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The Evolving Role of Government: Migration and Education Trends in

Europe

UNIVERSITY OF DUBLINTRINITY COLLEGEDepartment of Sociology

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIABERKELEYDepartment of Sociology

Dr. Daniel FaasFulbright‐Schuman Fellow, UC Berkeley

Assistant Professor in Sociology, Trinity College

Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race, Ethnicity and Diversity – May 4, 2009

14.05.2009The Evolving Role of Government:

Migration and education trends in EuropeDr. Daniel Faas 2

Overview

1. American and European ‘multiculturalism’

2. Immigration‐related demographics in Europe

3. Responses to diversity: Convergence or divergence?

4. Migrant student performance and educational challenges

5. What can the US learn from Europe? The role of languages



American ‘multiculturalism’

• US policy deals poorly with the needs of immigrants and centered on‘race’ and civil rights rather than language or culture

• Focus on group differences and mainly Christian communities

• Theoretical focus on empowerment of ethno‐cultural groups but state neutrality towards religion (e.g. Will Kymlicka)

• Canadian policy of multiculturalism with a stronger state interest in integration through public recognition of cultural and ethnic diversity (greater signs of political integration since 1970s)

Source: Bloemraad, I. (2006) Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants and Refugees in the United States and Canada, Berkeley: UCP.



European ‘multiculturalism’

• Focus on the consequences of immigration and the presence of large Muslim populations (15m or 4% of the population in Europe);

• Theoretical focus on democratic citizenship and ethno‐religiousdiversity, ‘multiculturalism a form of integration’ (e.g. Tariq Modood)

• Emphasis in Europe has shifted from phenotype to the religious dimension associated with multiculturalism.

• Multiculturalism and/or interculturalism in Europe? (social cohesion, less groupist, dialogue and communication)

Source: Modood, T. (2007) Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea, Cambridge: Polity Press.



Change in immigration in Europe (2002=100%)

Source: Eurostat estimates 2008



Immigration per 1000 inhabitants in 2006

Source: Eurostat Migration Statistics 2008



Immigrant student shares in schools (%)

Source: OECD Thematic Review on Migrant Education 2008

0 .0

2 .0

4 .0

6 .0

8 .0

10 .0

12 .0

14 .0

16 .0

18 .0

20 .0

Second generation First gene ration



Changes in immigrant student shares 2000‐2006


‘Old’

‘Old’

‘Old’



Distribution of migrant students across schools


0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

USA GRC CAN BEL AUT SWE NLD AUS DNK GER LUX GBR FRA NZL CHE PRT ITA NOR ESP IRL

Inc lusion Index PISA 2006



European convergence or national divergence?

• Civic integration courses and tests introduced in a variety of countries (e.g. Netherlands, Denmark), focus on learning of the host language

• Headscarf debates lead to total ban of religious symbols in French schools and teacher headscarf ban in several German states

• Liberalisation of naturalisation laws (e.g. Germany in 2000), but tightening of regulations in other member states (e.g. Ireland in 2004/05)

• Different pathways to immigrant integration, different legacies lead to different status quo across EU member states.



Governmental responses to diversity

Source: Koopmans, R. et al. (2005) Contested Citizenship: Immigration and Cultural Diversity in Europe, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Monocultural

Ius sanguinis

Multicultural

Ius soli



Challenge: balancing diversity and cohesion

• Common EU (and transatlantic) challenge: How to promote cultural diversity and social cohesion?

• Large numbers of children from a migrant background in schools who are in a weak socio‐economic position.

• National responses given the different legacies:

‘old hosts’ with a monocultural vision (Denmark, Germany)‘old hosts’ with a multicultural vision (UK, Netherlands)‘new hosts’ with a multicultural approach (Ireland, Portugal)‘new hosts’ with a monocultural approach (Poland, Greece)



Example 1: Ireland

• Mass immigration following May 1st, 2004 EU enlargement (Poles)• Towards 2016: Ten Year Framework Social Partnership Agreement, • National Development Plan 2007 – 2013, • National Action Plan for Social Inclusion 2007 – 2016,• Statement on Integration Strategy and Diversity Management• 2009 Intercultural Education Strategy

BUT

• Training of English Language Support Teachers inadequate• Discontinuation of National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism (NCCRI) and Integrate Ireland Language and Training services (IILT) – 500+ ESL axed, 2 ESL teachers per school from 2009



Example 2: Germany

• 1996 Intercultural Education at School document • 1999 Reform of naturalisation/citizenship law• 2005 Immigration Act following paradigm shift under Schröder• 2006 First Integration Summit, separate Islam summits (Turks)• 2007 National Integration Plan at second summit: Promoting German language from the very start one of 10 priority policy areas. Aktion zusammen wachsen (‘Growing Together Initiative’) ‐ sponsorship

BUT

• Integration a precondition for naturalisation (CDU) vs. SPD• Integration courses – up to 900 hours language and 30 hours cultural, political, historical, legal aspects. Test at end (17/33 questions correct)



Example 3: United Kingdom

• Over twenty ‘race’ and immigration legislations since 1947• 2007 Schools are obliged to educate for community cohesion• 2008 Secondary Curriculum Review introduced global dimension as one of seven cross‐curricular dimensions (cultural diversity and identity; community participation; enterprise; healthy lifestyles are others)• GCSE exams available in ‘community languages’ (e.g. Turkish, Urdu)

BUT

• MFL ceased to be compulsory at Key Stage Four (age 14‐16) in 2005• Number of pupils taking ‘community languages’ (and other languages) continue to fall – teach Mandarin, Bengali (Dearing Review, 2007)• Community language teachers often lack Qualified Teacher Status



Destination: United Kingdom

1. InvasionsRomans (from 43 AD), Anglo‐Saxon tribes (from 400‐500 AD), Vikings (from 800 AD) Norman French (in 1066)

2. Migration and EthnicityWhite 52, 481,000Asian 2,329,000 (or Asian British)

Black 1,148,000 (or Black British)Chinese 243,000Mixed 674,000

Largest minority ethnic group are the Indians with 1,052,000 (Census 2001)



Example 4: Greece

• 1990 Mass immigration following fall of Iron Curtain (Albanians)• 1996 Greek Education Abroad, Intercultural Education and Other Provisions established ‘intercultural schools’ (45% threshold)• 1999 Ministerial Decree on Intercultural Education: establishment andfunctioning of reception and support classes • 2001 and 2005 Immigration Acts – Article 72 optional mother‐tongue teaching and culture upon request, not implemented

BUT

• Recognition of diversity but societal homogeneity based on Orthodoxy, citizenship (10 years for naturalisation!) and Greek language• ‘Intercultural schools’ can provide heritage language courses 4 hours per week, little concern for heritage language/culture except progressivists



Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)

• Measures migrant integration in 28 countries (EU‐25 plus Canada, Switzerland, Norway) using 140 policy indicators across 6 policy areas : Labour market access, family reunion, long‐term residence, political participation, access to nationality, anti‐discrimination

• Favourable/partially favourable: Sweden favourable (top on labour market access in every indicator), 9 partially favourable (Nordic countries, Western Mediterranean, Benelux, Canada and the UK).

• Partially unfavourable/unfavourable: 5 countries partially unfavourable (LV, CY, GR, SK, AT). 10 lowest scores are the Baltic Republics, the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean and Central Europe, and DK.

Source: http://www.integrationindex.eu/



Latest European initiatives and documents

• CoE: 2002 The New Challenge of Intercultural Education; 2003 Intercultural Education: Managing Diversity, Strengthening Democracy; 2005 Policies and Practices for Teaching Socio‐Cultural Diversity

• Council of Europe’s Language Policy Division including 2001 Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR):http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/

• EU: 2008 Green Paper on Migration and Mobility; 2008 European Pact on Immigration and Asylum

• 2008 European Year of Intercultural Dialoguehttp://www.interculturaldialogue2008.eu/



Migration and educational challenges

• Importance of education for construction of national identity, social inclusion and building society’s future citizens

• In several European countries, up to 15% of the student population now has an immigrant background; and countries like Ireland, Italy and Spain have seen threefold increase in migrant pupils since 2000.

• Average deficit of one year of study between students with an immigrant background and their native peers in OECD countries (cf. PISA).

• In Germany, deficit is three years of study between second‐generation Turkish students and native German students (cf. PISA 2003, 2006).

• Consequence: focus on language learning – language as a key factor!

Source: European Commission (2008) Migration and Mobility: Challenges and Opportunities for EU Education Systems. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/education/school21/com423_en.pdf



Reading performance of primary school pupils

Source: 2006 PIRLS data set



Reading performance at secondary level

Source: OECD PISA 2006



Reading performance EU vs. NZL, CAN and AUS


350

400

450

500

550

ITA PRT ESP BEL DNK GRC NOR CHE LUX DEU SW E NLD FRA AUT GBR IRL NZL CAN AUS

Native students Fir st gene ration immigrants

OECD ‐Ave rage



Effects of speaking a foreign language at home


‐140

‐120

‐100

‐80

‐60

‐40

‐20

0

20

40

60

IRL PRT ITA BEL GRC DEU NZL AUT GBR DNK CHE CAN AUS NLD LUX NOR SW E FRA ESP

Se cond gene ration First gene ration

U nstandard ised coe ff icie nt, statistically sign if icant e ffe cts are marked in darke r tone s.



Maths performance of students in Europe (PISA)




Science performance of students in Europe




Early school leavers aged 18‐24 by nationality

Source: Eurostat Labour Force Survey 2005



2008 Green paper on migration and mobility

Based on earlier Directive 77/486/CEE; applies to children for whom school attendance is compulsory under the laws of the host Member State, and who are dependants of a worker who is a national of another Member State.

It provides that Member States should:

• Teach an official language of the host State; and

• Teach the mother tongue and culture of the country of origin (heritage language) in coordination with normal education.



Examples of positive policy responses in Europe

• Host language as key to integration: all member states stress this and have all put in place specific provisions to support this.

• Efforts to promote learning of the heritage language, sometimes within the framework of bilateral agreements with other Member States.

• Promotion of adult language training among migrant communities to help to break the intergenerational transmission of disadvantage.

• Pre‐school education often focuses on language development: can be of particular help in equipping migrant pupils for later schooling.



What can the US learn from Europe?

• Identification of the main challenges at EU level and formulation of policy recommendations via the Open Method of Coordination.

• Primary focus on learning host language and secondary focus on promoting heritage language/ 2 of 8 key competences

• Policies matter: Segregation, ability grouping/tracking, teacher awareness. Student background (linguistic, socio‐economic) matters too

• Effectively mitigate the negative impact of segregation and/or self‐segregation (school networking, housing policies)

Source: Council of the European Union (2006) Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. Available at: http://eur‐lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_394/l_39420061230en00100018.pdf




• Language matters: Provide systematic language support for both children and their parents.

1. Provide an early start in language learning2. Integrate language and content learning3.Encourage schools to offer special language programmes (but encourage transition to mainstream classes after one year)4. Provide special resources (financial or additional teachers) to schools with high proportions of immigrants who need language support5. Make language support systemic with clearly defined goals and standards6. Improve access to learning in mother language7. Train teachers in second language acquisition





• Teachers matter: Make the teaching workforce responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity.

1. Design teacher education/ training programmes so that teachers can:Solve problems of explicit/implicit racism ‐ peersManage classroom and deal with cultural conflicts ‐ peersTake a supportive and mentor’s roleHave high expectations for students regardless of their backgrounds Adopt their teaching methods to better meet the needs of studentsMotivate those students who are in a vulnerable situation

2.Hire more teachers with immigrant backgrounds (cf. Germany)3. Provide additional teachers to work with immigrant students or students at risk in general





• Schools matter: Make school culture more responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity

1.Mainstream intercultural education into school curriculum – balancing diversity (heritage language) and cohesion (host language)2. Adopt curriculum to respond to the linguistic and cultural diversity3. Train school leaders 4.Provide more learning opportunities (homework centres, after‐school classes, summer schools, remedial courses, language supplementary courses, etc) to those who are in need, especially those who lack parental support at home and who lag behind in studies; and ensure that information about such opportunities will reach them.




Contact details

Dr. Daniel FaasAssistant Professor in Sociology

Trinity College DublinDepartment of Sociology

3 College Green, Dublin 2, IrelandPhone: +353 1 896 3443 E‐mail: [email protected]

Web: http://www.tcd.ie/sociology/staff/faas.php

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