.Hence,allofthesechangeshavecontributedtoreducingphosphorusloadinginSpringCreek.

Nitrogen,theothernutrientofconcern,hasalsoshownadecreasingtrendoverthepast35years.Since1972,nitritehasdecreasedfromabout0.1mg/LasNtolessthan0.04mg/L,whichistheminimumdetectionlevel.Similarly,ammoniahasdecreasedfromabout0.3mg/LasNtolessthan0.02mg/L.Thereductioninthesetwonitrogenouscompoundsprobablyreflectstheremovalofsomewastewaterdischargesandimprovedefficiencyintheremainingwastewatertreatmentplants.Nitrateconcentrationshavenotchangedsince1972;concentrationshaveaveragedabout4.0mg/LasN.Stormwaterrunofffromurbanandagriculturallandsisthelikelysourceofnitrates.Overall,datacollectedattheAxemanngagesuggeststhatstreamflowlargelyreflectsannualprecipitation,andwaterqualityhasimproved.


Shields(2003) describedthetroutfisheryofSpringCreekandhowithasevolvedthroughtime.Historically,nativebrooktroutsustainedthefishery,whichwasapparentlygoodenoughtoattractthefamousangler,TheodoreGordon,whoravedabouttheexcellentbrooktroutfishingnearBellefonteintheearly1870s(McDonald1989).Ina1915letter,GordonwritesaboutasubsequentfishingtriptoBellefonteandnotesthatbrowntrouthad“takenpossession”ofthestream.TheCorryStateFishHatcheryshippedsixcansofbrowntroutfrytofiverailroadstationsinthewatershedbetween1892and1898.ProvidingthatthesefishwerestockedinSpringCreekandittributaries,thesestockingsmayhavebeenresponsiblefortheinitialcolonizationofthestreambybrowntrout.

Itisnotclearhowquicklybrowntroutdisplacednativebrooktrout.JosephHumphreys

recallscatchingbrooktroutnearBennerSpringfromthe1930stotheearly1950sbeforethehatcherywasbuilt.HestatesthatduringsummermonthsbrooktroutcongregatedinthecoldoutflowoftheBennerSpringandinotherlocalizedareasinfluencedbysprings.TheseobservationssuggestthattherewerestillreproducingbrooktroutinthemainstemofSpringCreekduringthe1950s.But,itislikelythatbrowntroutwerethedominantsalmonid,becausein1948Donley(1948)surveyedCedarRunupstreamofLindenHallandfoundnowildbrooktrout,butcollectedbrowntroutfromseveralagegroups,includingyoungoftheyear.Giventhatbrowntrouthad

Historical Notes on the Trout Fishery

displacedbrooktroutwellupintoCedarRun,

itseemslogicaltoconcludethatbrowntrouthadlargelydisplacedbrooktroutthroughoutthemainstemofSpringCreek.Inthelate1950s,E.Cooperfailedtocollectanywildbrooktroutinthemainstem

ofSpringCreekorCedarRun.HecollectedwildbrooktroutinupperSlabCabinRun,butnonewasfoundtherein2008.

Onthebasisoftheseadmittedlymeagerrecords,wesuggestthatbrowntroutbecamewell-establishedintheearly1900sand,bythe1940s,hadbecomethedominantsalmonidinthewatershed.BrooktroutcontinuetopersistinGalbraithGapRun;twotributariestoSlabCabinRun;anunnamedstreamflowingthroughMusserGapandRoaringRun;GapRun;andLoganBranch,butclearly,thenativebrooktroutoccupiesbutasmallproportionofitsformerrangewithinthewatershed.


Brown trout became well-established in the early 1900s and, by the 1940s, had

become the dominant salmonid in the

watershed.

Early YearsIn1873,theState

CommissionersofFisheries(SCF)brought35,000brooktrouteggstotheStateHatchingHouseatDonegalSprings,LancasterCounty,toberaisedforpossiblestocking.By1877,theoutputofbrooktroutfryreached154,000.Inthe1881-1882reportbytheSCF,itwasnotedthatmorethan250,000brooktrouthadbeenstockedinmostofthecentralandeasterncountiesoftheCommonwealth.

MuchofthefishstockingwasdonebyindividualswhosentanapplicationforfishtotheCommissionerlivingclosesttothem.AnnualorbiennialreportsoftheSCFpublishedinthelate1800scontainedlonglistsofindividualswhoreceivedshipmentsoffryofvariousspecies.Fishwereshippedbyrailincansequippedwithaplungertoaeratethewater.The1887-1888reportoftheCommissionersincluded“DirectionsforObtainingFish,”whichprovidesasternwarning:“Nomanshallgotosleepwhiletransportingfish,andleavethemalonewhileinthecans,asitwillbesuredeathtothem.”

ThefirstreportofbrowntroutcomingtoPennsylvaniaisnotedinthe1885-1886ReportoftheSCF.Prof.SpencerF.Baird,U.S.FishCommissioner,arrangedfortheshipmentof10,000GermantrouteggstotheCorryState

FishHatcheryinsoutheasternErieCounty.The1887-1888ReportoftheCommissionersstatesthat30,000impregnatedeggsoftheLochLeventrout,originallyfromScotland,weresenttotheCorryStateFish

Trout Production

“There are still many trout streams in Pennsylvania that afford full creels to the angler, but with the ever increasing army of fishermen

it is absolutely essential that the

supply must be kept up by restocking with artificially

raised fish, because the streams under

natural propagation will not furnish fish equal to the demand,

because natural propagation in any

stream is really but a small factor when the number of fishermen

is considered.”

HatcherybytheWashingtonCommission.Presumably,thelatterreferstotheU.S.FishCommission.Duringtheperiod1889-1891,theCorryStateFishHatcheryshipped66,000browntroutfryand30,000‘LochLeven’fry.In1895,theCorryStateFishHatcheryreportedshipping135,000Europeanbrowntroutfry,whichsuggeststhattheGermanandScottishstrainsweremixed.Yet,in1905,theCorryStateFishHatcheryreportedshipmentsof68,000LochLevenfingerlings.Thereafter,thedistinctionbetweenthetwoEuropeanstrainswasnotmaintained.

ThepracticeofraisingandstockingfishinPennsylvaniahasalonghistory,foundedonthenotionthatnaturalreproductionoffishescouldnotmeetthedemandsofaharvest-orientedfishingpublic.ThesesentimentswereexpressedintheannualReportoftheDepartmentofFisheriespublishedin1916:“TherearestillmanytroutstreamsinPennsylvaniathataffordfullcreelstotheangler,butwiththeeverincreasingarmyoffishermenitisabsolutelyessentialthatthesupplymustbekeptupbyrestockingwithartificiallyraisedfish,becausethestreamsundernaturalpropagationwillnotfurnishfishequaltothedemand,becausenaturalpropagationinanystreamis


reallybutasmallfactorwhenthenumberoffishermenisconsidered.”Apparently,this‘army’ofanglersfoundSpringCreek,andfisheriesofficialsdeemeditnecessarytostockthestream.

DetailedrecordsoftroutstockedinSpringCreekwereavailablestartingin1931(Table3,page72),whentroutwerestockedannually,until1981,whenstockingceased.TheSpringCreekProject,nowknownasFisherman’sParadise,wasstartedin1934,andstockingtherecontinueduntil1981.Morethan1.6milliontroutwerestockedandavastmajorityofthesefishwereofcatchablesize.Fingerlingtroutwerestockedonafewoccasions,andeventhen,manymorecatchable

sizetroutthanfingerlingswerestocked.Sizesofstockedtrouttypicallyrangedfrom152to406mm(6to16in),includingasmallpercentageoflargerfish.Hatchery-rearedtroutaslargeas762mm(30in)werestockedinFisherman’sParadise.

WesuspectthatinthoseheavilystockedsectionsofSpringCreek,hatchery-rearedtroutsustainedthefishery,andwildtroutwereanunimportantpartofthecatch.TheonlyavailablefisherydataoutsideofthespeciallyregulatedFisherman’sParadiseisfromtheHartzler(1977)study,whichwasconductedimmediatelyupstreamofFisherman’sParadise.Onthebasisofelectrofishingsurveys,heestimatedthatwildtroutequaledlessthan5%ofthe

The Pleasant Gap State Fish Hatchery in the early 1900s.

photo-PFBC archives

densityofstockedtrout.Thelownumbersofwildtroutmayhavebeenrelatedtopoorwaterquality.Nonetheless,wesuggestthatthelargenumbersofstockedtroutattractedlargenumbersofharvest-orientedanglers;hence,wildtroutweresubjectedtohighexploitationratesandpossiblycompetitionfromlarge-bodiedstockedtrout.

Highwatereventsin1972fromHurricaneAgnesandin2004fromHurricaneIvanfloodedrearingpondsandracewaysintheBennerSpringHatcheryandthousandsoftroutandotherspeciesescapedintoSpringCreek.In2004anglersfishedinthevicinityofthehatcheryafterfloodwaterrecededandtheyexperiencedhighcatchratesoftrout.Ourimpressionisthatthisexceptionalfisherywasshort-livedandwithintwoyears,catchratesreturnedtonormallevelsforthisreachofstream.

Fish Culture Facilities in the Spring Creek

WatershedPleasant Gap State Fish

Hatchery

TheinitiallandpurchaseforthePleasantGapfacilitywasmadein1903.Thesitewaschosenbecauseoflargespringsthatreportedlyproduced0.63m3/s(10,000gpm),anditwasnearthePleasantGaprailwaystation,whichwasimportantfordistributionoffish.Thefirst

Pleasant Gap Hatchery (historic)


troutwereproducedin1904.Intheearlyyears,thehatcheryraisedmostlybrooktroutandrainbowtrout,whichwerethencalledCaliforniatrout.In1908,thefacilityreceivedfivecansoffingerlingbrowntroutfromtheCorryStateFishHatchery.By1909,itwasbelievedthatthisfacilitywasthelargesttrouthatcheryintheU.S.;inthatyear,itproduced3.5millionbrooktroutand42,000rainbowtrout.Inthe1910report,thereisnomentionofbrowntroutstockedfromthehatchery.In1912,1,500browntroutwerestocked,butnoneinCentreCounty.By1914,thehatcheryproduced1.3milliontrout,whichincluded216,000browntrout.Between1915and1932,browntroutproducedatthePleasantGapStateFishHatcherywerestockedinCentreCounty,butindividualstreamswerenotnamedinCommissioners’reports.Today,thisfacilitycovers15ha(37acres),usesabout0.20m3/s(3,100gpm)ofwater,andin2007,produced215,000fingerlingsandabout439,000one-yearandoldertroutthatweighedabout115,700kg (255,000lb).

Bellefonte State Fish Hatchery

In1933,theFishCommissionpurchased37haofland,whichwasdevelopedintoaproductionfacility.Thepropertyincludedalargespringand1.8kmofSpringCreek,whichisnow

knownasFisherman’sParadise.Thehatcheryconsistedoftwounits.TheUpperSpringCreekfacilitywasabout0.8kmupstreamofthepresentfacility.Initially,bothunitsconsistedofrearingpondsandhatchinghouses.Theupperunitnowhasfourextensivefishculturepondsthatareusedtorearseveralcoolwaterspecies.Thelowerunithas79raceways.Inthe2006-2007productioncycle,thisfacilityproduced10,000fingerlingsand574,000age-1andoldertroutthatweighed163,000kg,anditsaveragedischargewas0.26m3/s (4,175gpm).

The Benner Spring State Fish Hatchery in 2009.

Benner Spring Hatchery (modern)

Benner Spring State Fish Hatchery

A5.3hapropertyalongSpringCreekwasacquiredbytheFishCommissionin1951andwasdevelopedintoaproductionfacility.ThetractincludedtheBennerSpring,whichhadanoutputof0.44m3/s(7,000gpm).Thisfacilitynowrearsseveralcoolwaterspeciesandtrout.In2006-2007,thishatcheryproduced320,000fingerlingsandabout572,000age-1andoldertroutthatweighedabout156,000kg;averagedischargefromthefacilitywas0.35m3/s(5,500gpm).

photo by B. Niewinski


Fisherman’s Paradiseflieswithbarblesshookswerepermitted;useofweightswasnotpermitted,althoughinlateryearsthisrestrictionwaschangedtoallowamaximumweightequivalenttotwoBBsizeshot.Theminimumlengthlimitwas254mmonthemainstemand178mmontheladies’section.Anglerscouldcatch10trout,butonlytwocouldbeharvested(laterreducedtoone/day).Anglerswerelimitedtofivevisitsperyear.Toassistanglers,theCommissionemployedaninstructorincastingandflytying.

Thisinnovativeprogramprovedtoberathersuccessfuljudgingfromthenumberofanglerswhofishedthere.Thenumberofanglersincreasedfromnearly3,000in1934tomorethan20,000in1941(Table4,page74).Thesharpdeclineinanglersin1943wasattributedtoWorldWarII,butby1946,visitationincreasedtonearly22,000anddoubledto44,000by1952.Bytoday’sstandards,thisangleruserepresentsanenormousleveloffishingpressure,aswewilldiscussinasubsequentsection.Interestingly,catcheswerenothigh;theyrangedfrom0.8to2.6trout/anglertripandaveraged1.4trout/trip.Iftriplengthsaveragedthreehours,catchrateswerelessthan0.5trout/h,amodestcatchrateforaspeciallyregulatedfishery.

Perhapsthesizeofthetroutfueledanglerinterest.Meanweightofharvestedtrout

In1933,theFishCommissionpurchased37haoflandalongSpringCreekabout4.0kmnorthofBellefonte.Thetract,whichincluded1.8kmofSpringCreekandalargespring,waslabeledtheSpringCreekProjectwiththedualpurposeoffishculturalactivitiesanddemonstrationoftechniquestoimprovefishhabitat.Owingtotheexceptionalfishing,theprojectlaterbecameknownasFisherman’sParadise.C.A.French,CommissionerofFisheries,notedthat“During1932and1933,awaveofenthusiasmforstreamrestorationworksweptthroughtheCommonwealthofPennsylvania”andsportsmen“wereclamoringforadviceonmethodsofconstruction”(French1938).In1934,the

Commissioninstalled46structuresthatincludeddams,deflectors,andlogcovers.Toinducevisitationtotheproject,acontrolledfishingprogramwasdeveloped,anda275-mlongchannelwithhabitatstructureswasconstructedparalleltothemainchannelandwasrestrictedtofemaleanglers.Thestreamwasheavilystockedwithlargetrout,andanglersweresubjectedtoanovelsetofregulations.Anglerswererequiredtoregisteratacheck-instationandweregivenanidentificationbutton.Attheendoftheday,anglerscheckedoutandreportedtheircatch.The1938seasonranfromMay10toJuly9;fishingwaspermitteddailyfrom8:00AMto8:00PM,exceptonSunday.Onlyartificial

photo-PFBC archives

The Fisherman’s Paradise section of Spring Creek was famous for its large trout and heavy fishing pressure.


increasedovertheperiodofrecordandreachedasubstantialsizeof0.91kgin1952.Tosustainahightroutdensity,projectmanagerswerefeedingthefish,whichwouldhavehelpedtomaintainweightofstockedfishandpossiblybolsteredtheirgrowth.

Duringthe1961fishingseason,Fisherman’sParadisewasclosedtoanglingbecauseofpoorwaterquality,presumablyowingtoinadequatelytreatedwastewaterfromSCIRockview’swastewatertreatmentplant.Poorwaterqualityandthehighcostofoperatingtheprojectwerecitedasreasonsforchangingmanagementofthishistoricreachofstream(Trembley1963).InApril1962,theprojectwasconvertedtoa‘fish-for-fun’section,whichentailedflyfishingonlywithbarblesshooks,noharvest,andyear-roundangling.Theseregulationsremainineffecttoday,andthefisheryissustainedentirelybynaturalreproduction.

ExtensivesurveysoftheSpringCreekmainstembyE.L.Cooperin1958-1959(Appendix1,page81)and1966(Appendix2,page82),andsurveysbytheauthorsin2000(Appendix3,page83)provideagoodoverviewofthefishspeciescomposition.Duringthesesurveys,32speciesandonehybridwerecollected,butmostofthesespecieshavenotsustainedreproducingpopulations(Table1,page70).Elevenspeciesandonehybridwerecollectedonlyononeortwooccasions:Americaneel,northernpike,hybrid

photo by R. Criswell

Fish Community Composition and Biomass

muskellunge,centralstoneroller,goldfish,rosyfaceshiner,brownbullhead,redbreastsunfish,pumpkinseed,smallmouthbass,blackcrappie,andyellowperch.TheAmericaneel,centralstoneroller,smallmouthbass,blackcrappie,andyellowperchprobablymovedintoSpringCreekfromBaldEagleCreek,whiletheotherspecieswereintroducedorescapedfromculturefacilities.Coopercollectedseveralspeciesonlyin1966,butfromseverallocations:goldenshiner,spottailshiner,bluntnoseminnow,northernhogsucker,andlargemouthbass.Thewidespreaddistributionofsomeofthesespeciessuggeststhattheymayhavebeenreproducing,butperhapsforonlyafewyears.


The slimy sculpin is probably the most abundant fish species in Spring Creek, yet it is the least noticed.

Slimy Sculpin

Amongthe14specieswecollectedin2000,ninespeciesarebelievedtocontinuemaintainingreproducingpopulationsinthewatershed.DuringsurveysonSlabCabinRunin2005and2007,wecollectedfouradditionalspeciesthatseemtobereproducing:fatheadminnows,creekchubs,pearldace,andbandedkillifish.Browntrouthavebeencollectedthroughoutthewatershedandareclearlythemostabundantsalmonid.ReproducingbrooktroutpopulationspersistinGalbraithGapRun,twotributariestoSlabCabinRun,GapRun,andLoganBranch.SixspeciesarecommonthroughoutthemainstemofSpringCreek:cutlipsminnow,blacknosedace,longnosedace,whitesucker,tessellateddarter,andslimysculpin.Thecommoncarpwasfirstcollectedattwostationsin1966andatfourstationsin2000.Thoughnumbersofcommoncarphavebeenrathersmall,theirpersistenceanddistributionsuggestsatleastlimitedreproduction.

TheonlyestimatesofbiomassanddensityoftheentirefishcommunityinSpringCreekweredonebyE.L.Cooperandhisstudents.Theysampledthefishcommunitiesinaclean,apolluted,andarecoveringreachofSpringCreekin1966and1967.ThepollutionwascausedbythePSUwastewatertreatmentplant.Thethreereacheswere(1)Section4,thecleanreach,thenknownas

Neidigh’smeadow,whichisnowownedbyHansonAggregates,thelimestonequarrybetweenLemontandOakHall;(2)Section9,thepollutedreach,wassampledupstreamoftheBennerSpringHatcheryatthesiteknownasthe“Rock”;and(3)Section13,therecoveryreach,whichisimmediatelyupstreamofStateRoute550neartheoldRoopsburgMill.

Totalfishbiomassinthecleanreachwasanastounding1,252kg/ha(1,115lb/ac;Table5,page75).Biomassofbrowntroutwasrelativelyhigh(113kg/ha)comparedtotoday’sstandardsforwildtroutstreams,yetbrowntroutcomprisedonly9.1%ofthetotalfishbiomass.Whitesuckersaccountedfor60.5%ofthetotalbiomass,andslimysculpinsrankedsecondat23.3%ofthetotal.Numerically,slimysculpinsat>85,000/haaccountedfor63%ofallfishes.

Thepollutedreachsupportedaboutone-thirdofthebiomass

foundinthecleanreach,andwhitesuckersdominatedthecommunitybiomass.Morespecieswerefoundinthepollutedreachrelativetothecleanreach,butbrowntroutandslimysculpinswererepresentedbyonlyahandfulofspecimens.Wohnsiedler(1969)documentedlessthan2%survivalofbrowntrouteggsthatwereheldinhatchingboxesinthepollutedreach.

Therecoveryreachseemstohaveliveduptoitsname.Itsupportedthehighestnumberoffishspeciesandarelativelyhighfishbiomass,995kg/ha.Whitesuckersdominatedthecommunitybiomass,accountingfor86%ofthetotal,whilebrowntroutbiomass(74kg/ha)comprised7.5%ofthetotal.(Table5,page75)Slimysculpinsshowedanimprovementoverthepollutedsection,butstillrepresentedonlyabout10%ofthoseestimatedinthe cleanreach.

Wefoundonlyafewotherestimatesoffishbiomassthatwerenotrestrictedtosalmonids.McFadden(1961)estimatedthebiomassofbrowntroutandseveralotherspeciesinNeidigh’smeadow(Section4)in1958.Whitesuckers(306kg/ha)accountedforthelargestportionofthetotalbiomassandbrowntrout(65kg/ha)rankedsecond.Hedidnotattempttoestimatedensityorbiomassofslimysculpins,sothathistotalbiomassestimate(396kg/ha)iswellbelowthatofCooper’sestimatein1966.

The only estimates of biomass and density

of the entire fish community in Spring Creek were done by E. L. Cooper and his students in 1966/67.


Scherer(1965)comparedgrowthandfecundityofwhitesuckersinCedarRunandinareachofSpringCreeknearBennerSpring.Heestimatedbiomassofwhitesuckers>75mmlonginCedarRun,whereestimatesrangedfrom151to265kg/ha.Henotedthatabundanceofwhitesuckerswasrelatedtothenumberofpoolsinareach.GiventhatCedarRunisaboutone-halfthesizeofSpringCreekinSection4,wewouldexpectmoreandlargerpoolsinSpringCreekthaninCedarRun,hence,ahigherbiomassofwhitesuckers.BiomassofwhitesuckerswerealsoestimatedbyMercando(1971)andWilliams(1981),buteitherthesamplesiteswerenotclearlyidentifiedortheyearofsamplingwasnotspecified.

Theabove-citedstudiesprovideconvincingevidencethatbrowntrout,thoughtheyareusuallythefocusoffisheriesstudies,donotrepresentthelargestportionofthefishcommunitybiomass.Inunpollutedreaches,itislikelythatwhitesuckerswillcomprisethelargestportionofthefishbiomass,andslimysculpinswillbethemostnumerousspecies.

Contemporary Assessment MethodsMostofthepopulation

assessmentsthataresummarizedinthisbulletinwereconductedbypersonnelfromthePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission(PFBC)orthePennsylvaniaCooperativeFishandWildlifeResearchUnit(Unit).Methodsemployedbybothgroupsweresimilar.TroutpopulationswereusuallysampledinJulyorAugust,andsamplereachesrangedfromabout300to500mlong.Surveycrewsused220-V,DCelectrofishinggearmountedinasmallboatthatwastowedupstream.Mark-recapturemethodswereusuallyemployedtoestimatetroutnumbers.Troutcollectedduringtheinitialelectrofishingrunweregivenatemporaryfinclipandmeasuredtototallengthorenumeratedby25-mmlengthgroups.Asubsamplewasweighed,andfrequentlyscaleswerescrapedfromanareabetweenthelaterallineanddorsalfin.Scalesweresubsequentlymountedonmicroscopeslidesandexaminedat85-100xmagnificationtoestimateage.

WeusedtheChapmanmodificationofthePetersenformulatocomputeestimatednumbersandassumedaPoissondistributionwhencomputing

95%confidenceintervals(Ricker1975).Wecomputedseparateestimatesforage-0(<125mm)andforage-1andoldertrout,becauseofdifferences

incaptureefficiencies.Theestimatednumberoftroutwasthenapportionedamong10-or25-mmlengthintervalsonthebasisoftherelativenumberofcapturedfishineachlengthinterval.Meanweightsoftroutineachlengthintervalweremultipliedbytheestimatednumberoffishperintervaltocomputebiomass.

GrowthLength at Age

Wecollectedscalesfromabout15fishper25-mmintervalin1988toestimategrowthinlength.Wehaddifficultyusingscalestodetermineageofbrowntroutthatwerefouryearsorolder;hence,wetriedcollectingfinraysinhopesofobtainingmoreaccurateestimatesofage.Wecollecteda10-mmsectionfromthebaseofthepectoralfinray;mostofthesesamples

Trout populations were usually sampled in July and August, and sample reaches ranged from about 300 to 500 m long.


weretakenfromfish>250mm.DetailsforprocessingscalesandfinraysareprovidedinCarlineetal.(1991).

Seasonal Variation

Astudywasinitiatedin1992toinvestigatethepotentialeffectsofstreamtemperatureonseasonalgrowthofbrowntrout.FishsamplingsiteswereestablishedinstreamSections4,8,9,11,14,and15(Figure1,page53)withtheintentofhavingstreamsitesthatrepresentedtherangeofthermalregimensthroughoutSpringCreek.ThesitesampledinSection8wasimmediatelyupstreamoftheoutfallfromtheUAJAwastewatertreatmentplant,andsite9was800to1,400mdownstreamoftheoutfall.Thetreatmentplantwasofparticularinterestbecauseofanticipatedincreasesinthevolumeoftreatedwastewateranditspotentialeffectonstreamtemperature.Submersiblerecordingthermometers(RyanTempmentor)wereinstalledateachfishsamplingsite,andtemperaturewasrecordedhourly.

Fishsamplingsitesrangedfrom200to300minlength.BrowntroutwerecollectedinMarch,June,September,andDecemberfromSeptember1990toMarch1993.Alltroutweremeasured,andasubsamplewasweighed.Scaleswerecollectedfromasubsampleoftroutupto350mmlong.Age-0troutthatwerecapturedinJuneandSeptemberweregivena

permanentdistinctfincliptoidentifytheiryearclasswhencapturedinfuturesampling.PopulationdensityandbiomasswereestimatedinJulyandAugust1990andinSeptember1991and1992.Tocomparegrowthamongsectionsandseasons,wecomputeddailyinstantaneousgrowthrate(G)asG=(Loge(W1)-Loge(Wo))/t

Where,W1isthefinalmeanweightofacohort,Woistheinitialmeanweight,andtisthenumberofdaysintheinterval.

Redd SurveysWeconductedreddcounts

inSections1to16onnineoccasionsbetween1987and2005toobtainanindexofspawningeffort.ReddsurveyswereusuallyconductedfromNovember20to30.Apairofsurveyorswalkedtheentirelengthofasectionandcountedallredds.InadditiontoUnitandPFBCpersonnel,volunteersoccasionallyassistedinmakingcounts.Volunteersweregivenanorientationtohelpthemdistinguishbetweenexploratorydiggingbyfemaletroutandareaswhereeggswerelikelytohavebeendeposited.Whensurveyorsencounteredlargeareaswhereseveralfemaleshadprobablyspawned,theyestimatedthetotalnumberofreddsbyassumingthateachreddcoveredasurfaceareaof0.33m2.

Whilemonitoringselectedstreamreachesforspawningactivity,wenoticedthatcertainlocationswereusedforspawningyearafteryear.Theseobservationspromptedustodeterminethefrequencythatagivenspawningsitewasusedinconsecutiveyears.InNovember1988werandomlychose50reddsinSections7,8,9,and13.Ateachredd,wedrovenumberedmetalpinsintobothstreambanksonalinethatintersectedthereddandmeasuredthedistancefromoneofthepinstomiddleoftheredd.ThefollowingNovemberwereturnedtoeachsetofpinsanddeterminedthelocationofthepreviousyear’sredd.Ifanewreddwaswithin1mofthepreviousone,weconsideredthisareuseofthesite.

Angler SurveysThreeanglersurveyshave

beenconductedinthemiddlereachesofSpringCreek.Ingeneral,surveymethodsweresimilar.Instantaneousanglercountswereusedtoestimatefishingpressure,and,intwosurveys,anglerswereinterviewedtoestimatecatchrates.Hartzler(1977)conductedananglersurveyfromApril17toJune20,1976,ona4.8-kmreachfromtheBennerSpringHatcherydownstreamtoFisherman’sParadise,whichcorrespondstothedownstreamreachofSection9throughSection11.Thestudysectionhadbeenstockedwith6,268age-1andage-2hatchery-reared


trout,andthebulkofthelegalharvestwashatcherytrout.

UnitpersonnelconductedananglersurveyfromJune1toNovember30,1988,andfromMarch15toMay31,1989(Carlineetal.1991).Surveysectionsincludeda1.3-kmreachadjacenttotheBennerSpringHatcheryinSection9,theentire1.8-kmreachofSection12(Fisherman’sParadise),anda4.0-kmreachinSection13.LiketheHartzler(1977)survey,thissurveyincludedanglerinterviews,butno-harvestregulationswereineffectfortheentirestream.

Themostrecentanglersurveywasconductedfromopeningdayoftroutseason(April15)toJune30,2006.AnglercountsweremadebyUnitpersonnelandvolunteersurveyclerksonSections12and13.Anglerswerenotinterviewed;theprimarypurposeofthissurveywastodocumentpossiblechangesinfishingpressuresincethe1988-1989survey.

ResultsFisherman’s Paradise

1980-2000

ThedensityandbiomassofwildbrowntroutintheFisherman’sParadisesectionhasvariedwidelyovera21-yearperiod,despitemaintenanceofthesameno-harvestregulationandnostocking.Reproductivesuccess,whichhadbeenrathererraticinthissection,undoubtedlycontributedtosomeofthepopulationvariation.Numbersofage-0browntroutthatwerecollectedrangedfromoneto423/ha(Table6,page76).Estimatednumbersofage-1andolderbrowntroutvariedbynearly7-fold,andestimatedbiomassrangedfrom80to425kg/ha.Themagnitudeofthesepopulationvariationswassimilartothatofotherstreamsections,wherethebrowntroutpopulationalsopeakedin2000.

Main StemDensity and Biomass

ReproductivesuccessofbrowntroutthroughoutSpringCreekvariedgreatlyamongsectionsandyearsonthebasisofnumbersofage-0fishcapturedduringtheirfirstsummer(Table7,page77).Spatialvariationwithinyearwasgreatestin1980,owingtohighdensityinSection2andayearclassfailureinSections15and16,whichsupportedfewadultbrowntrout.Inthreeoffouryears,the

highestcatchesofage-0fishweremadeinSections2and4.Temporalvariationsincatchesofage-0fishexceededspatialvariations.AtSections4and16,thereweremorethan20-foldvariationsamongyears.Mediancatchesamongallstationsrangedfrom51in2006to332in2000.

Spatialandtemporalfluctuationsinreproductivesuccessareprobablylinkedtonumbersofmaturefemalesandenvironmentalconditionsfromtimeofspawninguntilthefishes’firstsummeroflife.BeardandCarline(1991)foundpositiverelationsbetweennumbersofmaturefemalesandnumbersofredds,andbetweennumbersofreddsanddensityofage-0fish.Becausewedonothaveestimatesofthenumberofmaturefemalesthatproducedtheyearclassesinquestion,wecannotspecificallyaddressthisquestion.Inasubsequentsectionweexaminetrendsinnumbersofreddsandbrowntroutdensity.

Spatialandtemporalvariationsindensityofage-1andolderbrowntroutweresimilartothoseforage-0fish.Spatialvariationwasgreatestin1980owingtolowadultdensitiesinSections15and16(Table7,page77).Temporalvariationswerealsohighestinthesetwosections.Acrosssections,


mediandensityrangedfrom301to1,172/ha;fouroffivesectionsreachedtheirhighestdensityin2000.Withinandamongyearvariationsindensitywerehighlycorrelated(r2=0.85)withbiomassofage-1andolderbrowntrout.

Changesinbiomassofage-1andolderbrowntroutamongstationswereratherconsistentfrom1980to2006(Figure7,page59).Biomassincreasedfrom1980to1988,andrathermarkedlyinsomesections.Biomasscontinuedtoincreasein2000andthendeclinedby2006.Carlineetal.(1991)concludedthattheincreaseinbrowntroutfrom1980to1988wasrelatedtothecombinedeffectsofcessationofstockingandtheimpositionofno-harvestregulationsin1982.Itisconceivablethatcessationofstockingoreliminationofharvestalonecouldhavecontributedtotheresurgenceofwildbrowntrout.Severalstudies(e.g.,Bachman1984;Vincent1987)haveshownthatstockingcatchable-sizetroutcannegativelyinfluencewildresidenttrout.And,highfishingpressuretogetherwithharvest-orientedanglingandliberalharvestregulationsinSpringCreekcouldhavecontributedtodepressednumbersofwildtrout.Itisuncertainifthesemanagementchangeswererelatedtothecontinuedincreaseinbiomassofwildbrowntroutfrom1988to2000.Thereafter,biomassdecreasedinallsixsectionsforwhichwehavecomparabledata.

Weexaminedseasonalandannualstreamflowtodetermineifthedeclineintroutabundancefrom2000to2006mightbeflow-related.Annualmeandailyflowsfor3-yearand6-yearperiodspriortothe2000and2006estimatesdidnotsuggestanylargedeparturesfromtheaverage.WealsoexaminedflowsduringtheMarchtoJuneperiodforuptofouryearspriortothetwoestimates.Thisperiodwasofparticularinterest,becauseCarline(2006)showedthathighflowsduringthisperiodwererelatedtohighmortalityofadultbrowntroutinneighboringSpruceCreek.Nonetheless,averagedailyflowsduringMarchtoJuneforuptofouryearspriortoestimateswerenotrelatedtopopulationchanges.

Wethenexaminedhighflowevents,becauseCarline(1994)foundhighmortalityofstockedrainbowtroutandwildbrowntroutinSection9followingtwolargestormsinApril1993,whenflowsatMilesburgpeakedat43.6m3/s(1,540cfs)and45.3m3/s(1,600cfs).Thenumberofdaysinwhichstreamflowexceeded42.5m3/s(1,500cfs)theyearofandthreeyearspriortopopulationestimatesweretwodaysin1977-1980,nonein1985-1988,onein1997-2000,andtwoin2003-2006.Amongallofthesepeaks,thehighestwas125m3/s(4,420cfs)onSeptember18,2004,theresultofheavy

rainsfromHurricaneIvan.Thiswasthesecondhighestflowonrecord(since1972)forthissite.Conceivably,thepeakf lowonSeptember18,andaf lowof48.1m3/s(1,700cfs)thefollowingdayresultedinmortalityoremigrationofbrowntrout.Moreextensiveinvestigationsareneededtorevealpossiblecause-and-effectrelationshipsbetweenextremeflowsandtroutmortality.

Size Structure

Dataforage-1andolderbrowntroutfromSections4,13,and15illustratetypicalsizestructuresintheupper,middle,andlowerreachesofSpringCreekfromOakHalltoMilesburg.Since1982,thesesectionshavehadthesameno-harvestandno-lurerestrictionregulation.Unlikebrowntroutdensity,sizestructureatthesethreesectionsdidnotvarygreatlyamongyears(Figure8,page60).InSection4(meanwidth=10.6m;0.7m3/s(25cfs)),thelargestproportionoffishwasusuallyinthe200to250mmlengthinterval.InSection13(meanwidth=19.5m;1.7m3/s(60cfs))andinSection15(meanwidth=14.5m;4.3m3/s(152cfs)),thelargestproportionoffishwasinthe250to299mmlengthinterval.Typically,numbersofbrowntrout>350mmlongwererelativelysmall.InSections4and13,fish>350mmlongaccountedfor2.4%ofallage-1andoldertrout,andinSection15theyaccountedfor4.4%acrossallfourcensusyears.


Browntroutthatare>457mm(18in)and>508mm(20in)longseemtobethemostprizedsizesforanglers.In2000,wesampled12sectionsofSpringCreekbetweenOakHallandMilesburg,includingFisherman’sParadise,andmeasured5,903age-1andolder(>150mm;6in)browntrout.Amongthesefish,eightwere>457mmlongandonlyonewas>508mmlong.AlthoughSpringCreeksupportslargenumbersofbrowntrout,thehighlyprizedlargefisharerelativelyscarce.

Length at Age

Weselecteddatafrom1988toillustratevariationsinlengthofage-0toage-4browntroutamongsections.Lengthofage-0fishvariedamongsections,butdidnotchangeconsistentlyfromupstreamtodownstreamsections(Figure9,page61).Meanlengthsofage-1toage-4fishtendedtoincreaseinthedownstreamdirection,butdifferencesinlengthwerenotlarge.Themaximumdifferenceinlengthamongsectionsforage-2fishwas11.2%,anditwasonly5.5%forage-4fish.Differencesinmeanlengthamongsectionswerenotrelatedtodifferencesinbrowntroutdensity.Among11sectionssampledin1988,densityofage-1andolderbrowntroutrangedfrom310to1,304/haandbiomassrangedfrom104to245kg/ha.Despitetheselargevariationsindensityandbiomass,wefoundnosignificantrelationshipsbetweengrowth

anddensityorbiomass(Carlineetal.1991).

MeanlengthatageforbrowntroutamongallstationsinSpringCreekin1980and1988wasrathersimilartothestatewideaverageforbrowntroutcollectedinlimestonestreams(Figure10,page62).Theonlydeviationfromthistrendwasforage-2fishfrominSpringCreekin1980;theywere15%shorterthanthestatewideaverage.Forbrowntroutofallotherages,meanlengthsofthoseinSpringCreekwere+5%ofthestatewideaverage.

Spatiotemporal Variations in Growth

Amongthesixsitesthatweresampledquarterlyin1990-1992,browntrouttendedtogrowfastestinSection11(Figure11,page63),whichislocatednearthemiddleoftheentirestudyreach,andtheytendedtogrowslowestinSection4,whichisneartheupperendofthestudyreach.Growthofbrowntroutdidnotvaryconsistentlyamongtheotherfoursamplingsites.Seasonalvariationsingrowthweresimilaramongsites.Instantaneousgrowthwashighestduringthespringmonths(March-April),andofthetotalannualinstantaneousgrowth,aboutone-halfoccurredduringthisperiod(Figure12,page64).Browntroutgrewatapproximatelythesamerateduringtheotherthreesamplingperiods.

Weusedsimpleregressionanalysestodetermineiftroutdensityorwatertemperaturemightexplaindifferencesingrowthamongsites.Meanweightsofage-0browntroutinSeptemberrangedfromabout9to20gamongsitesfrom1990to1992andwereinverselyrelatedtothecatchrateofage-0ateachsite(Figure13,page65).Meanweightswerenotrelatedtodensityorbiomassofage-1andoldertroutnorweretheyrelatedtomeanwatertemperatureduringthesummermonths.Wethencorrelatedinstantaneousgrowthratesofage-0andage-1browntroutduringthefall,winter,spring,andsummerperiodstotroutdensityandstreamtemperature.Noneofthecorrelationsweresignificant(P>0.05).Therefore,amongsites,variationsingrowthofage-0troutduringtheirfirstsummeroflifecouldbepartlyexplainedbydensityofage-0trout,butthereafter,neithertroutdensitynorstreamtemperatureaccountedfordifferencesingrowthamongsites.

Wecomputedmedianinstantaneousgrowthrateamongsitesforeachcohortandcomparedthesevaluestostreamtemperatureanddischargetodetermineifthesevariablesmightexplaindifferencesingrowthrateamongyears.Differencesingrowthratesofage-1andage-2browntroutduringspring1991and1992werenotconsistent,anddifferenceswerenotlarge,i.e.,<20%(Figure12,page64).


Brown Trout

photo by J. Detar

Meandailydischarges(6.7and8.3m3/s;237and293cfs)andmeanstreamtemperatures(10.7and13.9oC)weresimilarduringspring1991and1992;hence,it isnotsurprisingthattherewerenosubstantialdifferencesingrowthratesbetweenyears.Becausegrowthofbrowntroutishighestbetween10and15oC(Elliott1994),onewouldexpectgrowthtobehighestduringthespring,providedthatfoodsupplieswereadequate.

Growthrateofage-1troutduringsummer1991wasabout50%slowerthanin1992,andgrowthrateofage-2troutinsummer1991waslessthanone-halfofthatin1992.Mean

dailydischargesduringthetwosummerswerenearlyequal(4.2and4.3m3/s;147vs.153cfs),butmeandailystreamtemperatureswerewarmerin1991thanin1992(18.2vs.17.2oC).Iffoodsuppliesweresimilar,onewouldexpectslowergrowthin1991thanin1992onthebasisofenergybudgetsdevelopedbyElliott(1994).Maximumdailystreamtemperaturesmayalsobeimportant.Elliott(1994)definedtheuppercriticalrangeofbrowntroutas19to30oC.Whentemperaturesexceed19oC, browntroutceasefeedingIn1991,dailymaximumtemperatureinSection11,

wheregrowthwashighest, was>20oCon67daysfromJunethroughAugust,whilethistemperaturewasexceededon34daysin1992.Thus,bothmeandailyandmaximumdailytemperaturessuggestthatthethermalconditionsforgrowthwerelessfavorablein1991thanin1992.

Itispossiblethatlowergrowthrateduringsummer1991relativetosummer1992wasrelatedtodifferencesintroutbiomass.In1991,meantroutbiomasswasabout17%higher(163vs.136kg/ha)thanin1992.Ifthesedifferencesinbiomassinfluencedgrowth,onemightexpectgrowthdifferencesduring

The brown trout was introduced to the watershed in the late 1800s and now occupies the entire main stem and much of the tributaries of Spring Creek.


thespringperiod,yetgrowthduringspring1991andspring1992wassimilar.Thus,itdoesnotseemlikelythatdifferencesinbiomassin1991and1992accountedfordifferencesinsummergrowth.

Growthratesofage-0andage-1troutinfall1990andfall1991weresimilar(<10%difference),whileage-2trouthadasmallnegativegrowthratein1991andasmallpositivegrowthratein1992(Figure12,page64).Growthratesduringtheensuingwinterperiodssuggestedsomebetween-yeardifferences.Instantaneousgrowthratesofage-0troutinwinter1990weretwicethatin1991.Growthratesofage-1(+14%)andage-2(+23%)troutwerealsofasterinwinter1991comparedto1992.Thewinterof1990waswarmerandwetterthanin1991.MeandailystreamtemperatureinSection11was6.3oCin1990comparedto5.0oCin1991,andmeandailydischargewas9.5m3/s(335cfs)inwinter1990comparedto4.2m3/s(148cfs)in1991.Increasedstreamflowshouldincreaseavailablehabitatfortroutandpossiblyenhanceinvertebratedrift,whilewarmertemperatureswouldfavorincreasedgrowth.

Overall,troutdensitydidnotseemtoinfluencegrowth,exceptforage-0troutduringtheirfirstspringandsummeroflife;thereafter,watertemperaturebestaccountedforamong-seasonandbetween-yeardifferences.Muchoftheannualgrowthoccurredduringspringmonths

whentemperaturesweremostfavorable.Warmsummertemperaturesseemedtoretardgrowth,whileabove-averagetemperaturesduringwinterenhancedgrowth.

Reproduction

In1987and1988,BeardandCarline(1991)conductedthefirstcomprehensivereddsurveysonSpringCreek,fromMilesburgtoBoalsburg,adistanceof32km.Theyfoundrelativelyhighnumbersofreddsintheupper(Sections1-6)andlower(Sections12-16)reachesofthestreamandlownumbersinthemiddlereach.Embryosurvivalwasalsolowestinthemiddlereach.Weresumedreddsurveysin1997andcontinuedthemuntil2005,thoughhigh,turbidwaterconditionsforcedcancellationofsurveysin2001and2003.OurmotivationformonitoringredddistributionswastodetermineifriparianrestorationprojectsintheSlabCabinandCedarRunsub-basinsmighthavecontributedtoreducedsedimentloadingandimprovedspawningconditionsforbrowntrout.Inaddition,wewantedtocontinuemonitoringreddnumbers,becauseBeardandCarline(1991)showedthatbrowntroutdensityamongsectionswaspositivelyrelatedtoreddnumbers;hence,reddcountsshouldserveasasurrogateforpopulationestimates.

Totalreddcountsrangedfrom764to2,077andaveraged1,392from1987to2005(Appendix4,page84).Intheupperstreamreach,annualreddcountstendedtoberathervariable,andtherewasnolong-termtrend;theannualaveragecountwas33redds/km(Figure14,page66).Reddcountsinthemiddlereachincreasedmarkedly.In1987and1988,wecountedanaverageof8redds/km.From1997to2005,reddcountsrangedfrom31to60/kmandaveraged45redds/km.ReddcountsinthelowerreachofSpringCreekshowedasteadyincreasefrom1987to2005,andtheoverallaveragewas54/km.ThesedatasuggestthatspawningefforthasincreasedinSpringCreek,withthemostnotableincreasesoccurringinthemiddlereach.

Femalebrowntroutconstructedreddsinlocationswheremeanvelocitywasabout35cm/s(1.1ft/s),depthwasabout28cm,andsubstratesizerangedfromcoarsesandtogravel(4to64mmindiameter;BeardandCarline1991).Certainlocationsseemedtobeparticularlyattractive,becausedifferentfemaleswereobservedspawningatthesamelocationoveraperiodofseveralweeks.Whenwerandomlyselected50redds,markedthem,andreturnedthefollowingyear,newlyconstructedreddswerefoundat52%ofthemarkedsites.Thishighrateofsitereuse,suggeststhathabitatfeaturesofthesesitesarenotchanginggreatlyfromyear-to-year,


whichisconsistentwithourobservationsthatlocationsofriffles,runs,andpoolschangeverylittle,evenaftermajorstormevents.

Recreational Fishery

ThesuspensionofstockingandharvestafterthediscoveryofkeponeandmirexinfishhadprofoundeffectsontherecreationalfisheryinSpringCreek.MuchofSpringCreekhadbeenheavilystockedwithhatchery-rearedtroutthroughoutthe1960sanduntil1977,when21,650werestocked.Numbersoftroutstockedwerereducedtoaboutone-thirdin1978,andthestreamwaslaststockedwith4,900troutin1981.Hartzler’s(1977)studyin1976presumablyreflectedthenatureofthisfisherywhenthestreamwasheavilystocked(Table8,page78).InthereachfromBennerSpringtoFisherman’sParadise,hedocumentedheavyanglingpressureinApril(1,551h/ha),decliningrapidlyinJune(354h/ha).Catchratesdeclinedfrom0.25to0.14trout/h,andharvestdeclinedfrom129trout/hainAprilto12/hainJune,withhatcherytroutcomprisingnearlytheentireharvest.

By1988,sevenyearsafterstockinginthisreachhadbeensuspendedandno-harvestregulationshadbeenineffectforsixyears,numbersofwildbrowntrouthadincreased,although40%ofthetroutinthisreachappearedtobehatchery-reared;presumably,theywereescapeesfromtheBennerSpring

Hatchery.FishingpressurefromApriltoJuneduringthe1988-1989surveyinSection9wassubstantiallylessthanin1976(500vs.1,295angler-h/ha/30d).FishingpressurefromJulytoNovember1988wasmoderatelyhigh,rangingfrom122to641angler-h/ha.Thus,whentroutwerestockedandharvestwaslegalin1976,fishingpressurewasintenseoverashortperiodoftime,whilein1988-1989,whencatch-and-releaseregulationswereineffect,fishingpressurewasmuchlowerthanin1976,butitwassustainedthroughoutthe8.5-monthsurveyperiod.

Theothermajordifferencesbetweenresultsfromthesetwosurveyswerethecatchrateandtotalcatchoftrout(Hartzler1977).Despitehighstockingratesin1976,catchratesoftroutwereratherlow(0.22/h;Table8,page78),whilecatchratesin1988-1989werequitehigh(1.25/h).Differencesincatchratesdonotseemdirectlyrelatedtodifferencesintroutdensity.Onopeningdayofthetroutseasonin1976,stockedtroutandwildtrout(6%ofthetotal)amountedto915/kmandfourin-seasonstockingsadded445trout/km.Duringthisperiod,dailycatchratesneverexceeded0.55trout/h.Incontrast,troutdensityinSection9was1,022/kminJuly1988,andcatchratefortheentirecensusperiodwasmore

thantwiceashighasthehighestdailycatchrate(ca.0.52)in1976.Hartzler(1977)estimatedthat77%ofthestockedtroutwereharvestedin1976;hence,continualremovalsoftroutwouldhaveoperatedtolowertroutdensityand,presumably,reducecatchrates.Theno-harvestregulationin1988-1989wouldhavehelpedtopreservethehighdensityoftroutandallowsustainedhighcatchratesthroughoutthefishingseason.

TheexcellentfisheryinSection9in1988-1989wasmirroredfartherdownstream.FishingpressureatFisherman’sParadise(Section12)wascomparabletothatinSection9,butcatchrateswerelowerinSection12thaninSection9.Bothsectionsareentirelyonpubliclandandaccessisgood;hence,similarfishingpressureatbothsectionsisnotsurprising.Differencesincatchratesmayberelatedtodifferingregulations.InSection9,therewerenorestrictionsonterminaltackle,andbaitanglersaccountedfor52%ofthetotalfishingpressure.Baitanglershadcatchratesof1.34trout/h,comparedto1.17trout/hforanglersusingartificialfliesorlures.OnlyartificialflieswithbarblesshookswerepermittedatFisherman’sParadise,wherecatchratesaveraged0.77trout/h.TroutdensitymayhavealsoinfluencedcatchratesinSections9and12.Densityofage-1andoldertroutinSection9was24%higherthaninSection12(664vs.504/ha).Whilebothangling


methodandtroutdensitymayhaveinfluencedcatchrate,giventheavailabledata,wecannotseparatetherelativeimportanceofthesetwovariables.

FishingpressureonSection13wassubstantiallylowerin1988-1989thanintheupstreamsections,probablybecauseofaccess.AllriparianlandalongSection13wasinprivateownership;mostofthestreamwasopentoangling,buttherewerefewparkingareas.Wesuspectthatthislackofaccesswastheprimaryreasonfortherelativelylowfishingpressure.Thissectionsupportedahighdensityofwildbrowntrout(1,076/ha),andcatchrateswerecorrespondinglyhigh–1.29trout/h.

Theroleofaccessinaffectingfishingpressurewasapparentfromresultsofthe2006anglersurvey.In2001,thePFBCpurchased47haoflandalongSpringCreekthatincluded3.7kmofstreamfrontage.PFBCpersonnelconstructedfourparkingareasalongSection13andonealongSection12.DuringtheApril-Juneperiods,fishingpressurein2006was159%higherthanin1988-1989.PartofthisincreaseinfishingpressuremayhavealsoresultedfromincreasednotorietyoftheSpringCreekfishery.Forthesesameperiods,fishingpressureatFisherman’sParadiseincreasedby87%.WedidnotsurveySection9in2006,becausetheparkingavailabilityattheShilohRoadaccesswasmuchreduced

owingtoaclosedbridge.Despitethepooraccess,basedonourobservations,fishingpressureseemedtobeconsistentlyhighinSection9,inthevicinityoftheBennerSpringStateFishHatchery.

ToputthefishingpressureonSpringCreekintoperspective,wecancompareittootherwildtroutstreamsinthestate.ThePFBCsurveyedanglersonwildtroutstreamsin2004fromopeningday(April17)untilSeptember3.Streamsweredividedintotwosizecategories:thoselessthan6mwideandthosewiderthan6m,whichincludedSpringCreek.Theestimatedfishingpressureforstreamsinthe>6mwidthclasswas148angler-hr/km(Greeneetal.2006).AnglingeffortonSections12and13ofSpringCreekin2006rangedfrom4,344to5,063angler-hr/km.Hence,thesurveyedreachesinSpringCreekhad29to34timesmorefishingpressurethanlargestreamsstatewide,eventhoughtheSpringCreekcensusdidnotincludedatafromJulyandAugust.ThisextremelyhighfishingpressurecanbeattributedtoSpringCreek’slong-recognizedreputationasanexcellentfishery,specialregulationsthattendtoraiseanglerexpectations,andrelativelygoodpublicaccess.

TributariesLogan Branch

LoganBranchisthelargesttributarytoSpringCreek,accountingforaboutone-thirdofthetotalflow.ItoriginatesonNittanyMountain,flowsforabout1km,andthenentersasmallimpoundmentonSCIRockviewproperty.LoganBranchthenflowsthroughMcBrideGapand,uponreachingthevalleyfloor,muchoftheflowpercolatesthroughthestreamsubstratum.FlowincreasessubstantiallyasthestreampassesalongsidethePleasantGapHatchery,wherespringsanddischargefromthehatcheryenter.AsthestreamflowsnorthwesttowardsBellefonte,severalspringsaugmentflow,particularlytheAxemannSpring,whichisusedasadomesticwatersupplyanddischargesabout0.13m3/s(4.52cfs;Fultonetal.2005).

WaterqualityinLoganBranchhasbeenproblematicformanyyears.Ironforgesandotherindustriespolluteditinthe1800s.Anumberoffishkillsandcontaminatedfishhavebeenattributedtoformermetalprocessingplants:TitanMetalManufacturingCo.,thenCerroMetalProducts,and,morerecently,BoltonMetalProducts,whichclosedin2008.TheupperreachofLoganBranchhadelevatedlevelsofleadthatoriginatedfromtheCorning-AsahiplantinPleasantGap.Theplantclosedin2003.DischargefromthePleasantGapHatchery


hasoccasionallynotmetitspermitteddischargelimits.Apartialrecirculationsystemthatusesmicroscreendiskfilterswasinstalledin2007,andthissystemhasreducedsuspendedsolidsinthehatcherydischargebymorethan50%.Withrecentindustryclosuresandimprovedtreatmentofhatcherydischarges,weanticipatethatwaterqualitythroughoutLoganBranchwillbesubstantiallybetterthanithasbeeninmanyyears.

WildbrooktroutarecommoninupperLoganBranchabovethereservoirontheSCIRockviewproperty.Oncethestreamreachesthevalleyfloor,brooktroutdisappear,andwildbrowntroutareabundant.LoganBranchwasstockedwithtroutuntil1997andhasbeenmanagedforwildtroutasaClassAstreamsince1998.Duringa2000survey,PFBCpersonnelestimatedtherewas237kg/haofbrowntroutatRK4.3and201kg/haatthesamesitein1998.Thestreamisopentopublicfishingalongmuchofitsbanks,anditismanagedundergeneralstatewidetroutanglingregulations.

Gap Run

GapRun,atributarytoLoganBranch,originatesonNittanyMountainashortdistancefromPleasantGap,whereitreachesthevalleyfloorandentersasinkhole.PFBCpersonnelsampledGapRunduring2008anddocumentedarobustbrooktroutpopulationatRK0.43.Thepresenceofadensebrooktrout

populationinthisstreamwassomewhatsurprising,giventhehighlevelsofdisturbancethatoccurredduringthewideningofStateRoute144duringthe1980sanditscloseproximitytomuchofthestream.Nonetheless,thepresenceofanexcellentbrooktroutpopulationindicatessustainedgoodwaterqualityandmayprovidesomeinsightastothecaliberofbrooktroutpopulationsthatSpringCreekanditshard-watertributariesmayhavehistoricallysupported.

Buffalo Run

BuffaloRunoriginatesonBaldEagleMountain.ConstructionofInterstateHighway99hasleadtopollutionoftheupperreachofBuffaloRunandisdiscussedinmoredetailinafollowingsection.Thestreamflowsabout1.8kmfromtheridgetothevalleyfloor,wherealargepartoftheflowpercolatesintothegroundwater.Thestreamregainssomeflowabout2kmdownstreamnearWaddle.Fartherdownstream,itagainlosesflownearFillmore,andregainsflowasitapproachesBellefonte.Waterqualityhasbeenmonitoredregularlysince1999atRK1.1andRK12.8(WRMC2006).Atthesetwosites,nitrateshavebeenlessthan2.0mg/L,orthophosphatehasbeenbelowdetectionlimits,andtotalsuspendedsolidshaverangedfrom7to14mg/L,whichisneartheaverageforallsitesinthewatershed.

NobrooktrouthavebeenfoundintheBuffaloRunwatershedinrecentyears,andbrowntroutarecommon.DuringthemostrecentsurveybyPFBCpersonnelconductedin2002,browntroutbiomasswas78kg/haatRK6.0.

Slab Cabin Run

SlabCabinRunoriginatesonTusseyMountain,ashortdistancefromPineGroveMills,whereitreachesthevalleyfloor.LikeBuffaloRun,SlabCabinRunis“perched,”thatis,thebottomofthestreamchannelisabovethegroundwatertable.Thisconditionresultsinmovementofwaterthroughthestreamsubstrateintothegroundwater.Duringwetperiods,thislossofwaterisnotevident,butduringdryperiods,longreachesofSlabCabinRunaredry.Theentirelowerone-halfofthestreamissubjecttodewateringuntilThompsonRunentersjustbeforeSlabCabinRunjoinsSpringCreek.WaterqualityinSlabCabinRunhasimprovedsinceriparianrestorationprojectswerecompletedinthe1990s(CarlineandWalsh2007).In2006,totalsuspendedsolidsandnutrientsweresimilartomostothersurfacewatersinthewatershed(WRMC2006).

NobrooktroutwerecollectedintheextremeupperreachesofSlabCabinRunin2008.WecollectedbrooktroutintwotributariestoSlabCabinRunin2008:RoaringRunandanunnamedtributarythatflows


An adult Spring Creek brown trout.

throughMusserGap.BrowntroutwerefoundneartheRoute26bridge,andtheyoccurfromthatpointdownstreamtoSpringCreek.Theseniorauthorhasbeenmonitoringfishpopulationsatfoursitessince1991.NumbersofbrowntroutinMayrangedfrom0to35/100mandaveraged7.8/100m.Samplingstationswithfewornotroutwerethosesubjectedtodewateringduringsummer.Amongallstations,densitieswerehighestafterseveralconsecutivewetyears.Clearly,thelowtroutdensityinSlabCabinRunisattributabletoinadequateyear-roundstreamflow.

Galbraith Gap Run

GalbraithGapRunarisesonTusseyMountainintheRothrockStateForest,anduponleavingtheforest,flowsashortdistancethroughsuburbandevelopmentandintoSpringCreek.Thestreammaintainsastrongyear-roundflow,whichusuallyexceedstheflowofSpringCreekatitsconfluence.Waterqualityofthestreamasitleavestheforestisquitegood;totalsuspendedsolids

andnutrientsarewellbelowtheaverageforthewatershed(Godwin2006;WRMC2006).Juvenileandadultbrooktroutrangefromcommontoabundantintheforestedsectionofthestream.DuringthemostrecentsurveybyPFBCpersonnelconductedin1999,brooktroutbiomasswas46kg/haatRK2.8.Amongthefiveheadwaterstreamsthatstillsupportbrooktrout,GalbraithGapRunistheonlyonethatdoesnotdisappearintothestreamchannelorasinkhole.EventhoughtherearenobarrierstobrowntroutmovementintoGalbraithGap,browntrouthavenotdisplacedbrooktrout.

Upper Spring Creek

UpperSpringCreekarisesinthevalleyfloorfromafewsmallspringsandflowsabout6kmuntilitisjoinedbyGalbraithGapRun.Thisupperreachresemblesanephemeralstreamindryyears.AfterGalbraithGapRunenters,SpringCreekflowsabout1kmandthenbeginstolosewater.Duringdrysummers,thechannelthrough

Boalsburgmaybecompletelydewatered.WhenSpringCreekisabout500mfromitsjunctionwithCedarRun,severallargespringsenterandyear-roundflowisrestored.Thislargeinputofgroundwaterhelpstomaintaingoodwaterqualityandmoderatestreamtemperatures(WRMC2006).Thislower500mofSpringCreeksupportsadensepopulationofwildbrowntrout;inNovember2006,biomasswas181kg/haanddensitywas76trout/100m.

Cedar Run

CedarRunarisesinthevalleyfloorfromlimestonesprings,asdoesitsmajortributary,MackeyRun.Unlikemostotherfirstandsecondorderstreamsinthewatershed,CedarRundoesnotseemtolosewater.Riparianrestorationprojectsinthewatershedwereeffectiveinreducingsedimentloading,butnitrateconcentrationshavebeenconsistentlyhigherthanatmonitoringstationsatallothertributariesandthemainstemofSpringCreek.Since1992,meandensityofage-1andolderbrowntroutatfoursamplingsiteshasbeen38/100m.


photo-PFBC Archives

photo by Toby Talbot/AP


Threats from Invasive Species

SpringCreek,likemanystreamsintheeasternUSA,isvulnerabletocolonizationbynonnativeinvasivespecies.TheformerMcCoy-LinndambetweenMilesburgandBellefonte,andthedamatTalleyrandParkinBellefontehaveservedasupstreambarrierstofishes,yetintentionalorunintentionalintroductionsofnonnativefishesremainsaseriousthreat.Inaddition,SpringCreekisvulnerabletoinvasionbypotentiallyharmfulplantsandinvertebrates.Here,wefocusontwopotentialinvaders,thediatomDidymospheniageminata,asingle-celledalga,theNewZealandmudsnailPotamopyrgusantipodarum,andonarecentinvader,therustycrayfishOrconectesrusticus.Thereareotherpotentialinvaders,butthesewillservetoillustratethepossiblydevastatingeffectsofinvasivespeciesonthecurrentfishandinvertebratecommunitiesinSpringCreek.

Thesingle-celleddiatom,Didymospheniageminata,ismicroscopicinsize,yetitproduceslong,branchedstalksthatcanformmatsasthickas20cm(SpauldingandElwell2007).ThisdiatomisnativetoNorthAmerica,Europe,andAsia,andhasrecentlybeenintroducedinNewZealand.Historically,ithadbeenfoundinlow-nutrientwatersinnortherly

latitudes.Inrecentyearsithasexpandeditsrangeintothewesternstatesandismovingeastward.InNewYork,itspresencehasbeendocumentedintheBattenKillneartheVermontborderandintheEastBranchandWestBranchoftheDelawareRiverandinthemainstembetweenNewYorkandPennsylvania(NYDEC2009).Tothesouth,Didymosphenia hasbeenfoundintheGunpowderRiverinMaryland(MDDNR2009).IthasbeenfoundinhighnutrientwatersatoraboveapHof7,andhighdensitybloomsfrequentlyoccurincoldtailwatersbelowdams(SpauldingandElwell2007).

WhenDidymosphenia developslargebloomsandproducesthickmats,itcangreatlyalterthebenthicmacroinvertebratecommunity.LarsonandCarreiro(2007)foundareductionindensityanddiversityofmayflies,caddisflies,andstonefliesinRapidCreek,SouthDakota,whenDidymospheniadevelopedlargeblooms.Theyalsonotedreductionsinbrowntroutnumbers,thoughthiscouldhavebeenrelatedtoreducedstreamflows.Thesenuisancebloomscanalsonegativelyaffectanglersandotherrecreationists.

TheNewZealandmudsnailwasintroducedinthewesternUSAin1987andhas

Didymosphenia geminata, a single-celled alga.

beenspreadingeast(BensonandKipp2009).Thissmall(usually4-6mm)snailhasbeenfoundintheGreatLakes,includingeasternLakeErieandLakeOntarioinNewYork.Ithasbeenfoundinriversandlakeswithawiderangeofenvironmentalconditions,anditcanattaindensitiesofseveralthousandpersquaremeter.Athighdensities,itcandominatemacroinvertebrateproduction(Keransetal.2005;Hall2006).IntheGreenRiver,Utah,browntroutandrainbowtroutwithmudsnailsintheirgutshadlowerconditionfactorsthanthosetroutwithoutmudsnailsintheirguts(VinsonandBaker2008).Theseauthorsalsoshowedthatwhenrainbowtroutwerefedexclusivelymudsnailstheylostweightandmorethan50%ofthesnailspassedthroughthetroutalive.

WebelievethatbothDidymospheniaandNewZealandmudsnailscanliveinSpringCreekandpotentiallyincreasetonuisancelevels.Bothoftheseorganismscannegativelyaffectthemacroinvertebratecommunities

thatlargelysupportthewildbrowntroutinthemainstemandbrooktroutinsomeheadwatertributaries.Gatesetal.(2007)foundthatasubstantialamountofsedimentwasattachedtoanglers’wadersandfelt-solebootsandcouldbereadilytransportedamongwatersheds.TheseobservationssuggestthatbothDidymospheniaandmudsnailscanbespreadbyanglers.Becauseofthewidespreaddistributionoftheseorganisms,anglersneedtodisinfecttheirwadinggearafterfishinginotherwatershedsbothinstateandoutofstate.

TherustycrayfishisnativetotheupperMidwestandwasfirstdiscoveredinPennsylvaniainthemid-1970s(Bouchardetal.2007).Sincethenithasspread

throughoutthesoutheasternpartoftheCommonwealthandisfirmlyestablishedintheDelaware,Potomac,andSusquehannariverbasins,whereitisoftenveryabundant(Bouchardetal.2007;Liebetal.2007).Thislarge,aggressivespeciescanattaindensities

inexcessof200/m2(RothandKitchell2005),itusuallydisplacesnativespecies(Lodgeetal.2000),andcansuppressbenthicmacroinvertebratecommunitiesthroughitsforagingactivities(Nyström2002;McCarthyetal.2006).

RustycrayfishwerefirstcollectedfromSpringCreekinMay2007byGeoffreySmithoftheClearWaterConservancy.Todeterminetheirdistributionwithinthebasin,DavidLieb,aPh.D.candidateatPSU,surveyed22sitesonSpringCreek,twoonSlabCabinRun,oneonCedarRun,andoneonBaldEagleCreekforcrayfish.Hefoundlargenumbersofrustycrayfishalonga6-kmsectionofSpringCreekupstreamofBellefonte.Withinthisreach,CambarusbartoniiandOrconectesobscurus,whicharenativetoPennsylvania,werepresentbutrare.Rustycrayfishseemlargelyconfinedtothereach,becauseonlyafewspecimenswerecollected

immediatelyupstreamanddownstream,buttheremainderofthewatershedisvulnerabletofurtherexpansionofthisspecies.

Theestablishmentofrustycrayfishwillcertainlyhavedirecteffectsonnativecrayfishbydisplacingthemandmayhavedirectandindirecteffectsonbrowntrout.Whilex-rayingbrowntrouttoassessspinaldeformities(WeberandCarline2000),wefrequentlyobservedcrayfishintheirstomachs,particularlyforbrowntroutlongerthan275mm.Basedonstudieswithavarietyoffishspecies,wewouldexpectthatrustycrayfishwillbelessvulnerabletopredationbytroutthannativecrayfish,becauserustycrayfishquicklygrowtoasizethatreducestheirsusceptibilitytopredation,theypossessrelativelylargechelae,andtheyareaggressive(DidonatoandLodge1993;MatherandStein1993;Garveyetal.1994;RothandKitchell2005).IfrustycrayfishattaindensitiesashighasthatfoundinotherPennsylvaniastreams,reductionsinbenthicmacroinvertebratesarelikely,andthiscouldreadilytranslateintoreducedgrowthoftrout.Becauseofthesethreatstotrout,wethinkthatdirectmanagementinterventiontoeliminaterustycrayfishoratleastcontrolitsexpansionshouldbeconsideredbythePFBCanditspartners.

photo by R. Draheim

photo by Jeff Gunderson, MN Sea Grant


New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum

Rusty crayfish Orconectes rusticus

Responses to Landscape Alterations

AcoalitionofprivateandpublicentitiesinitiatedariparianrestorationprojectintheSpringCreekwatershedin1990withthegoalofreducingsedimentloadingfromerodingstreambanks.Manyoftheprojectsiteswereassociatedwithagriculturallands.ThemotivationforthisprojectwasstimulatedbyfindingsfromBeardandCarline(1991),whoshowedthatpoorreproductivesuccessofbrowntroutdownstreamoftheconfluenceofSlabCabinRunwithSpringCreekwaslinkedtohighconcentrationsoffinesedimentsinspawninghabitat.RiparianrestorationprojectsontributariesandthemainstemofSpringCreekwerecompletedby1998,andpost-treatmentassessmentswerejustgettingunderwaywhenconstructionofI-99beganin1999.TwoconstructionsiteswereadjacenttoSpringCreekandpotentiallythreatenedwaterquality.OnesitewasalargeinterchangenearthejunctionofSpringCreekandSlabCabinRun,andthesecondsitewasabridgecrossingabout4kmdownstream(Figure15,page67).FundsprovidedbythePennsylvaniaDepartmentofTransportationallowedUnitpersonneltoassesstheeffectsofconstructionactivitiesatthesetwositesonSpringCreek.Inthissection,webrieflysummarizetheresultsofthesetwostudies,andwealsodescribeeffectsofI-99

constructionactivitiesrelatedtoexposureofpyriterocksattheheadwatersofBuffaloRun.

Riparian RestorationFrom1990to1998,25riparian

restorationprojectswerecompletedonSpringCreekandtributaries(Figure15,page67).Allofthe17projectsitesonSlabCabinRunandCedarRunwereonriparianpastures,whereasatmostofthedownstreamsites,streambankerosionwaslinkedtostormwaterrunofforotherhighflowevents.Treatmentstoreduceerosionincluded(1)installationofrock-linedrampstoallowlivestocktoaccessthestreamforwaterortocrossthestream,(2)streambankfencingtoexcludelivestockfromtheriparianzone,and(3)placementofrockalongsteepbanks.Thesizeoftheprojectsvariedfrominstallationofasinglerock-linedaccesstoconstructionofseveralcrossings,thousandsofmetersoffence,andextensivebankstabilization.Typically,riparianbufferswere3to4mwide.Intotal,56accessesandcrossingsand11,500moffencewereinstalled;morethan1,800mofstreambankwerestabilizedwithrock.

Unitpersonnelconductedaseriesofpre-andpost-treatmentstudiesonSlabCabinRunandCedarRuntoassess

streamresponsestoriparianrestoration;theupperSpringCreekwatershedservedasareference(Carlineetal.2004;CarlineandWalsh2007).Withinthreetofiveyearsafterconstructionofriparianbuffers,streambankvegetationincreasedmarkedlyandtheproportionoffinesedimentsinstreamsubstratesdecreasedsignificantlyinCedarRun,butnotinSlabCabinRun.Themostnotableresponsetoriparianrestorationwasinsuspendedsedimentsinbaseflowandstormflow,whichdecreasedby47%to87%afterripariantreatments.Macroinvertebratediversitydidnotchange,butmacroinvertebratedensityincreasedsignificantly.Densityofage-1andolderbrowntroutmorethandoubledinCedarRun.WhiledensityofbrowntroutalsoincreasedinSlabCabinRun,thepopulationremainedsmall,owingprimarilytoratherlowstreamflows,particularlyduringsummer,inthissub-watershed.Overall,thisstudyshowedthatevennarrowgrassbufferscansignificantlyreducesedimentloadingfromriparianpasturesandthatmacroinvertebratesandtroutwillrespondpositively.

I-99 ConstructionUnitpersonnelconducteda

4-yearstudyattheParkAvenueinterchangeadjacenttoSpringCreekandattheRockRoad


bridgecrossing(Figure15, page67).Streamsamplingstationswereestablishedupstreamanddownstreamofeachconstructionsite,andwaterwascollectedathourlyintervalsduringstormflow(Carlineetal.2003).About100stormeventsweresuccessfullysampledateachsite.Inaddition,streamsubstratecomposition,numbersofbrowntroutspawningsites,andbenthicmacroinvertebratecommunitiesweremonitoredupstreamanddownstreamofeachsite.

Constructionactivitiesresultedinanapproximately14%increaseinsedimentloadingtothestreamateachsite.Thoughthepercentageincreasewasmodest,theabsolutemassofsedimentwassubstantial–about180metrictonsperyearattheRockRoadsite.Thisincreaseinsedimentloadingdidnotseemtoinfluenceothermeasuresofstreamhealth.Wefoundnodifferenceindiversityordensityofbenthicmacroinvertebratesupstreamanddownstreamoftheconstructionsites.Similarly,

compositionofsubstratecollectedfrombrowntroutreddsdidnotvarywithstreamlocation,andnumbersanddistributionoftroutreddswerenotinfluencedbyconstruction.Bytheendofthestudy,constructionwascompletedandallpreviouslydisturbedearthwasseededandstabilized.Therefore,weconcludedthatconstructionwasresponsibleforasignificant,thoughshort-term,increaseinsuspendedsedimentthatdidnotaffectbenthicinvertebratesnortroutspawningactivity.

AnotherphaseoftheI-99TransportationProject,whichbeganin2003,entailedcuttingthrougharockformationatopoftheBaldEagleridgeatanarealocallyknownasSkytop(Figure15,page67).Thisrockformationwasrichinironpyrite.Excavatedmaterialwasmovedtoseveraldisposalsitesontheridge,andaswatersaturatedthesedisposalpiles,iron-laden,acidicwaterbeganseepingfromthedisposalpiles.Someacidicwaterinfiltratedintothe

groundwaterandsomefloweddirectlyintotheheadwatersofBuffaloRun,whichtravelsabout1.8kmthroughthevalleyfloorandthenlargelyinfiltratesthroughthechannelbottomintothegroundwater.Presumably,aftermixingwithalkalinegroundwater,thestreamre-emergesnearthevillageofWaddleabout2kmfartherdownstream.Atthispoint,streamwaterchemistryandbenthicmacroinvertebratesamplingsuggestlittleornoeffectoftheacidicdrainagethatoriginatedfromtheSkytoparea(personalcommunication;D.Spotts,PFBC).InAugust2007,aremediationplanwasputintooperation.Itinvolvedmovingmorethan600,000m3(800,000yd3)ofmaterialheavilyladenwithpryritefromtheSkytoparea,coveringexposedpyriteformations,andtreatingacidicdrainages.Theneteffectofthesemeasuresremainstobeseen,butasofAugust2007,itdoesnotseemthatacidicdrainagefromtheconstructionsitehashadameasurableeffectonthefisheryresourcesinBuffaloRun.


PennsylvaniaDEPbiologistsandaPSUstudentsampledmacroinvertebratecommunitiesatthesame14sitesonthemainstemofSpringCreekfourtimesduringtheperiod2001to2006.Theyusedthesamesamplingmethods(PADEP2006),andanIndexofBioticIntegrity(IBI)scorewascomputedfollowingBotts’(2006)protocolforlimestonestreams.Theindexisbasedonsixcriteria:totalnumberofinvertebratetaxa,totalnumberofEphemeroptera,Plecoptera,andTrichoptera(EPT)taxa,theHilsenhoffBioticIndex,percentageofintoleranttaxa,percentageoftoleranttaxa,andtheShannonDiversityindex.AsitewithanIBIscoreof55orlessisconsideredimpaired(Botts2006).Siteswithscoresof100aresimilartoreferencessitesinstreamswithminimalhumandisturbance.Hereweexaminethesemacroinvertebratedatainanattempttodescribeyear-to-yearvariability,site-to-sitevariability,andtolookfortrendsthatmightsuggestcausesforchangesinstreamcondition.

Amongyearsandsites,IBIscoresrangedwidely,from15atRK16.6belowtheBennerSpringHatcheryto99atRK27.7,whichisupstreamfromLemont(Figure16,page68).Ingeneral,site-to-sitevariationinIBIscoreswasconsistentamongyears,althoughoverallvariationamongyearswaslarge.The

lowestIBIscoreswererecordedin2001,whenthemeanscorewas48.0,andnineof14siteswererankedasimpaired(Table9,page79).ThreeyearslaterthemeanIBIscorehadincreasedto68.6,thehighestofthefouryears,andonlytwositeswereimpaired.TheIBIscoresin2005and2006wererelativelyhigh,withfourandsevensites,respectively,rankedasimpaired.

Whileitispossiblethatyear-to-yearchangesinwaterqualitycouldresultinchangesinthemacroinvertebratecommunity,examinationof

waterqualityrecordsfromtheWaterResourcesMonitoringProjectnetworkandDEPdatafortheAxemannWaterQualityNetworksitedidnotindicateanytrendsconsistentwiththoseforIBIscores.Rather,itislikelythatannualvariationsinstreamflowhadasignificanteffectonmacroinvertebratecommunities.WeusedstreamdischargedatafromtheUSGSAxemanngagingstation,computedthemeanmonthlyflowfora12-monthperiodpriortoeachmacroinvertebratecollection,andcomparedthoseflowstothelong-termaverageforthisgagingstation.Thesedataindicatethatthe2001collection,whichhadthelowestIBIscore,wasprecededbythelowest

The green drake mayfly, a casualty of the 1956 cyanide spill, has not been able to recolonize Spring Creek.

Green Drake

photo by G. Hoover

Using a Biotic Index to Assess Stream Condition


streamflowamongyears(Table9,page71).TheIBIscoresfor2004to2006wereallrelativelyhigh,andprecedingflowswerenearorwellabovenormal.

Thereareatleasttworeasonswhybenthicmacroinvertebratecommunitieswouldbepositivelyaffectedbyabove-averageflows.Whenstreamflowisaboveaverage,pollutantsfrompointsourceandnon-pointsourceswouldbemoredilutedthanatbelownormalflows;hence,toxiceffectsofpollutantswouldbereduced.Thesecondreasonisthatatabove-normalstreamflows,thereislessaccrualoffinesedimentsintherifflesandruns,wherebenthicmacroinvertebratecommunitiesaresampled.Theadverseeffectsoffinesedimentsonmacroinvertebrateshavebeenwell-documented.Forexample,KallerandHartman(2004)showedthatinWestVirginiatroutstreams,numbersofmayfly,stonefly,andcaddisflytaxawereconsistentlynegativelyrelatedtotheamountoffinesedimentinsubstrates.And,indroughtyears,theamountoffinesedimentinrifflesandrunswouldprobablyincrease,anddiversityofthesesensitiveinsectgroupswouldbefurtherreduced.

TherewereseveralnotablechangesinIBIscoreswhenmovingfromtheupstream-mostsitetowardthestreammouthatMilesburg(Figure16,page68).In

threeoffouryears,theIBIscoredeclinedfromthesiteupstreamofLemont(RK27.7)toSpringCreekPark(RK24.6;AppendixFigure1,page81).AsubstantialamountofurbanrunofffromLemontandtheStateRoute26(EastCollegeAvenue)corridorentersthestreambetweenthesetwosites.Then,SlabCabinRunjoinsSpringCreekataboutRK24,andtheIBIscoreatRK23.7wasconsistentlylowerthanatthesiteupstreamofSlabCabinRun,whichcarrieslargeamountsofurbanrunofffromStateCollegeandthePSUcampus,plusrunofffromagriculturallandsupstreamofSouthAthertonStreet.

DischargefromtheUAJAtreatmentplanthadnoapparenteffectonthealreadylowIBIscoresupstreamoftheplant.Duringtheperiod2001to2006,theUAJAplantdischargedanaverageof0.21m3/s(4.9mgd;personalcommunication,J.Brown,UAJA).Incontrast,IBIscoresdeclinedinallfouryearsafterdischargesfromtheBennerSpringandBellefonteHatcheriesenteredSpringCreek(Figure16).ThesedeclinesinIBIscoresweredue,inpart,toreductionsinthenumberofEPTtaxaandincreasesinthesowbugLirceus,whichishighlytolerantofpollution(Lenat1993;Maxtedetal.2000).WepresumethathighdensitiesofLirceusarelinkedtoorganicenrichmentfrom

hatcheryeffluentsthatpromotegrowthofmicroorganisms.

PFBCbiologistsalsosampledmacroinvertebratesupstreamanddownstreamoftheBennerSpringandBellefonteHatcheriesinspring2001,2005,and2006(Kepler2006)usingthesameprotocolsasDEP.TrendsinIBIscoresderivedbythetwoagenciesweresimilarin2001and2006,butnotin2005.ThescoresderivedbyDEPin2005showedlittlechangefromupstreamtodownstreamoftheBennerSpringHatchery(55to53)andasubstantialreductionfromupstreamtodownstreamoftheBellefonteHatchery(86to66).Incontrast,PFBCdatashowedincreasesinscoresfromupstreamtodownstreamoftheBennerSpringHatchery(36to51)andattheBellefonteHatchery(64to68).Reasonsforthesediscrepanciesarenotevident.

DownstreamofBellefonte,IBIscoresincreasedbyanaverageof50%inallfouryears.Itislikelythatthelargeincreaseinstreamflow,owingtoLoganBranch,BigSpring,andBuffaloRun,benefitedthemacroinvertebratecommunitydownstreamofBellefonteatRK2.9.InthreeoffouryearsIBIscoresdeclineddownstreamofRK2.9.TheBellefontewastewatertreatmentplantdischargesintoSpringCreekashortdistancedownstreamofRK2.9,andthestreamhadbeenimpoundedbyMcCoy-


LinnDam.Itisconceivablethattheimpoundmenthadsomeeffectondownstreammacroinvertebratecommunities,andifso,itisnotpossibletoseparateoutpossibleeffectsoftheBellefontetreatmentplantandoftheimpoundment.McCoy-LinnDamwassubsequentlyremovedduringfall2007,andSpringCreekisnowfree-flowingfromTalleyrandParkinBellefontetothemouth.

IfindeedIBIscoresaregoodmeasuresofbenthicmacroinvertebratecommunityhealth,wecanmakeseveralgeneralizationsfromthesedata.Year-to-yearvariationsinIBIscoreswerelargeandseemedrelatedtostreamflow.Site-to-sitevariationsinIBIscoreswerelarge,butreasonablyconsistentamongyears.Benthiccommunitiesrespondednegativelytoinputsofurbanrunoffanddischargesfromhatcheries.Thelengthofstreamclassifiedasimpairedrangedfrom5.9km(21.2%ofthetotal)to18.5km(66.9%).

Threats from Increasing Urbanization


baseflow,whichisparticularlyimportanttothemaintenanceofcoldwaterstreamcommunities.Asimperviousnessincreases,thefrequencyandmagnitudeofstormfloweventsincrease,andthephysicalcomponentsofthereceivingstreamsarealtered.Higherstreamflowsrequirealargestreamchanneltotransportwater;hence,theresponseiserosionofstreambanks(widening)anddowncuttingofthestreambottom(deepening).Thesetypesofalterationsdegradehabitatforinvertebratesandfishes.Surfacerunofffromimpervioussurfacesduringsummermonthscandeliverwarmwatertothestreamandcauseelevatedstreamtemperatures,whichcanleadtoashiftfromcoldwatertowarmwaterfishcommunities(SteffyandKilham2006).Stormwaterrunoffaffectswaterqualitybyincreasingsedimentload,reflectedinturbidity,andbyincreasingtheamountofnutrientsandpollutantsinthestream.Thecumulativeeffectsofphysical,thermal,andchemicalalterationslinkedtostormwaterrunoffleadtodegradationofbiologicalcommunities.

Schueler(1994)proposedthatimperviousness,expressedassurfaceareainawatershed,couldserveasaunifyingthemetoquantifythedegreeofurbanization.ArnoldandGibbons(1996)havesupported

ThemacroinvertebrateassessmentsbyDEPsuggestthaturbaninfluencesintheupperpartofthewatershedarehavingnegativeeffectsonstreamhealth.GiventheextensivedevelopmentinandaroundtheBoroughofStateCollegeandthePSUcampus,impactsonSpringCreekarenotsurprising.Theeffectsofurbanizationonstreamecosystemshavebeenwell-documentedintheliterature,andmostoftheseimpactsarereadilyapparentinnearlyallreachesofSpringCreek.

Schueler(1994)andBrownetal.(2005)provideconciseoverviewsofhowurbanizationaffectsstreams,andhere,webrieflysummarizetheirwork.Urbanizationreflectstheconversionofforestandagriculturallandtoimpervioussurfacesthatcanbecategorizedasbuildings(rooftops)andtransportationsystems.Anincreaseinimpervioussurfacecoveragehasprofoundeffectsonthehydrologiccycle,becausetheamountofrainfallthatinfiltratesintothegroundwaterismuchreduced,andsurfacerunoff,oftenreferredtoasstormflow,isgreatlyincreased.Reducedrechargeofgroundwatertranslatestoreducedstream

thenotionthatimperviousnessisakeyenvironmentalindicator.Althoughothers(e.g.,Shortetal.2005)havedevelopedanindexofurbanizationthatincorporatesalargenumberofphysicalvariables,Schueler’s(1994)singlevariableindexseemstobeausefulpredictorforcoldwatercommunities.Hesuggestedthaturbanstreamscouldbeclassifiedonthebasisofpercentageofimpervioussurfaceareainthewatershed,andArnoldandGibbons(1996)slightlymodifiedSchueler’s(1994)categories,whichwehavedepictedinFigure17,page69.

Schueler(1994)suggested,onthebasisofavailableliterature,thatifanurbanwatershedwaslessthan10%impervious,streamchannelswouldbestableandthediversityofbiologicalcommunitieswouldbeprotected.Resultsfromseveralrecentstudiesontroutstreamsseemtoindicatecoldwaterfishcommunitiesarenotlikelytobeprotectedwhenwatershedsreach10%imperviousness.Strankoetal.(2008)examinedover100sitesinMarylandthatsupportedbrooktroutordidnotsupportbrooktroutbuthadtheirpreferredhabitat;theyconcludedthatbrooktroutwerelostwhenimperviousnessreached6.6%.Stanfieldetal.(2006)studiedmorethan400streamsinsouthernOntarioandfoundthatsalmonidpopulationswereeliminatedwhenimperviousnessrangedfrom6.6to9%.In39southwest

WisconsinandsoutheastMinnesotastreams,Wangetal.(2003)foundsignificantdeclinesintroutpopulationswhenimperviousnesswas6to11%andnotroutwhenitexceeded11%.WehavedepictedtheseupperlimitsforsalmonidsinthemiddleofSchueler’s(1994)“degraded”category,thoughonemightarguethatthesevaluesbelonginthe“impacted”category(Figure17,page69).

SpringCreekseemstobeananomalycomparedtopreviouslycitedstudies,becauseimperviousnessiswellbeyondtherangewheretroutpopulationspersist.In1995,itwasestimatedthat12%oftheSpringCreekwatershedwasimpervious(CCPO1996),and,giventhatthepopulationhasbeengrowingsteadily,imperviousnessmustbegreaterthan12%in2010.TheCentreRegionencompassesabouttheupperone-halfofthewatershed,andin2002,imperviousnesswas19.3%(CCPO2003).Clearly,ifSpringCreekfollowedthepatternofotherwatersheds,wewouldnotexpectwildtroutpopulationstosurviveinthisenvironment(Figure17, page69).

WesuggestthatthepersistenceofwildtroutintheSpringCreekwatershedisattributabletothelargenumberofspringsthatcontributewell-oxygenated

coldwatertothestreamandservetomoderatehighsummertemperatures.DuringtheirexaminationofMarylandstreams,Strankoetal.(2008)foundbrooktroutinawatershedwith42%imperviouslandcovercomparedtothe6.6%thresholdforotherwatersheds.Summerwatertemperaturesinthishighlydevelopedwatershedweresimilartosparselydevelopedwatersheds.

ValleyCreek,insoutheasternPennsylvania,isanotherstreamthatstillsupportswildbrowntrout,buthad17%impervioussurface.Steffyetal.(2004)attributedthepersistenceofbrowntroutinthisurbanizedwatershedtothelargenumberofsprings,but,morerecently,browntroutpopulationshaveshownevidenceofdecline(SteffyandKilham2006).LikeSpringCreek,ValleyCreekischaracterizedbykarstgeology,andmostofthedevelopmentisintheupperpartofthewatershed.

Amongthewatershedstudiesthatwehavereviewed,thetwomostfrequentlycitedfactorscriticaltomaintenanceofcoldwaterfishcommunitieswerestreambaseflowandsummerwatertemperatures(Zornetal.2002;Wangetal.2003;Stanfieldetal.2006;SteffyandKilham2006;Wehrlyetal.2006;Strankoetal.2008).Streambaseflowreflectstheamountofgroundwaterenteringthestream,whichdirectlyinfluencesstreamtemperature;hence,streamswith


Spring Creek at Fisherman’s Paradise. A log framed stone deflector in the background helps to improve bank stability and fish habitat.

largegroundwaterinputshavecoolersummertemperaturesandwarmerwintertemperaturesrelativetostreamswithminimalgroundwaterinputs.Fromtheseobservations,weinferthatthefutureofwildtroutpopulationsintheSpringCreekwatershedisdependentuponmaintenanceofadequategroundwaterinputsandsummerwatertemperaturessuitablefortrout.

Wearenotawareofanylong-termrecordsofwatertemperatureforSpringCreek;hence,wecannotmakeanygeneralizationsaboutlong-termtrends.OuranalysisofstreamflowattheAxemanngagesuggeststhatmeanannualflowhasnotchanged,norhaveannual7-daylowflows.Whetherstreamflowwillremainreasonablystableinthefaceofagrowingpopulationremainsuncertain.Clearly,theamountofgroundwaterpumpedfromtheaquiferhasincreasedwiththegrowingpopulationinthewatershed(3.1mgdin1980to9.1

mgdin2002;Fultonetal.2005),butmuchofthiswateristreatedandreturnedtothestream.Thedifferencebetweentheamountpumpedandtheamountreturnedtothestreamisthatlosttoevapotranspiration,wherehomeownersandbusinessesirrigatelawnsandgardens.EvapotranspirationundoubtedlyaccountsforalargeproportionofPSU’streatedwastewaterthatissprayirrigatedduringthegrowingseason.Asthepopulationcontinuestoincrease,wecanexpectmorelossestoevapotranspirationwithpotentialconsequencestothegroundwaterreserves.

LiebandCarline(2000)monitoredthetemperatureofThompsonRunjustdownstreamofasmallimpoundmentthatreceivesstormwaterrunofffromtheBoroughofStateCollegeandpartofthePSUcampus.InJune1995,theyrecordedhourlytemperatureincreasesofupto6.6oCfollowingthunderstorms.In1999,temperaturemonitors

wereinstalledinThompsonRunabout0.7kmdownstreamofthesitemonitoredbyLiebandCarline(2000).DuringthemonthsofJunethroughSeptember1999to2007,anaverageof22stormsperyearproducedhourlyincreasesof>2oC,andthemeanincreaseforthesestormswas3.7oC (personalcommunication, G.Smith,ClearWaterConservancy).Thehighesthourlyincreasewas9.6oC.Despitethesetemperatureincreases,wildbrowntroutcontinuetopersistinThompsonRun.Itislikelythatasimperviousnessincreases,wecanexpectmoreinflowsofheatedstormwaterrunoff,butintheabsenceofgoodempiricalinformation,wecannotpredictthedegreeofimperviousnessthatmayeventuallyleadtosummertemperaturesthatareunsuitablefortroutpopulations.Carefulmanagementoflandandwaterresourcescanforestalllikelyoutcomesofurbanization,andsomesuchmanagementpracticesarealreadyinplace orplanned.

photo by J. Detar


PSU Land Treatment Area

Perhapsthemostsignificantwaterresourceprojectinthewatershedwascompletedin1983whenPSU’sentirevolumeoftreatedwastewaterwasnolongerdischargedintoThompsonRun.Instead,treatedwastewaterwassprayirrigatedontoforestandagriculturallandabout5kmfromcampus.ThisprojectisnowlabeledastheLandTreatmentArea,becausethewaterisfurthertreatedthroughnutrientuptakebymicroorganismsasitpercolatesthroughthesoil.ThePSUtreatmentplantispermittedto

treatupto0.18m3/s(4mgd)ofwastewater;in2006,theaveragedailydischargewas0.10m3/s(2.2mgd;personalcommunication,J.Gaudlip,PSU).Thistreatedeffluentwassprayedonto210ha.ThissystemhasbenefitedThompsonRun,thelowerreachofSlabCabinRun,andSpringCreek,becausepotentialtoxicandthermaleffectsoftreatedwastewaterwereeliminatedandmuchofthetreatedwastewater,whichoriginatedfromgroundwater,isbeingreturnedtothegroundwater.SpringCreek,immediatelydownstreamofitsconfluencewithSlabCabinRun,

hasshownsignsofimpairmentowingtostormwaterrunoffinrecentyears,anditislikelythatthisimpairmentwouldhavebeenevengreaterifPSU’streatedwastewaterwasbeingdischargedintoThompsonRun.

Beneficial ReuseAnotherprojectwith

potentiallysignificanteffectsonwaterresourcesintheSpringCreekwatershedwasrecentlyimplementedbytheUAJA,whichtreatswastewaterfromtheStateCollegeareaintheupperpartofthewatershedanddischargesintoSpringCreekabout2.5kmupstreamoftheBennerSpringStateFishHatchery(Figure1,page53).Thetreatmentplantispermittedtodischargeupto0.26m3/s(6mgd),anditisanticipatedthatthevolumeofincomingwastewaterwillexceedthislimitbytheyear2016(personalcommunication,D.Smith,UAJA).Tohandletheincreasedvolumeofwastewater,theUAJAconstructedasystemthattakestreatedwastewaterasitleavestheclarifiersandsubjectsittomicrofiltration,reverseosmosis,andadvanceddisinfectiontoproducewaterthatmeetsdrinkingwaterstandards(UAJA2008).Thiswaterwillthenbepumpedbackupintothewatershedfromwhereitcame,andisavailableforavarietyofbeneficialuses,hence,theprojectname–BeneficialReuse.

Stormwater

Silt-laden stormwater runoff flows into Spring Creek at the State Route 26 Bridge.

photo by K. Ombalski

Managing Treated Wastewater and Storm Water


In2008,thistreatedwaterwaspipedtoagolfcourseforirrigationandtoacommerciallaundryfacility,and106l/min(28gal/min)wasdischargedintoaconstructedwetland,whereonemightexpectsomegroundwaterrechargetooccur.Becausethetreatedwatermeetsdrinkingwaterstandards,itcouldbere-injectedintothegroundwater,whereitcouldberecycledthroughdomesticwatersupplysystems.Theusesandfatesofthistreatedwaterarecurrentlyunderstudy,buttheprojectwillbenefitSpringCreek,becauseitwillpreventfurtherincreasesintreatedeffluenttothestream,itmayreducetheamountofgroundwaterthatispumpedforindustrialusesandirrigation,anditmayrechargethegroundwater.

Storm Water Management

Inthefaceofincreasingurbanizationandassociatedthreatstowaterquality,themunicipalitiesintheSpringCreekwatershedtookanimportantsteptoreduceimpactsofdevelopmentwhentheycraftedastormwatermanagementplanfortheSpringCreekwatershedin2001(Sweetland2001).AfterapprovaloftheplanbytheCountyCommissionersandDEP,modelordinanceswereadoptedbyparticipatingmunicipalities.

Thefoundationofthestormwatermanagementplanisasetofperformancecriteriatocontrolrunofffromnewdevelopment,maintaingroundwaterrecharge,reducechannelerosion,minimizenon-pointsourcepollution,andothers,which,intotal,willhelptogreatlyreducefutureimpactsfromstormwaterrunoff.Therearenoprovisionsintheplantodealwithrunofffromexistingdevelopment;hence,reachesofSpringCreekthatareshowingsignsofdegradationwillnotimproveasaresultoftheplan.

Riparian Buffer Restoration

Overthepast20years,alargenumberofstudieshavedemonstratedthevalueofintactriparianbufferzonestothehealthofstreams(Lowranceetal.1984;Sovelletal.2000).PublicandprivateconservationgroupsintheSpringCreekwatershedinitiatedariparianrestorationprojectin1990,andtheseeffortscontinuetoday.Agriculturallandsweretargetedintheearlystagesoftheproject,but,inmorerecentyears,landownersoutsideoftheagriculturalcommunityarebeingengagedinriparianrestorationefforts(personalcommunication,K.Ombalski,ClearwaterConservancy).Streamhabitatenhancementprojectsareunderwayonseveralreachesofpubliclyownedland.TheCentreRegionPlanningAgencyhasdraftedamodel

ordinancefortheestablishmentandprotectionofstreambufferzones(CRPA2008).Localmunicipalitieswillhavetoadopttheordinancebeforeitcanbeputintopractice.Thesenon-regulatoryandregulatorymeasurestoenhanceriparianzonesofferawayinwhichharmfuleffectsofstormwatercanbediminished.But,theamountofriparianrestorationnecessarytoreversestreamdegradationisunknown,anditcouldbehuge.

Summary


ThesportfisheryinSpringCreekhasevolvedfromonedominatedbybrooktroutinthelate1800stoonedominatedbybrowntroutbythemid1900s.Stockingofbrowntroutinthe1890sandlaterstockingofcatchablesizetrout,poorwaterquality,andpossiblyheavyexploitationcontributedtothedeclineofbrooktrout.Todaybrooktroutpersistinjustafewheadwaterrefugia.

Intheearly1900s,severalreachesofSpringCreekwereprobablyseverelypolluted,becausetherewerenowastewatertreatmentplantsinthewatershed.Astreatmentplantswerebuiltbetween1913and1968,somepollutionwasabated,thoughtoxicspillsfromindustrialsourceswerecommon.By2001,thenumberofwastewatertreatmentplantshaddeclinedfromfivetotwo,andnoreachesofstreamwere

badlypolluted.Stormwaterrunoffhasnowbecomethemajorthreattowaterquality.

Since1980,whenthefirstcomprehensivesurveyoftroutpopulationswasmade,densitiesofwildbrowntrouthaveincreasedsubstantially.Inadditiontoimprovedwaterquality,theeliminationofstockingtroutandtheimplementationofno-harvestregulationswerelargelyresponsiblefortheincreaseinwildbrowntrout.Growthinlengthofbrowntroutwassimilartothestatewideaverageforbrowntroutinlimestonestreams.Growthwasnotdensitydependentexceptforage-0troutduringtheirfirstspringandsummer.Aboutone-halfoftheannualgrowthoccurredbetweenmidMarchandmidJune.Streamflowandwatertemperaturesinfluencedgrowth.Duringsummer,lowflowandwarmtemperaturesreducedgrowth.Growthduringwinterwasbestwhenflowsandwatertemperaturewereabovenormal.ThenumberoftroutreddscountedinSpringCreekbetweenMilesburgandBoalsburgmorethandoubledfrom1988to2005.ThelargestincreaseoccurredinthemiddlereachbetweenSlabCabinRunandFisherman’sParadise.

Since1934,whentheSpringCreekProjectatFisherman’sParadisewasinitiated,therehavebeentwodistinctsportfisheriesonSpringCreek.Specialregulationsonthe1.8-kmreachknownasFisherman’sParadiseinitiallyallowedaharvestoftwotroutperday,andterminaltacklewasrestrictedtofliestiedonbarblesshooks.Thereachwasheavilystockedwithlargetrout.Theprojectbecameenormouslysuccessfulafterafewyears,andin1952,morethan44,000anglersfishedthere.Poorwaterqualityledtoachangeinmanagementin1962,whenharvestwasdiscontinued,buttacklerestrictionsremained.TherestofthemainstemofSpringCreekhadnotacklerestrictionsandstatewideharvestregulationswereineffectuntil1982whenharvestofallfishwasprohibited,owingtochemicalcontamination.FishingpressureonFisherman’sParadiseandtherestofthemainstemhasbeenquitehigh,andin2006,itwasabout30timeshigherthantheaverageforothersimilarsizewildtroutstreamsinthestate.

Arecentinvasionbyrustycrayfishandthepotentialofinvasionfromthediatom

Didymospheniageminata andtheNewZealandmudsnailposeasignificantthreattomacroinvertebrateandfishcommunitiesinSpringCreek.Developmentinthewatershed,stimulatedinpartbymajorprojectssuchastheconstructionofI-99posesanadditionalthreat.Whenmacroinvertebrateswereusedtoassessstreamhealth,therewasconvincingevidencethaturbanrunoffintheupperpartofthewatershedwasdegradingwaterquality.Theamountofimpervioussurfaceareainthewatershedexceeds12%,whichishigherthanthresholdvaluesforotherwatershedsthathavelostcoldwaterfishcommunities.IncreasingurbanizationrepresentsaseriousthreattothetroutfisheryofSpringCreek.ProtectionofgroundwaterrechargeareasisvitaltoensuringthatspringinflowstoSpringCreekaremaintained.Strictcontrolsonstormwaterrunoffandinnovativewaystotreatanddisposeofdomesticwastewaterwillhelptoreducefutureurbanizationimpacts, butthewatershedisclearlyunderstress.


Wesincerelyappreciatethedata,assistance,andmanuscriptreviewsprovidedbyPFBCbiologists:JohnArway,TomCochran,RussellGreene,MarkHartle,DaveMiko,DaveSpotts,BobWilberding,andLeroyYoung.PennsylvaniaDEPbiologistsJohnRyderandJohnSengleprovidedassistancewithIBIcalculationsandmanuscriptreviews.DaveSmithandJasonBrown,UAJA,kindlyprovideddataandhelpfulreviewsofthemanuscript.RobertJacobsandBethRider,CentreCountyPlanningOffice,provideddataonpopulationtrendsandlanduse.LarryFennesseyandJohnGaudlip,PSU,offereddataandinsightfulreviews.MarkRalston,ConverseConsultants,reviewedthemanuscriptandsuggestedvaluablereferences.GeoffSmith,ClearWaterConservancy,cheerfullyprovideddataandreviewofthemanuscript.WethankDanShieldsforloanofreferencematerials.DaveLieb,PSU,draftedmostofthecrayfishsection.Weareindebtedtoallofthesepeoplefortheirgeneroushelp.

Acknowledgements

Literature Cited


Arnold, C. L., Jr., and C. J. Gibbons. 1996.Impervioussurfacecoverage-theemergenceofakeyenvironmentalindicator.JournaloftheAmericanPlanningAssociation62:243-258.

Bachman, R. A. 1984.Foragingbehavioroffree-rangingwildandhatcherybrowntroutinastream.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety113:1-32.

Beard, T. D., Jr., and R. F. Carline. 1991.Influenceofspawningandotherstreamhabitatfeaturesonspatialvariabilityofwildbrowntrout.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety120:711-722.

Benson, A. J., and R. M. Kipp. 2009.Potamopyrgusantipodarum.USGSNonindigenousAquaticSpeciesDatabase,Gainesville,FL.Available: http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1008.(January2011)

Botts, W. F. 2006.Anindexofbiologicalintegrityfor“True”limestonestreams.PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionmemorandumMarch2006.Harrisburg.

Bouchard, R. W., and coauthors. 2007.101yearsofchange(1906to2007):thedistributionofthecrayfishesofPennsylvania:PartI:EasternPennsylvania.FinalReportforStateWildlifeGrantNumberPFBC050305.01.SubmittedtothePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission,Bellefonte.

Brown, L. R., H. R. Gray, R. M. Hughes, and M. R. Meador. 2005.Introductiontoeffectsofurbanizationonstreamecosystems.Pages1-8inL.R.Brown,H.R.Gray,R.M.Hughes,andM.R.Meador,editors,Effectsofurbanizationonstreamecosystems.AmericanFisheriesSociety,Symposium47.Bethesda,Maryland.


Carline, R. F. 1994.GrowthandsurvivalofthreestrainsofrainbowtroutinSpringCreek.FinalprojectreportsubmittedtothePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission,Bellefonte.

Carline, R. F. 2006.RegulationofanunexploitedbrowntroutpopulationinSpruceCreek,Pennsylvania.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety135:943-954.

Carline, R. F., A. Smith, C. Gill, and K. Patten. 2003. EffectsofbridgeandroadconstructiononSpringCreek:Route26TransportationImprovementsProject.FinalReportsubmittedtothePennsylvaniaDepartmentofTransportationandPennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission,Bellefonte.

Carline, R. F., and M. C. Walsh. 2007.ResponsestoriparianrestorationintheSpringCreekwatershed,centralPennsylvania.RestorationEcology15:731-742.

Carline, R. F., M. C. Walsh, and A. M. Smith. 2004.Responsesofstreamstorestorationofintensivelygrazedriparianareas:SpringCreek,WestBranchSusquehannaRiverwatershed.FinalReportsubmittedtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,ChesapeakeBayProgram,Annapolis,Maryland.

Carline, R. F., T. D. Beard, Jr., and B. A. Hollender. 1991.Responseofwildbrowntrouttoeliminationofstockingandtono-harvestregulations.NorthAmericanJournalFisheriesManagement11:253-266.

CCPO. 1996. (Centre County Planning Office)CentreCountyexistinglanduse,1995,Bellefonte,Pennsylvania.

CCPO. 2003. (Centre County Planning Office)CentreCountyexistinglanduse,2002,Bellefonte,Pennsylvania.

Cooper, E. L. 1983.FishesofPennsylvaniaandtheNortheasternUnitedStates.ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,UniversityPark,PA.

Cooper, E. L., and C. C. Wagner. 1976.Changesinbenthosandfishesofastreamaccompanyingasubstantialreductioninplantnutrients.ResearchProjectTechnicalCompletionReport,InstituteforResearchonLandandWaterResources,ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity, UniversityPark.

CRPA. 2008. (Centre Region Planning Agency)Executivesummary,riparianzoneordinanceandwhitepaper.Available: http://cog.centreconnect.org/crpa-mpo/Riparian/Final%20Riparian%20Buffer%20Exec%20Summary%201.pdf.(January2011)

Cuff, D. J., W. J. Young, E. K. Muller, W. Zelinsky, and R. F. Abler, editors. 1989.TheatlasofPennsylvania.TempleUniversityPress,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.

Didonato, G. T., and D. M. Lodge. 1993.SpeciesreplacementsamongOrconectescrayfishesinWisconsinlakes-theroleofpredationbyfish.CanadianJournalofFisheriesandAquaticSciences50:1484-1488.


Donley, B. F. 1948.AstudyofsurvivalandgrowthoffingerlingeasternbrooktroutSalvelinusfontinalisfontinalis(Mitchell)intwocentralPennsylvaniastreams.MasterofSciencethesis.ThePennsylvaniaStateCollege,UniversityPark.

Elliott, J. M. 1994.Quantitativeecologyandthebrowntrout.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford,U.K.

EPA. 2007. (Environmental Protection Agency)StoretandWaterQualityExchange.Available: http:/epa.gov/storet/dbtop.html.(January2011)

French, C. A. 1938.Pennsylvania’sSpringCreekproject.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety68:359-363.

Fulton, J. W., E. H. Koerkle, S. S. McAuley, S. A. Hoffman, and L. F. Zarr. 2005.HydrogeologicsettingandconceptualhydrologicmodeloftheSpringCreekbasin,CentreCounty,Pennsylvania,June2005.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,ScientificInvestigationsReport2005-5091,Reston,Virginia.

Gates, K. K., C. S. Guy, A. V. Zale, A. V., and T. B. Horton. 2007.Movementofsedimentbyanglersandimplicationsfortransportingaquaticnuisancespecies.Pages275-277.InR.F.CarlineandC.LoSapio,editors.Sustainingwildtroutinachangingworld;proceedingsofWildTroutIXsymposium;2007October9-12;WestYellowstone,Montana.308pages. Available: http://www.wildtroutsymposium.com.

Garvey, J. E., R. A. Stein, and H. M. Thomas. 1994.Assessinghowfishpredationandinterspecificpreycompetitioninfluenceacrayfishassemblage.Ecology75:532-547.

Giddings, M. T., Jr. 1974.HydrologicbudgetofSpringCreekdrainagebasin,DoctoralDissertation.ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

Glover, C. R. 1957.Thebigfishkill.PennsylvaniaAngler26(1):7,17.

Godwin, C. M. 2006. Periphytonbiomassandnutrientstatusinatemperatespring-fedstream.IntercollegeGraduateDegreePrograminEcology.ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

Greene, R., and coauthors. 2006.Angleruse,harvestandeconomicassessmentonwildtroutstreamsinPennsylvania.FisheriesManagementDivision,PennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission,Bellefonte,Pennsylvania.

Hall, R. O., Jr., M. F. Dybdahl, and M. C. VanderLoop. 2006.Extremelyhighsecondaryproductionofintroducedsnailsinrivers.EcologicalApplications16:1121-1131.


Hartzler, J. R. 1977.Ananalysisofanglereffortandthecatchofone-andtwo-year-oldhatcherytroutonSpringCreek(CentreCounty),Pennsylvania.MasterofScienceThesis.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

Hollender, B. A., R. Wilberding, Mayers, and D. Spotts. 1981. SpringCreek(309C)managementreport.PennsylvaniaFishCommission,Bellefonte.

Hughey, R. E. 2002.Aquaticbiologicalinvestigation,SpringCreekinCentreCo.PA,DEPFile#22966.PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionmemorandum, February5,2002.Williamsport.

Hughey, R. E. 2006.Aquaticbiologicalinvestigation,SpringCreekinCentreCounty,PA, April26-May26,2005,DEPFile#22966.PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionmemorandum,April6,2006.Williamsport.

Kaller, M. D., and K. J. Hartman. 2004.Evidenceofathresholdleveloffinesedimentaccumulationforalteringbenthicmacroinvertebratecommunities.Hydrobiologia518:95-104.

Kepler, S. 2006.BenthicmacroinvertebratebiomonitoringonSpringCreekinthevicinityofBennerSpringandBellefonteStateFishHatcheries:2001,2004,2005,and2006.EnvironmentalServicesDivision,PennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommission,Bellefonte.

Kerans, B. L., M. F. Dybdahl, M. M. Gangloff, and J. E. Jannot. 2005.Potamopyrgusantipodarum:distribution,density,andeffectsonnativemacroinvertebrateassemblages.JournalofNorthAmericanBenthologicalSociety24:123-138.

Larson, A. M., and J. Carreiro. 2008.RelationshipbetweennuisancebloomsofDidymospheniageminataandmeasuresofaquaticcommunitycompositioninRapidCreek,SouthDakota.Pages45-49inM.L.BothwellandS.A.Spaulding,editors.Proceedingsofthe2007InternationalworkshoponDidymospheniageminata.CanadianTechnicalReportofFisheriesandAquaticSciences2795.

Lenat, D. R. 1993.AbioticindexforthesoutheasternUnitedStates:derivationandlistoftolerancevalues,withcriteriaforassigningwater-qualityratings.JournaloftheNorthAmericanBenthologicalSociety12:279-290.

Lieb, D. A., and R. F. Carline. 2000.Effectsofurbanrunofffromadetentionpondonwaterquality,temperatureandcagedGammarusminus(Say)(Amphipoda)inaheadwaterstream.Hydrobiologia441:107-116.


Lieb, D. A., R. F. Carline, and H. M. Ingram. 2007.StatusofnativeandinvasivecrayfishintenNationalParkServicepropertiesinPennsylvania.TechnicalReportNPS/NER/NRTR-2007/085.NationalParkService.Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.

Lodge, D. M., C. A. Taylor, D. M. Holdich, and J. Skurdal. 2000.NonindigenouscrayfishthreatenNorthAmericanfreshwaterbiodiversity:lessonsfromEurope.Fisheries25(8):7-20.

Lowrance, R., and coauthors. 1984.Riparianforestsasnutrientfiltersinagriculturalwatersheds. BioScience34(6):374-377.

Mather, M. E., and R. A. Stein. 1993.Directandindirecteffectsoffishpredationonthereplacementofanativecrayfishbyaninvadingcongener.CanadianJournalofFisheriesandAquaticSciences50:1279-1288.

Maxted, J. R., and coauthors. 2000.Assessmentframeworkformid-Atlanticcoastalplainstreamsusingbenthicmacroinvertebrates.JournaloftheNorthAmericanBenthologicalSociety 19:128-144.

McCarthy, J. M., C. L. Hein, and J. D. Olden. 2006. Couplinglong-termstudieswithmeta-analysistoinvestigateimpactsofnon-nativecrayfishonzoobenthiccommunities.FreshwaterBiology51:224-235.

McDonald, J. E. 1989.Thecompleteflyfisherman.ThenotesandlettersofTheodoreGordon,LyonsandBurford,Publishers,NewYork,NewYork.

McFadden, J. T. 1961.Anecologicalcomparisonofsixbrowntrout(Salmo trutta)populations.Doctoraldissertation.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

MDDNR. 2009. (Maryland Department of Natural Resources)Marylandinvasivespecies;Maps:Didymolocationsandsurveysites.Available: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/invasives/didymo_maps.asp. (January2011)

Meck, E. D. 2004.AnevaluationofbenthicmacroinvertebratepopulationsintheSpringCreekwatershed.FinalReportsubmittedtotheSpringCreekChapterofTroutUnlimited,StateCollege,Pennsylvania.

Mercando, N. A. 1971.Populationdynamicsofbrowntroutandwhitesuckersfromahard-wateranda soft-waterstream.MasterofScienceThesis.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

NYDEC. 2009. (New York Department of Environmental Conservation)Nuisanceandinvasivespecies,DidymoAlert.Available: http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/54244.html. (January2011)


Nyström, P. 2002.Ecology,pp.192-235.In,D.M.Holdich,editor.Biologyoffreshwatercrayfish.BlackwellSciencePublishing,Oxford,UK.

PADEP. 2006. (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection)Limestonestreamsurveys.DocumentNumber391-3200-025.Harrisburg.

Ricker, W. E. 1975.Computationandinterpretationofbiologicalstatisticsoffishpopulations.Bulletin191,FisheriesResearchBoardofCanada,Ottawa,Canada.

Roth, B. M., and J. F. Kitchell. 2005.Theroleofsize-selectivepredationinthedisplacementofOrconectescrayfishesfollowingrustycrayfishinvasion.Crustaceana78:297-310.

Ryder, J. W. 2007.Aquaticbiologicalinvestigation,SpringCreekinCentreCo.PA,DEPFile#22966.PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionmemorandum February9,2007.Williamsport.

Scherer, R. C. 1965.Dynamicsofstreampopulationsofthewhitesucker,Catostomuscommersoni Lacepede.Doctoraldissertation.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

Schueler, T. R. 1994.Theimportanceofimperviousness.WatershedProtectionTechniques1(3):100-111.

Shields, D. L. 2003.FlyfishingPennsylvania’sSpringCreek.DLSEnterprises,Lemont,Pennsylvania.

Short, T. M., M. P. Giddings, H. Zappia, and J. F. Coles. 2005.UrbanizationeffectsonstreamhabitatcharacteristicsinBoston,Massachusetts;Birmingham,Alabama;andSaltLakeCity,Utah.Pages317-322inL.R.Brown, H.R.Gray,R.M.Hughes,andM.R.Meador,editors,Effectsofurbanizationonstreamecosystems.AmericanFisheriesSociety,Symposium47,Bethesda,Maryland.

Sovell, L. A., B. Vondracek, J. A. Frost, and K. G. Mumford. 2000.ImpactsofrotationalgrazingandriparianbuffersonphysiochemicalandbiologicalcharacteristicsofsoutheasternMinnesotastreams.EnvironmentalManagement26(6):629-641.

Spaulding, S. A., and L. Elwell. 2007.IncreaseinnuisancebloomsandgeographicexpansionofthefreshwaterdiatomDidymosphenia geminata.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpen-FileReport2007-1425,38p.Reston,Virginia.

Stanfield, L. W., S. F. Gibson, and J. A. Borwick. 2006. UsingalandscapeapproachtoidentifythedistributionanddensitypatternsofsalmonidsinLakeOntariotributaries.Pages601-621inR.M.Hughes,L.Wang,andP.W.Seelbach,editors.Landscapeinfluencesonstreamhabitatsandbiologicalassemblages.AmericanFisheriesSociety,Symposium48,Bethesda,Maryland.


Steffy, L. Y., S. L. McGinty, C. Welty, and S. S. Kilham. 2004.Connectinggroundwaterinfluxeswithfishspeciesdiversityinanurbanizedwatershed.JournaloftheAmericanWaterResourcesAssociation40(5):1269-1275.

Steffy, L. Y., and S. S. Kilham. 2006.EffectsofurbanizationandlanduseonfishcommunitiesinValleyCreekwatershed,ChesterCounty,Pennsylvania.UrbanEcosystems9:119-133.

Stranko, S. A., and coauthors. 2008.BrooktroutdeclineswithlandcoverandtemperaturechangesinMaryland.NorthAmericanJournalFisheriesManagement28:1223-1232.

Sweetland. 2001.StormwatermanagementplanfortheSpringCreekwatershed,CentreCounty,Pennsylvania.PreparedincooperationwiththeCentreCountyPlanningOffice.SubmittedtotheCentreCountyCommissionbySweetlandEngineering&Associates,Inc.StateCollege,Pennsylvania.

Taylor, L. E. 1997.WaterbudgetfortheSpringCreekbasin.PublicationNo.184,SusquehannaRiverBasinCommission,Harrisburg,Pennsylvania.

Trembley, G. L. 1963.Paradise---lostorregained?PennsylvaniaAngler32(4):6-8.

UAJA. 2008. (University Area Joint Authority)Beneficialre-useoftreatedwastewater.Available: www.uaja.com/planning/plan.htm. (January2011)

USGS. 2008a. (U.S. Geological Survey)Realtimedata,USGS01547100SpringCreekatMilesburg,PA.Available: http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/uv?01547100. (January2011)

USGS. 2008b. (U.S. Geological Survey)Realtimedata,USGS01546500SpringCreekatAxemann,PA.Available: http://waterdata.usgs.gov/pa/nwis/uv?01546500.(January2011)

Vincent, E. R. 1987.Effectsofstockingcatchable-sizehatcheryrainbowtroutontwowildtroutspeciesintheMadisonRiverandO’DellCreek,Montana.NorthAmericanJournalofFisheriesManagement7:91-105.

Vinson, M. R., and M. A. Baker. 2008.PoorgrowthofrainbowtroutfedNewZealandmudsnailsPotamopyrgusantipodarum.NorthAmericanJournalFisheriesManagement28:701-709

Wang, L., J. Lyons, and P. Kanehl. 2003.ImpactsofurbanlandcoverontroutstreamsinWisconsinandMinnesota.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety132:825-839.


Weber, R. J., and R. Carline. 2000.Effectsofelectrofishingonsurvivalandgrowthofwildbrowntrout(Salmotrutta)fromcentralPennsylvaniastreams.pages215-223,inD.Schill,S.Moore,P.Byroth,andB.Hamre,editors,WildTroutVIIManagementinthenewmillenium:areweready?WildTroutSymposium,Bozeman,Montana.Available:http://www.wildtroutsymposium.com.(January2011)

Wehrly, K. E., M. J. Wiley, and P. W. Seelbach. 2006.InfluenceoflandscapefeaturesonsummerwatertemperaturesinlowerMichiganstreams.Pages113-127inR.M.Hughes,L.Wang,andP.W.Seelbach,editors.Landscapeinfluencesonstreamhabitatsandbiologicalassemblages.AmericanFisheriesSociety,Symposium48,Bethesda,Maryland.

White, W. B. 1988.Geomorphologyandhydrologyofkarstterrains.OxfordUniversityPress.

Williams, R. S. 1981.Theeffectsofeutrophicationonthewhitesucker(CatostomuscommersoniLacepede)inSpringCreek.MasterofSciencethesis.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity, UniversityPark.

Wohnsiedler, T. H. 1969.Effectsofsewageeffluentonvariousstagesofthelifehistoryofthebrowntrout,Salmotrutta.Doctoraldissertation.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark.

WRMC. 1999.(WaterResourcesMonitoringCommittee)AnnualreportoftheWaterResourcesMonitoringCommittee.SpringCreekWatershedCommunity,ClearWaterConservancy,StateCollege,Pennsylvania.

WRMC. 2003.(WaterResourcesMonitoringCommittee)AnnualreportoftheWaterResourcesMonitoringCommittee.SpringCreekWatershedCommunity.ClearWaterConservancy,StateCollege,Pennsylvania.

WRMC. 2006.(WaterResourcesMonitoringCommittee)SPRINGS-lifebloodofthecommunity.AnnualReportfor2006.SpringCreekWatershedCommunity,ClearWaterConservancy,StateCollege,Pennsylvania.

Zorn, T. G., P. W. Seelbach, and M. J. Wiley. 2002DistributionsofstreamfishesandtheirrelationshiptostreamsizeandhydrologyinMichigan’slowerpeninsula.TransactionsoftheAmericanFisheriesSociety131:70-85.

Figure 1MapoftheSpringCreekwatershed,CentreCounty,Pennsylvania.Samplesectionsnumbered1to16.


Figure 2LanduseintheSpringCreekwatershed(CCPO1996)andmeandailystreamtemperaturesforJulyandJanuary(inparenthesis)fortheperiodJuly1999toJuly2003(WRMC2003).


Figure 3HumanpopulationofCentreCounty,1800-2005.AllmunicipalitiesincludetheboroughsofBellefonte,CentreHall,Milesburg,andStateCollegeandthe10townshipswithsomelandintheSpringCreekwatershed.Themajormunicipalitiesincludethreeboroughs(excludesCentreHall)andBenner,College,Harris,Patton,andSpringtownships,whichhavemostoftheirlandinthewatershed.

0

40,000

80,000

120,000

160,000

1800

1820

1840

1860

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

Centre County Major municipalities All municipalities

POPULATION


Figure 4AverageannualflowinSpringCreeknearAxemann(USGS2008b)andaverageannualprecipitationmeasuredatthePennsylvaniaStateUniversityweatherstation.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1942

1947

1952

1957

1962

1967

1972

1977

1982

1987

1992

1997

2002

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Flow

- m

3 /s

Precipitation Flow

PRECIPITATION - cm


Figure 5AverageannualalkalinityofSpringCreeknearAxemann(EPA2007).

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

ALKALINITY mg/L as CaCO3


0.01

0.10

1.00

10.00

1971 1976 1982 1987 1993 1998 2004

TOTAL PHOSPHORUS mg/L - P

Figure 6ConcentrationsoftotalphosphorusinSpringCreeknearAxemann(EPA2007).


0

50

100

150

200

250

300

2 4 6 7 9 13 15 16

Section

1980 1988 2000 2006

AGE - 1+ kg/ha

Figure 7Estimatedbiomassofage-1andolderbrowntroutineightsectionsofSpringCreek,1980-2006.


1980

1988

2000

2006

0

200

400

600

800

199 249 299 349 >350

0

200

400

600

800

199 249 299 349 >350

Section 4

0

100

200

300

400

199 249 299 349 >350

Length Interval - mm



NUMBER/ha

Section 13NUMBER/ha

Section 15NUMBER/ha

Figure 8Sizestructureofbrowntrout>150mmtotallengthinthreesectionsofSpringCreek.Valuesforlengthintervalsrepresenttheupperlimitofeachinterval.


0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 1 2 3 4

Age

Sec. 4 Sec. 6 Sec. 8 Sec. 13

MEAN LENGTH - mm

Figure 9Meanlengthatcaptureofbrowntroutages0to4infoursectionsofSpringCreek,August,1998.


0

100

200

300

400

500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Age

1980 1988 Statewide

MEAN LENGTH AT CAPTURE - mm

Figure 10Meanlengthatcaptureofbrowntroutages0to6inSpringCreekin1980and1988andforbrowntroutcollectedfromlimestonestreamsstatewide,1976-2006.


0

100

200

300

400

500

0 1 2 3 4

Age

4 8 9 11 14 15

MEAN WEIGHT - g

Figure 11Meanweightsofbrowntroutages0to3insixsectionsofSpringCreek.Collectionsweremadeatquarterlyintervals,April1990-April1992.


-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

Fa90 Wi90 Sp91 Su91 Fa91 Wi91 Sp92 Su92

Age 0 Age 1 Age 2

MEDIAN G/100 days

Figure 12Medianinstantaneousgrowth(G)per100daysofages0to2browntroutcollectedinfall(Fa),winter(Wi),spring(Sp),andsummer(Su),1990-1992.Valuesaremeansfromsixstreamsections.


y = -0.0108x + 16.348

R 2 = 0.420

5

10

15

20

25

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Age-0 catch/ha

MEAN WEIGHT - g

Figure 13Meanweightofage-0browntroutinAugustinrelationtothenumberofage-0browntroutcaptured.Eachpointrepresentsthemeanweightandcatchrateforasection.Datawerederivedfromtwosectionsin1990,6sectionsin1991,and5sectionsin1992.


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1987

1988

1997

1998

1999

2000

2002

2004

2005

Upper Middle Lower

REDDS/km

Figure 14NumberofreddscountedinSpringCreek,1987-2005.Theupperreachincludessections1to6,themiddleincludessections7to11,andthelowerreachincludessections12to16.


Figure 15MapoftheSpringCreekwatershedshowingsamplesectionnumbers,riparianrestorationsites,andconstructionsitesassociatedwithInterstateHighway99.


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

27.7

24.6

23.7

20.4

20.0

17.5

16.6

15.4

10.6 9.5 8.5 6.4 2.9 0.3

River Kilometers

20042001 2005 2006

IBI SCORESlab Cabin Run

UAJA

Benner Sp. SFH

Bellefonte SFHLogan Br. Bellefonte

WWT

Figure 16IndexofBioticIntegrity(IBI)scorescomputedfrombenthicmacroinvertebratedatacollectedfrom14sitesonSpringCreek,2001-2006.DatefromHughey(2002;2006),Meck(2004)andRyder(2007).EntrypointsofSlabCabinRun,UniversityAreaJointAuthority(UAJA)wastewatertreatmentplant,BennerSpringandBellefonteStateFishHatcheries(SFH),LoganBranch,andtheBellefontewastewatertreatment(WWT)plantaredenotedbysinglearrows.


0

10

20

30

40

50

Protected Impacted Degraded

BA

C

0

10

20

30

40

50

Protected Impacted Degraded

BA

C

Spring Cr.

Centre Region

BA

C

IMPERVIOUSNESS - %

Figure 17PercentageofimperviouslandcoverinawatershedandcategorizationofwatershedconditionfollowingrangesrecommendedbySchueler(1994)andArnoldandGibbons(1996).ThesymbolforSpringCreekrepresentstheentirewatershedandthatforCentreregionrepresentstheupperpartofthewatershed.Valuesforotherstudiesarethethreshholdlimitsbeyondwhichsalmonidswerenolongerfound:A-Stanfieldetal.(2006),B-Wangetal.(2003),andC-Strankoetal.(2008).


Table 1ListofcommonandscientificnamesoffishescapturedintheSpringCreekwatershed,1958-2008.CollectionsweremadebyR.F.Carline,E.L.Cooper,J.E.Detar,andB.A.Hollender.

Common Name Scientific Name

American eel Anguilla rostrata

Rainbow troutac Oncorhynchus mykiss

Brown troutbc Salmo trutta

Brook troutc Salvelinus fontinalis

Northern pikea Esox lucius

Hybrid muskellungea Esox lucius x E. masquinongy

Central stoneroller Campostoma anomalum

Goldfishb Carassius auratus

Common carpbc Cyprinus carpio

Cutlips minnowc Exoglossum maxillingua

Common shiner Luxilus cornutus

Golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas

Spottail shiner Notropis hudsonius

Rosyface shiner Notropis rubellus

Bluntnose minnow Pimephales notatus

Fathead minnowc Pimephales promelas

Blacknose dacec Rhinichthys atratulus

Longnose dacec Rhinichthys cataractae

Creek chubc Semotilus atromaculatus

Pearl dacec Margariscus margarita

White suckerc Catostomus commersonii

Northern hog sucker Hypentelium nigricans

Brown bullhead Ameiurus nebulosus

Banded killifishc Fundulus diaphanus

Rock bass Ambloplites rupestris

Redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus

Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus

Smallmouth bassa Micropterus dolomieu

Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides

Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus

Tessellated darterc Etheostoma olmstedi

Yellow perch Perca flavescens

Slimy sculpinc Cottus cognatusa Introduced from elsewhere in North America.b Introduced from outside of North America.c Currently maintains reproducing population in the watershed.


Table 2FishkillsinSpringCreekandtributariesinwhichmorethan100fishwerereportedorsuspectedkilled.InformationobtainedfromthePennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommissionfiles.

Year Pollutant and source Number and type of fish Location in Spring Creek or tributary

1952Low dissolved oxygen in discharge from Bellefonte treatment plant

Hundreds of white suckers

Spring Creek downstream of treatment plant

1954Warmwater effluent from West Penn Power Plant

~100 Spring Creek, Milesburg

1954 Waste discharge from Titan Metal Co.Unknown number of several species

Logan Branch and 2.4 km of Spring Creek

1956Sodium cyanide from Penn State University

147,072 hatchery trout and an unknown number of wild fishes

Benner Spring and Upper Spring Creek hatcheries; Thompson Run, Slab Cabin Run, Spring Creek

1958

Low dissolved oxygen linked to organic loading from Penn State University treatment plant and abundant plant growth

~2,000 trout Benner Spring hatchery

1963Butyl alcohol discharge (~100 gal) from Nease Chemical Co.

1,500 trout, minnows, suckers

Downstream of Highway 26 bridge

1963Butyl alcohol discharge (~175 gal) from Nease Chemical Co.

1,600 of several species


1965Large discharge of toluene from explosion and fire at Nease Chemical Co.

Unknown number of several species

Complete kill of all fish for 2.4 km downstream of Highway 26 bridge

1970Sewage discharge (130,000 gal) from UAJA

1,100 troutSpring Creek downstream of treatment plant

1971 Spill from Nease Chemical Co. 6,000 troutDownstream of Highway 26 bridge

1971 Toxic discharge from Nease Chemical Co.Thousands of several species

Spring Creek downsteam of Highway 26 bridge for 4.0 km

1972Fuel oil spill (2,700 gal) from Skat service station

>25,000 wild and hatchery trout


1972 Unknown>400 of several species

Thompson Run and Slab Cabin Run to Spring Creek

1988 Chlorine discharge from UAJA>1,000 of several species

Downstream of UAJA outfall

1990Chlorinated pool water from PSU discharged into Thompson Run

UnknownThompson Run and Slab Cabin Run to Spring Creek

2005Low flow conditions and high temperatures

> 250 trout Slab Cabin Run


Table 3Numbersofhatchery-rearedtroutthatwerestockedinSpringCreekinsectionswherestatewideregulationswereineffectandinFisherman’sParadise.

Trout Species Trout Species

StreamBrook Brown Rainbow Subtotal Brook Brown Rainbow Subtotal Total

1931 400 400 4001932 2,560 2,560 2,5601933 960 6,880 7,840 7,8401934 13,520 13,520 2,122 4,440 2,125 8,687 22,2071935 800 6,720 4,620 12,140 1,200 7,261 244 8,705 20,8451936 4,000 3,440 7,440 3,320 805 4,125 11,5651937 2,280 6,040 6,040 14,360 473 3,176 2,039 5,688 20,0481938 3,280 8,725 13,590 25,595 421 1,422 4,879 6,722 32,3171939 2,000 10,800 7,700 20,500 2,250 2,201 4,451 24,9511940 3,500 5,600 8,900 18,000 603 11,543 2,772 14,918 32,9181941 5,625 8,800 11,500 25,925 550 6,170 5,338 12,058 37,9831942 10,100 9,000 7,200 26,300 611 7,149 6,578 14,338 40,6381943 7,790 3,750 1,760 13,300 333 2,158 535 3,026 16,3261944 9,000 12,050 2,350 23,400 1,057 6,911 137 8,105 31,5051945 6,224 7,845 3,800 17,869 6,376 7,773 2,988 17,137 35,0061946 11,750 13,253 8,138 33,141 175 4,990 5,660 10,825 43,9661947 16,050 10,550 7,000 33,600 485 7,881 6,715 15,081 48,6811948 2,800 24,680 5,500 32,980 2,485 5,165 5,135 12,785 45,7651949 11,185 13,460 14,798 39,443 75 8,590 3,800 12,465 51,9081950 2,800 23,785 14,665 41,250 75 6,065 11,685 17,825 59,0751951 400 21,750 16,100 38,250 405 6,485 5,570 12,460 50,7101952 6,275 18,190 21,245 45,710 130 8,535 3,870 12,535 58,2451953 1,803 17,240 22,257 41,300 225 8,805 5,370 14,400 55,7001954 10,782 15,967 17,906 44,655 200 7,170 6,610 13,980 58,6351955 7,450 15,480 19,231 42,161 795 5,905 7,365 14,065 56,2261956 19,406 17,213 18,724 55,343 1,050 6,250 8,610 15,910 71,2531957 17,393 9,160 18,301 44,854 450 7,225 8,695 16,370 61,2241958 1,352 18,030 10,539 29,921 1,320 8,260 5,135 14,715 44,6361959 500 13,545 13,645 27,690 400 7,645 5,235 13,280 40,9701960 9,030 7,450 5,850 22,330 365 5,535 5,905 11,805 34,1351961 18,615 8,355 2,280 29,250 960 6,225 5,165 12,350 41,6001962 6,650 24,880 3,945 35,475 375 825 100 1,300 36,7751963 0 23,630 2,680 26,310 36 400 464 900 27,210

1964 2,508 19,305 5 21,818 825 75 900 22,7181965 6,117 6,804 1,039 13,960 1,275 375 1,650 15,6101966 3,999 14,609 528 19,136 125 1,490 75 1,690 20,826

Spring Creek (except for Fisherman’s Paradise) Fisherman’s Paradise


Table 3 (continued)


1967 4,541 12,961 2,074 19,576 95 1,295 310 1,700 21,2761968 2,515 21,283 902 24,700 35 1,550 150 1,735 26,4351969 2,470 24,730 1,079 28,279 1,300 1,300 29,579

1970 500 15,745 13,620 29,865 1,700a 31,5651971 4,241 31,203 11,231 46,675 1,700a 48,3751972 4,430 15,165 12,530 32,125 1,700a 33,825

1973 2,420 25,700 5,230 33,350 1,700a 35,0501974 2,760 17,170 9,320 29,250 1,700a 30,950

1975 1,440 10,068 14,542 26,050 1,700a 27,750

1976 3,100 11,650 11,300 26,050 1,700a 27,750

1977 2,060 11,800 7,790 21,650 1,700a 23,3501978 2,500 3,715 2,485 8,700 715 1,055 1,770 10,4701979 20 4,095 4,185 8,300 20 585 795 1,400 9,7001980 540 2,315 2,845 5,700 40 815 845 1,700 7,4001981 100 2,300 2,500 4,900 450 450 900 5,800

Totals 1,292,896 1,652,252

Trout Species Trout Species

StreamBrook Brown Rainbow Subtotal Brook Brown Rainbow Subtotal Total

a Number of trout requested to be stocked; actual number stocked is not available; species not distinguished.

Spring Creek (except for Fisherman’s Paradise) Fisherman’s Paradise

Table 4FisherystatisticsforthespeciallyregulatedFisherman’sParadise,1934-1952.

Year Number Number of Trout Harvested

of anglers trout caught Number Mean weight (kg)

1934 2,952 4,729 2,472 0.25

1935 3,265 8,457 3,247 0.39

1936 6,513 8,467 2,663 0.43

1937 9,123 7,028 4,101 0.37

1938 12,932 13,662 4,796 0.46

1939 14,755 14,556 5,950 0.49

1940 16,891 18,750 8,149 0.47

1941 20,412 18,566 7,680 0.62

1942 16,629 20,133 6,448 0.54

1943 2,764 5,314 1,805 0.56

1944 12,300 12,471 5,895 0.49

1945 13,505 21,258 6,676 0.48

1946 21,882 29,906 9,469 0.60

1947 26,994 30,236 10,799 0.65

1948 28,566 50,683 6,670 0.76

1949 34,323 58,121 6,127 0.79

1950 34,796 76,197 8,057

1952 44,034 8,999 0.91


photo-PFBC Archives

Vintage photograph of anglers registering at Fisherman’s Paradise.

Section 4

Section 9 Section 13

Species Number/ha kg/ha Number/ha kg/ha Number/ha kg/ha

Brown trout 910 113.41 5 0.47 379 74.28

Common carp 1 a

Cutlips minnow 25 0.56 596 4.04

Common shiner 72 0.56 798 15.13

Golden shiner 262 1.57 1 b

Spottail shiner 400 4.04

Bluntnose minnow 259 0.34

Fathead minnow 198 0.56 20 0.11

Blacknose dace 29,650 31.83 3,623 16.03 1,310 4.15

Longnose dace 13,531 57.72 4,154 11.10 3,037 14.57

Creek chub 1,596 58.85 647 13.11

White sucker 6,501 757.70 1,707 294.79 5,960 851.85

Northern hogsucker 47 7.51

Brown bullhead 27 0.11

Pumpkinseed 57 0.04

Slimy sculpin 85,473 291.09 10 0.01 845 5.72

Totals 136,065 1,252 11,708 385 14,327 995

Table 5Densityandbiomassofage-0andolderfishesinSection4(RKa28.0),thecleanreach,Section9(RK18.4),thepollutedreach,andSection13(RK6.4),therecoveryreachin1966.Browntroutincludeonlywildspecimens(Wohnsiedler1969).EstimatesofallotherspecieswereobtainedfromE.L.Cooper’sfiles.

a River kilometers from mouth of Spring Creek.b Only one specimen was collected.


Table 6Density(number/ha)andbiomass(kg/ha)ofwildbrowntroutinFisherman’sParadise,1980-2000.Valuesforage-0browntroutrepresentthetotalnumberofcapturedduringtwoelectrofishingpasses.Valuesforage-1andolderbrowntroutarebasedonpopulationestimates.

Year

Age-0 Age -1 and older

Number/ha Number/ha kg/ha 1980 19 612 252

1981 1 386 150

1982 12 278 106

1983 101 396 80

1989 90 424 138

2000 423 1,889 425

Median 55

410

144


Table 7Density(number/ha)ofwildbrowntroutinsixsectionsofSpringCreek,1980-2006.Valuesforage-0browntroutrepresentthetotalnumbercapturedduringtwoelectrofishingpasses.Valuesforage-1andolderfisharebasedonpopulationestimates.

Section Age 0Age 1

and olderAge 0

Age 1and older Age 0

Age 1and older Age 0

Age 1and older

2 1,399 291 348 861 233 1,144 114 1,034

4 358 310 416 927 1,278 255 61 368

6 78 453 173 678 20 527

13 378 609 241 1,327 456 1,302 213 1,563

15 20 56 180 827 332 1,172 40 798

16 9 6 230 728 111 1,418 22 1,131

Median 218 301 236 844 332 1,172 51 916

1980 1988 2000 2006


photo-PFBC Archives

A Spring Creek wild brown trout.

Table 8FisherystatisticsforthreesectionsofSpringCreek.The1976surveyextendedfromApril17toJune20,andharvestwaslegal(Hartzler1977).The1988-1989surveyextendedfromJune1toNovember30,1988andfromMarch15toMay31,1989(Carlineetal.1991).The2006surveyextendedfromApril15toJune30.Trout/hourandcatch/harepresentnumbersharvestedin1976andnumberscaughtandreleasedin1988-1989.

Angler-hour/haTrout/hour Catch/haYear Section

Apr-Jun Remaining months All months

1976 9 2,763 0.22 207

1988 -1989 9 1,517 1,857 3,374 1.25 4,249

12 1,714 1,666 3,380 0.77 2,765

13 526 440 966 1.29 1,374

2006 12 3,209

13 1,363


Table 9SummaryofIndexofBioticIntegrity(IBI)scoresfor14sitesonSpringCreek.ImpairedsiteshadanIBIscoreof<55.LengthofimpairedstreamwascomputedfromthemidpointbetweensiteswhenIBIscoreschangedfromunimpairedtoimpairedorviceversa.Thepercentageofimpairedstreamlengthwasbasedonatotallengthof27.7km.ThepercentagedeviationofstreamdischargewascomputedbyusingdischargedatafromtheAxemanngagesiteonSpringCreek.IBIscoresweretakenfromorcomputedfromdatainHughey(2002,2006),Meck(2004),andRyder(2007).

Length of stream impaired

Year Mean IBI

scoreNumber of

impaired sites (km) (%)

Percent deviation of stream dischargefrom long term average during

12 months prior to sample collection

2001 46.4 10 18.5 66.9 -26.3

2004 70.1 2 5.9 21.2 64.2

2005 66.3 4 7.2 25.9 84.9

2006 64.3 7 12.2 43.9 - 3.1


photo by J. Detar

Spring Creek, upsteam of Fisherman’s Paradise.

Appendix Figure 1Locationsoffishsamplingsites(denotedasriverkilometers,RK,upstreamfromthestreammouth)onSpringCreekandtributaries.


Appendix 1FishescapturedwithelectrofishinggearinSpringCreekandtributariesbyE.L.Cooperin1958and1959.NumbersoffishesinSection4arepopulationestimatesbasedonmark-recapturetechniques.Abundant=A,Common=C.

Spring Creek Slab CabinRun

ThompsonRun

Section 4 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13

River kilometer 27.95 24.20 22.46 21.14 18.28 17.11 16.28 15.60 11.61 9.90 6.32 0.02 1.75 0.42

American eel 2a >3b >7 C

Rainbow trout

Brown trout 404 A C 4 4 2 8 >3b >35 C 15 10 2

Brook trout 2 1 8a >10b >16b C 3

Northern pike

Central stoneroller

Goldfish

Common carp

Cutlips minnow 1 7 4 2 1 30 12 14 36

Common shiner 1

1

11 7 44 6 16 8

Golden shiner

Spottail shiner

Rosyface shiner

Bluntnose minnow

Fathead minnow 1

Blacknose dace 1,970 57 40 26 24 93 13 170 43 32 68 68 55 1

Longnose dace 200 11 5 12 8 18 22 12 5 20 52 4 25

Creek chub 2 2 18 13 1 1 5 13 43 23 1

1

Pearl dace 199 1 1

White sucker 1,577 15 1 5 5 5 10 17 A A 166 26 63

Northern hog sucker

Rock bass

Redbreast sunfish

Largemouth bass

Tessellated darter 3 1 2 2 13

Slimy sculpin A 27 4 5 16 53 6 3

a Hatchery-rearedb Several with adipose clips indicating hatchery origin


Appendix 2FishescapturedwithelectrofishinggearinSpringCreekandThompsonRunbyE.L.Cooperin1966. Abundant=A

Section 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 16 16

River kilometer 25.53 23.96 23.86 22.46 21.14 19.91 18.28 16.77 8.91 8.24 7.25 6.45 6.42 5.86 4.46 1.37 0.00 0.39

American eel 2

Rainbow trout 6b

1

1

Brown troutca. 50a

ca. 15a 11 20 24a 4b 94b A 25a 158a 83a Aa

Aa 1a Few

Brook trout 17a 4b 1

1

Northern pike 1

Central stoneroller 2

Goldfish 1

Common carp 1 3

Cutlips minnow 2

9 8 3 9 8 9 7 6 4

Common shiner 1 9 8 6 13 12 3 5 8 10 12 12

Golden shiner 11 41 4 2 4

2 1Spottail shiner

2

2

1

5 4

Rosyface shiner 10

Bluntnose minnow 3 11 1 12 17 16 1

Fathead minnow 13 11 11 3

2

1

Blacknose dace 18 19 6 5 3

2 24 7 12 22 16 9 15

6

1

2

1 7

Longnose dace 8 21 10 16 4

3 15 5 4 11 18 2 9

6

9 16

Creek chub 4

9

6 8 2

13 15 7 7 3 30 4 18 4 1

9

Pearl dace 1 2

White sucker 7 1 4

9

3

9 14 7 26 9 27 2 13 5 10 5 6 5

Northern hogsucker 12

1Rock bass

1

Redbreast sunfish

1

Largemouth bass

1

2

Tessellated darter 3

Slimy sculpin 26 2 5 1 7 1 28

Spring CreekThompson

Run

a Includes age-0 fishb Hatchery reared


Appendix 3FishescapturedwithelectrofishinggearinSpringCreekbyPennsylvaniaFishandBoatCommissionandPennsylvaniaCooperativeFishandWildlifeResearchUnitpersonnelin2000.X=present

Section

River kilometer

1 2 4 7 8 9 11 11 12 12 13 15 16

32.09 29.95 27.37 23.50 21.69 18.41 13.23 12.18 10.53 8.67 6.42 2.61 0.60

American eel

Rainbow trout 4b 6b 2b x 13b 2b

Brown trout 272a, 2b 134a 378a 141a 91a 201a 360a 649a 710a 538a 496a 554a 459a, 3b

Brook trout

Northern pike

Central stoneroller

Goldfish

Common carp

Cutlips minnow

Common shiner

Golden shiner

Spottail shiner

Rosyface shiner

Bluntnose minnow

Fathead minnow

Blacknose dace

Longnose dace

Creek chub

Pearl dace

White sucker x

x x

x

x x x x x x

x x x x x x x

x

x

x

x

x x

x x x x x x x x x

x

x x x x

x

x x x

x

x

x

x x

x

x x x x

x x x x x x x x x

Northern hogsucker

Rock bass

Redbreast sunfish

Largemouth bass

Tessellated darterSlimy sculpin

Pumpkinseed

Black crappie

Smallmouth bass

Yellow perch

Spring Creek

a Includes age-0 fishb Hatchery reared


Appendix 4NumbersoftroutreddscountedinSpringCreekduringthelasttwoweeksofNovember.

Section Year

1987 1988 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2004 2005

1 23 30 28 8 2 2 31 37 2

2 92 114 43 17 24 31 171 79 3

3 35 50 15 29 19 18 37 56 14

4 71 103 57 109 35 139 71 142 73

5 56 73 5 38 2 39 34 26 60

6 42 38 17 14 30 36 46 123 88

7 23 9 47 32 36 38 75 52 109

8 20 14 19 35 15 42 116 248 36

9 16 39 128 156 143 193 259 234 143

10 26 38 83 48 98 157 162 79 44

11 12 7 123 190 199 337 80 152 110

12 19 a 135 158 195 143 243 150 196 443

13 165 157 142 161 127 135 260 264 251

14 77 61 137 90 134 89 176 97 267

15 37 51 49 35 49 107 162 194 142

16 50 15 33 22 45 44 85 98 57

Totals 745 934 1,084 1,179 1,101 1,650 1,915 2,077 1,823

Spring Creek

a Surveyed before peak spawning


Vintage photographs of Fisherman’s Paradise.

photos-PFBC Archives

The mission of thePennsylvania Fish & Boat

Commission isto protect,

conserve and enhancethe Commonwealth’saquatic resources andprovide fishing and

boating opportunities.

photo-PFBC Archives

The Fishery of Spring Creek - Pennsylvania Fish & Boat ...€¦ · In addition, Spring Creek was...

Documents

Transcript of The Fishery of Spring Creek - Pennsylvania Fish & Boat ...€¦ · In addition, Spring Creek was...