The Evolution of the The Evolution of the PresidencyPresidency

Tidbits About the First PresidentTidbits About the First PresidentWashington spent the vast majority of his life Washington spent the vast majority of his life outdoors, and reveled in horse riding and outdoors, and reveled in horse riding and swordsmanship.swordsmanship.

Washington had little formal education, but longed Washington had little formal education, but longed to be wealthy. His father died when he was eleven, to be wealthy. His father died when he was eleven, and he was raised by his aristocratic half-brother, and he was raised by his aristocratic half-brother, Lawrence Washington. Lawrence owned much Lawrence Washington. Lawrence owned much land, including Mt. Vernon. Lawrence died in 1752 land, including Mt. Vernon. Lawrence died in 1752 making George the heir.making George the heir.

Before the revolution, Washington married Martha Before the revolution, Washington married Martha Custis, a widow and heir to one of the largest Custis, a widow and heir to one of the largest fortunes in America. This made Washington one of fortunes in America. This made Washington one of the wealthiest. Washington was also granted the wealthiest. Washington was also granted substantial land (about 500,000 acres) by the substantial land (about 500,000 acres) by the Continental Congress after the Revolution.Continental Congress after the Revolution.

Washington was 6’2” tall, Martha was about 5’ tall.Washington was 6’2” tall, Martha was about 5’ tall.

Washington never had children of his own, leading Washington never had children of his own, leading some to believe he was sterile. Fears of a some to believe he was sterile. Fears of a hereditary monarchy assuaged by his inability to hereditary monarchy assuaged by his inability to produce a blood heir.produce a blood heir.

As president, Washington received a salary of As president, Washington received a salary of $25,000, or about a million dollars in todays $25,000, or about a million dollars in todays money. Of this, he spent an incredible 7 percent on money. Of this, he spent an incredible 7 percent on alcohol. He especially liked Madeira and Port wine.alcohol. He especially liked Madeira and Port wine.

While president he spent most of his time at Mt. While president he spent most of his time at Mt. Vernon. He splurged on a variety of luxuries, Vernon. He splurged on a variety of luxuries, including leopard skin robes for his stable of including leopard skin robes for his stable of matched horses.matched horses.

Washington did not have wooden teeth, but did Washington did not have wooden teeth, but did have dentures. His dentures were made of have dentures. His dentures were made of hippopotamus bone, a very porous material, hippopotamus bone, a very porous material, resulting in his teeth being black. This is why one resulting in his teeth being black. This is why one seldom sees him smiling. He never chopped down seldom sees him smiling. He never chopped down a cherry tree or threw a dollar across the a cherry tree or threw a dollar across the Rappahannock River.Rappahannock River.

Washington had a VERY hot temper, during the Washington had a VERY hot temper, during the Revolution “swearing himself blue in the face” and Revolution “swearing himself blue in the face” and “cane whipping” his soldiers. Jefferson reported “cane whipping” his soldiers. Jefferson reported that Washington went into a rage at a cabinet that Washington went into a rage at a cabinet meeting: “The president was much inflamed. [He] meeting: “The president was much inflamed. [He] got into one of those passions when he cannot got into one of those passions when he cannot control himself… [yelling] that BY GOD he had control himself… [yelling] that BY GOD he had rather be in his grave than in his present situation.”rather be in his grave than in his present situation.”

George Washington died at age 67, in December George Washington died at age 67, in December 1799, about three years after the end of his 1799, about three years after the end of his presidency. presidency.

He died of a cold, or pneumonia, or strep throat, or He died of a cold, or pneumonia, or strep throat, or ??? It is unclear from contemporary accounts. ??? It is unclear from contemporary accounts.

The men attempting to save him were, like most The men attempting to save him were, like most 1818thth Century physicians “quacks.” Over Martha’s Century physicians “quacks.” Over Martha’s protests, the bled him four times, made him drink a protests, the bled him four times, made him drink a concoction of molasses, vinegar, and butter. They concoction of molasses, vinegar, and butter. They also filled him with laxatives trying to purge his also filled him with laxatives trying to purge his foundering system. However, they only succeeded foundering system. However, they only succeeded in forcing the poor man to spend his last hours on in forcing the poor man to spend his last hours on earth on a chamber pot.earth on a chamber pot.

Washington was initially buried in a very modest Washington was initially buried in a very modest hillside family mausoleum (a rotten wooden door hillside family mausoleum (a rotten wooden door today) at Mt. Vernon. He was reinterred at a better today) at Mt. Vernon. He was reinterred at a better site at Mt. Vernon in 1837. Still, when compared site at Mt. Vernon in 1837. Still, when compared with the tombs of other great leaders, with the tombs of other great leaders, Washington’s tomb is very modest.Washington’s tomb is very modest.

Mechanisms for Changing the Mechanisms for Changing the PresidencyPresidency

Expansion of the presidency, both the size and Expansion of the presidency, both the size and power of the institution, has been enabled by power of the institution, has been enabled by the vagueness and imprecision of the the vagueness and imprecision of the Constitution with respect to presidential duties.Constitution with respect to presidential duties.

Some would argue that this lack of clarity was Some would argue that this lack of clarity was precisely what the founding fathers intended precisely what the founding fathers intended so that the presidency could evolve through so that the presidency could evolve through time.time.

There have been two mechanisms for There have been two mechanisms for changing the presidency through time. changing the presidency through time. – informal actions on the part of presidents informal actions on the part of presidents – formally altering the office through formally altering the office through

constitutional amendment, statute, or constitutional amendment, statute, or formal presidential action such as issuing formal presidential action such as issuing an executive order.an executive order.

We can also make a distinction between We can also make a distinction between change resulting from presidential action and change resulting from presidential action and the actions of others.the actions of others.

Washington probably had more influence over Washington probably had more influence over the shape of the presidency than any other the shape of the presidency than any other president. He quickly filled in the president. He quickly filled in the ““silencessilences”” of of the Constitution by establishing precedents. the Constitution by establishing precedents.

The Constitution made no provision for an The Constitution made no provision for an advisory body to the president. This was left advisory body to the president. This was left vague intentionally with the statement vague intentionally with the statement ““request request the opinion in writingthe opinion in writing”” of those in the executive of those in the executive branch. Washington turned to his Department branch. Washington turned to his Department Heads for advice to establish a Heads for advice to establish a ““cabinetcabinet”” like like government. He went beyond the government. He went beyond the Constitutional charge to Constitutional charge to ““request the opinion in request the opinion in writingwriting””. He persuaded Congress to allow him . He persuaded Congress to allow him to call for resignations of executive branch to call for resignations of executive branch officials.officials.

Washington was not a highly educated man. Washington was not a highly educated man. However, he understood his limitations, relying However, he understood his limitations, relying heavily on his cabinet, and particularly on heavily on his cabinet, and particularly on Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in both domestic and foreign policy. He had a both domestic and foreign policy. He had a long-standing relationship with Hamilton, who long-standing relationship with Hamilton, who had been is aide-de-camp during the had been is aide-de-camp during the Revolution.Revolution.

Changing the Presidency by Informal Changing the Presidency by Informal Presidential ActionPresidential Action

In this regard, the Constitution invests the In this regard, the Constitution invests the president with authority to “recommend to their president with authority to “recommend to their consideration [Congress] such measures as he consideration [Congress] such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient”. However, shall judge necessary and expedient”. However, Washington expanded this authority by allowing Washington expanded this authority by allowing his Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to his Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton to make such recommendations directly. Hamilton make such recommendations directly. Hamilton issued three reports to Congress during issued three reports to Congress during Washington’s first administration. Washington’s first administration.

On January 9, 1790 Hamilton issued the First On January 9, 1790 Hamilton issued the First Report on Public Credit, proposing that the federal Report on Public Credit, proposing that the federal government assume all debts incurred as a result government assume all debts incurred as a result of the American Revolution. It was adopted.of the American Revolution. It was adopted.

On December 13, 1790 Hamilton issued the On December 13, 1790 Hamilton issued the Second Report on Public Credit and proposed the Second Report on Public Credit and proposed the establishment of a national banking system to establishment of a national banking system to support business activities. It was adopted.support business activities. It was adopted.

On December 5, 1791 Hamilton issued the Report On December 5, 1791 Hamilton issued the Report on Manufactures, recommending policies to on Manufactures, recommending policies to protect through tariffs and subsidies wealthy protect through tariffs and subsidies wealthy individuals who would expand American individuals who would expand American commerce. It was partially adopted after initial commerce. It was partially adopted after initial opposition. (Financial panic, scandal, and Indian opposition. (Financial panic, scandal, and Indian wars diverted attention.)wars diverted attention.)

Washington established the principle of Washington established the principle of supremacy of the national government supremacy of the national government and presidency in matters of public order. and presidency in matters of public order. Hamilton’s Second Report called for an Hamilton’s Second Report called for an excise tax on distilled spirits to provide excise tax on distilled spirits to provide funding for the debt and bank plans. This funding for the debt and bank plans. This sparked rebellion. Washington called up sparked rebellion. Washington called up the militias to quell the Whiskey rebellion, the militias to quell the Whiskey rebellion, and enlisted the state of Pennsylvania to and enlisted the state of Pennsylvania to inform him of the activities of pirates.inform him of the activities of pirates.

Washington issued the first proclamation, Washington issued the first proclamation, the observance of Thanksgiving.the observance of Thanksgiving.

Washington established the symbolic Washington established the symbolic superiority of the presidency and national superiority of the presidency and national government to state governments government to state governments receiving state officials but never visiting receiving state officials but never visiting state capitols.state capitols.

Washington also began the practice of Washington also began the practice of not seeking the advice of the Senate on not seeking the advice of the Senate on appointments and Treaties, but obtaining appointments and Treaties, but obtaining the Senatethe Senate’’s consent.s consent.

Washington established the informal power of Washington established the informal power of ““executive privilege,executive privilege,”” or withholding requested or withholding requested information from Congress, the courts, or the information from Congress, the courts, or the public.public.

Washington established the superiority of the Washington established the superiority of the presidency in matters of foreign affairs. When presidency in matters of foreign affairs. When France and England began fighting after the France and England began fighting after the French Revolution started in 1789, he chose to French Revolution started in 1789, he chose to “declare neutrality”, in spite of France“declare neutrality”, in spite of France’’s s support during the Revolution. This greatly support during the Revolution. This greatly displeased Southern states and the displeased Southern states and the Democratic-Republicans who favored France. Democratic-Republicans who favored France. A constitutional power to “declare neutrality”? A constitutional power to “declare neutrality”? He negotiated the first executive agreements He negotiated the first executive agreements (not treaties) with Spain allowing American (not treaties) with Spain allowing American ships to navigate the Mississippi river.ships to navigate the Mississippi river.

He persuaded Congress to build up the navy He persuaded Congress to build up the navy to combat pirates raiding American shipping.to combat pirates raiding American shipping.

He established the precedent of two He established the precedent of two presidential terms, though he hadnpresidential terms, though he hadn’’t t necessarily intended to. He did not run for a necessarily intended to. He did not run for a third term because of health concerns. Died third term because of health concerns. Died three years after leaving office.three years after leaving office.

Washington did not recognize a need for Washington did not recognize a need for political parties and warned against political parties and warned against partisanship in his farewell address. However, partisanship in his farewell address. However, he behaved in what some would consider he behaved in what some would consider quite partisan way in the Jay Treaty quite partisan way in the Jay Treaty controversy. See the first chapter of Wood’s controversy. See the first chapter of Wood’s 2009 book, 2009 book, The Myth of Presidential The Myth of Presidential RepresentationRepresentation for an extensive discussion. for an extensive discussion. Washington went to Alexander Hamilton for Washington went to Alexander Hamilton for advice on the Jay Treaty, leading Jefferson advice on the Jay Treaty, leading Jefferson and Madison, who had offered opposing and Madison, who had offered opposing advice to begin forming the first opposition advice to begin forming the first opposition party, the Democratic-Republicans in 1795.party, the Democratic-Republicans in 1795.

Corwin estimates that 1 of every 3 presidents has Corwin estimates that 1 of every 3 presidents has been responsible for expansion of executive been responsible for expansion of executive authority through time. Still some presidencies authority through time. Still some presidencies have been more expansive than others. Among have been more expansive than others. Among the more important changes through time are the the more important changes through time are the following.following.

Jefferson used his Jefferson used his prerogative power to negotiate and make the Louisiana Purchase. While Jefferson was a strict constructionist, there is no Constitutional power for the president to make such purchases.

Presidential Veto. Andrew Jackson expanded the rationale for using the presidential veto. Using the veto he effectively killed the Second National Bank which he thought was corrupt.

Executive Orders-Administrative orders from the president that have the force of law so long as they are consistent with the Constitution and law.

Executive Agreements- International agreements that have the same effect as a treaty so long as the agreement is consistent with the Constitution, law, and pre-existing treaties. Case Act limits.

Signing Statements - A signing statement is a written pronouncement issued by the President of the United States upon the signing of a bill into law. James Monroe issued the first. Until the 1980s, signing statements were generally triumphal, rhetorical, or political proclamations and went mostly unannounced. Until Ronald Reagan became President, only 75 signing statements had ever been issued; Reagan and his successors George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton produced 247 signing statements among the three of them. As of January 30, 2008, George W. Bush had signed 161 signing statements challenging over 1,100 provisions of federal law. See http://www.coherentbabble.com/listGWBall.htm

On March 9, 2009, President Barack Obama On March 9, 2009, President Barack Obama ordered his executive officials to consult ordered his executive officials to consult Attorney General Eric Holder before relying on Attorney General Eric Holder before relying on one of George W. Bush's signing statements to one of George W. Bush's signing statements to bypass a statute. Obama had issued 29 signing bypass a statute. Obama had issued 29 signing statements as of as of May, 2014. See statements as of as of May, 2014. See http://www.coherentbabble.com/listBHOall.htm

Through the Through the State of the Union address presidents now present a coherent legislative agenda for Congress to consider. This started arguably with Theodore Roosevelt, though some would date it to Woodrow Wilson.

The State of the Union was delivered personally The State of the Union was delivered personally to Congress during the Washington and Adams to Congress during the Washington and Adams administrations. Jefferson discontinued the administrations. Jefferson discontinued the practice in 1801, considering it too monarchical. practice in 1801, considering it too monarchical. From 1801 through 1913 these were delivered From 1801 through 1913 these were delivered as written messages. Woodrow Wilson renewed as written messages. Woodrow Wilson renewed the practice of delivery in person in 1913. Read the practice of delivery in person in 1913. Read the addresses here the addresses here http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php

Moe argues that there is a natural tendency of Moe argues that there is a natural tendency of presidents to seek greater authority and more presidents to seek greater authority and more control over administration. The rational choice control over administration. The rational choice argument is that it is a matter of presidential self argument is that it is a matter of presidential self interest to want to control the instruments of interest to want to control the instruments of power.power.

Changing the Presidency by Formal MeansChanging the Presidency by Formal Means

Constitutional Amendments-Seven amendments Constitutional Amendments-Seven amendments pertain in whole or in part to the presidency.pertain in whole or in part to the presidency.

– 1212thth Amendment (1804) changed the mode of Amendment (1804) changed the mode of electing the president to take account of electing the president to take account of political parties.political parties.

– 1414thth Amendment (1868) restricted former Amendment (1868) restricted former Confederates from serving as president or Confederates from serving as president or presidential electors. The due process clause is presidential electors. The due process clause is also a constraint on presidential action.also a constraint on presidential action.

– 2020thth Amendment (1933) changed the period of Amendment (1933) changed the period of service of the president from March 4 to service of the president from March 4 to January 20January 20thth and provided for presidential and provided for presidential succession.succession.

– 2222ndnd Amendment (1951) provided for term Amendment (1951) provided for term limits.limits.

– 2323rdrd Amendment (1961) provided Amendment (1961) provided representation for the District of Columbia in representation for the District of Columbia in presidential elections.presidential elections.

– 2424thth Amendment (1962) provided voting rights Amendment (1962) provided voting rights in presidential elections free of taxation.in presidential elections free of taxation.

– 2525thth Amendment (1967) elaborated on Amendment (1967) elaborated on presidential succession and defined presidential succession and defined presidential disability.presidential disability.

Changing the Presidency by Statute: Expanding Changing the Presidency by Statute: Expanding Presidential Power, some very important Presidential Power, some very important examples, but not exhaustive. Many others.examples, but not exhaustive. Many others.

– Budget and Accounting Act of 1921Budget and Accounting Act of 1921

– Employment Act of 1946Employment Act of 1946

– National Security Act of 1947National Security Act of 1947

Changing the Presidency by Statute: Restricting Changing the Presidency by Statute: Restricting Presidential Power , examples, but not exhaustive.Presidential Power , examples, but not exhaustive.

– The Pendleton Act of 1883 providing for a merit The Pendleton Act of 1883 providing for a merit system. This restricted the presidentsystem. This restricted the president’’s ability to s ability to remove officials.remove officials.

– Case Act of 1972 required the president to Case Act of 1972 required the president to report international agreements to Congress.report international agreements to Congress.

– The War Powers Resolution of 1973 was The War Powers Resolution of 1973 was passed over President Nixonpassed over President Nixon’’s veto and limited s veto and limited the presidentthe president’’s ability to commit American s ability to commit American troops to foreign soil.troops to foreign soil.

– Congressional Budget and Impoundment Act of Congressional Budget and Impoundment Act of 1974 limited presidential budget power.1974 limited presidential budget power.

– Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007-Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007-granted granted habeas corpus rights to Guantanamo rights to Guantanamo detainees.detainees.

Changing the Presidency by Executive Changing the Presidency by Executive OrderOrder– Various executive orders have been used Various executive orders have been used

to create federal agencies, such as the to create federal agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (Nixon).Environmental Protection Agency (Nixon).

– EO 12291 providing for cost-benefit EO 12291 providing for cost-benefit analysis of new rules promulgated by analysis of new rules promulgated by federal agencies.federal agencies.

– See See http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/executive_orders.php

Changing the Presidency by Court Changing the Presidency by Court DecisionDecisionEx Parte Milligan (1866) - President Lincoln Ex Parte Milligan (1866) - President Lincoln and trials under martial law when there were and trials under martial law when there were functioning civil courts deemed illegal.functioning civil courts deemed illegal.– HumphreyHumphrey’’s Executor vs. U.S. (1935) -s Executor vs. U.S. (1935) -

Restricted presidentRestricted president’’s removal powers removal power– Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. vs. Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. vs.

Sawyer (1952) -Nullified TrumanSawyer (1952) -Nullified Truman’’s seizure s seizure of the steel millsof the steel mills

– U.S. vs. Nixon (1974) -Restricted executive U.S. vs. Nixon (1974) -Restricted executive privilegeprivilege

– Hamdan vs. Rumsfeld (2006) -Denied Hamdan vs. Rumsfeld (2006) -Denied Congress and president power to strip civil Congress and president power to strip civil courts of jurisdiction over cases involving courts of jurisdiction over cases involving detainees at Guantanamo.detainees at Guantanamo.

Presidential Power Has Increased Through Presidential Power Has Increased Through Time. Why?Time. Why?

WarsWars

Larger Society and Economy Meant Larger Larger Society and Economy Meant Larger Government and Stronger PresidencyGovernment and Stronger Presidency

Growth of Corporate Power in the Nineteenth Growth of Corporate Power in the Nineteenth Century Required National LeadershipCentury Required National Leadership

Interest Group Politics Meant Greater Interest Group Politics Meant Greater Demands on the PresidencyDemands on the Presidency

Changing Judicial Doctrines Implied Changing Judicial Doctrines Implied Presidential PolicymakingPresidential Policymaking

Congressional Demands on the PresidencyCongressional Demands on the Presidency

Presidential Thrust for CentralizationPresidential Thrust for Centralization

Bureaucratic Inertia Implied Growth the Bureaucratic Inertia Implied Growth the PresidencyPresidency

Changing Public Expectations for Government Changing Public Expectations for Government and the Presidencyand the Presidency

Pre and Post Modern PresidenciesPre and Post Modern Presidencies

It can be argued that the modern presidency It can be argued that the modern presidency began in the 20began in the 20thth century with the Franklin D. century with the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration.Roosevelt administration.

However, the date of the transition to However, the date of the transition to expanded presidential power is a matter for expanded presidential power is a matter for debate. A good case can be made that it debate. A good case can be made that it began with Theodore Roosevelt or with began with Theodore Roosevelt or with Woodrow Wilson.Woodrow Wilson.

Four factors distinguish the modern Four factors distinguish the modern presidency from all past presidencies.presidency from all past presidencies.– A greater presidential role in policy makingA greater presidential role in policy making– A stronger presidential relationship with the A stronger presidential relationship with the

mass publicmass public– A greater presence in the realm of A greater presence in the realm of

international politicsinternational politics– Expanded presidential staffExpanded presidential staff

Only the last of these came with the Franklin Only the last of these came with the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration.D. Roosevelt administration.

Wilson was the first to send Congress a Wilson was the first to send Congress a comprehensive legislative agenda. By 1953 the comprehensive legislative agenda. By 1953 the tradition had become so entrenched that tradition had become so entrenched that Eisenhower was soundly criticized for not Eisenhower was soundly criticized for not submitting one.submitting one.

Teddy Roosevelt was the first president since Teddy Roosevelt was the first president since Washington to attempt cultivating a direct role with Washington to attempt cultivating a direct role with the mass public. However, mass media has made the mass public. However, mass media has made this more important. F. D. Roosevelt and radio. this more important. F. D. Roosevelt and radio. J.F. Kennedy and television.J.F. Kennedy and television.

World politics-Teddy Roosevelt sent the navy on a World politics-Teddy Roosevelt sent the navy on a ““world tourworld tour””, and Woodrow Wilson was an active , and Woodrow Wilson was an active and some would say the primary force in and some would say the primary force in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles that ended negotiating the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I. However, the U.S. became dominant World War I. However, the U.S. became dominant world player after World War II. world player after World War II.

Expansion of presidential staffing did not occur Expansion of presidential staffing did not occur until the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration and until the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration and the recommendation of the Brownlow Commission the recommendation of the Brownlow Commission for creating the Executive Office of the President.for creating the Executive Office of the President.

Staffing the ExecutiveStaffing the ExecutiveGeorge Washington established a cabinet of four George Washington established a cabinet of four men to provide advice on the core affairs of men to provide advice on the core affairs of government. He chose Thomas Jefferson as government. He chose Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. Jefferson was a natural choice, Secretary of State. Jefferson was a natural choice, since he had been ambassador to Paris at the time since he had been ambassador to Paris at the time of the convention. There were three other Cabinet of the convention. There were three other Cabinet members, all of whom were strong Federalists. members, all of whom were strong Federalists. Alexander Hamilton was Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton was Secretary of Treasury, Henry Knox was Secretary of War, Edmund Henry Knox was Secretary of War, Edmund Randolph was Attorney General. Randolph was Attorney General.

Washington’s vice president was John Adams, Washington’s vice president was John Adams, also a strong Federalist.also a strong Federalist.

In 1791 when Washington prepared to leave the In 1791 when Washington prepared to leave the capitol city, he instructed the Vice President, Chief capitol city, he instructed the Vice President, Chief Justice, Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War to Justice, Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War to consult on governmental matters during his consult on governmental matters during his absence. These were the primary advisors to the absence. These were the primary advisors to the president and their offices were quite small.president and their offices were quite small.

The principal officers in each of the executive The principal officers in each of the executive departments" are mentioned in Article II, Section 2, departments" are mentioned in Article II, Section 2, Clause 1 of the Constitution. However, there is no Clause 1 of the Constitution. However, there is no specific authorization for a cabinet in the specific authorization for a cabinet in the Constitution.Constitution.

The presidency has evolved through time The presidency has evolved through time from a tiny office with no support staff to from a tiny office with no support staff to a very large bureaucracy.a very large bureaucracy.

From Stillman an account from a foreign From Stillman an account from a foreign visitor at the War Department‑" The visitor at the War Department‑" The government officials were as simple in government officials were as simple in their manners as ever. I had occasion to their manners as ever. I had occasion to call upon McHenry, the Secretary of War. call upon McHenry, the Secretary of War. It was about 11 o'clock in the morning It was about 11 o'clock in the morning when I called. There was no sentinel at when I called. There was no sentinel at the door, all the rooms, the walls of which the door, all the rooms, the walls of which were covered with maps, were open, and were covered with maps, were open, and in the midst of solitude I found two clerks in the midst of solitude I found two clerks each sitting at his own table, engaged in each sitting at his own table, engaged in writing. At last I met a servant, or rather writing. At last I met a servant, or rather the servant, for there was but one in the the servant, for there was but one in the house, and asked for the Secretary. He house, and asked for the Secretary. He replied that his master was absent for the replied that his master was absent for the moment, having gone to the barber's to moment, having gone to the barber's to be shaved. Mr. McHenry's name figured be shaved. Mr. McHenry's name figured in the State Budget for $2,000, a salary in the State Budget for $2,000, a salary quite sufficient in a country where the quite sufficient in a country where the secretary of War goes in the morning to secretary of War goes in the morning to his neighbor, the barber, at the corner, to his neighbor, the barber, at the corner, to get shaved. I was as much surprised to get shaved. I was as much surprised to find all the business of the War Office find all the business of the War Office transacted by two clerks, as I was to hear transacted by two clerks, as I was to hear the the Secretary had gone to the the the Secretary had gone to the barber's."barber's."

For the first 70 years Congress did not even For the first 70 years Congress did not even provide the president with secretarial support. provide the president with secretarial support. Wrote their own speeches and answered their Wrote their own speeches and answered their own correspondence. Most employed aides own correspondence. Most employed aides and paid them out of their own pockets. and paid them out of their own pockets. Frequently they were related to the president. Frequently they were related to the president. Were usually young and undistinguished. Were usually young and undistinguished.

In 1857 Congress enacted a special In 1857 Congress enacted a special appropriation for a personal secretary to the appropriation for a personal secretary to the president, but the position was of little president, but the position was of little importance at the time. importance at the time.

In the 20th Century, beginning with Theodore In the 20th Century, beginning with Theodore Roosevelt the role of secretary increased in Roosevelt the role of secretary increased in importance. Dealt with the press and planned importance. Dealt with the press and planned the presidents schedule. Also, the size of the the presidents schedule. Also, the size of the White House staff began to increase. White House staff began to increase.

Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) housed his Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) housed his entire staff on the second floor of the White entire staff on the second floor of the White House; separate offices were constructed House; separate offices were constructed during McKinleyduring McKinley’’s administration (1897-1901; s administration (1897-1901; the West Wing of the White House was the West Wing of the White House was completed in 1909 to house the staff. Of completed in 1909 to house the staff. Of course, this was at the end of the Theodore course, this was at the end of the Theodore Roosevelt administration.Roosevelt administration.

Herbert Hoover doubled the number of Herbert Hoover doubled the number of administrative aides from 2 to 4 and was administrative aides from 2 to 4 and was also helped by more than 40 others, also helped by more than 40 others, including clerks, typists, messengers, etc. including clerks, typists, messengers, etc. Roosevelt expanded it still further. Roosevelt expanded it still further.

In 1939, Franklin Roosevelt appointed the In 1939, Franklin Roosevelt appointed the Brownlow Commission to advise the Brownlow Commission to advise the president on how to efficiently and president on how to efficiently and effectively deal with a bureaucracy that effectively deal with a bureaucracy that had grown quite large through time. had grown quite large through time. Following the Brownlow CommissionFollowing the Brownlow Commission’’s s recommendation, the president created recommendation, the president created the Executive Office of the President by the Executive Office of the President by executive order to assist in running the executive order to assist in running the government.government.

Note that the Brownlow Commission Note that the Brownlow Commission consisted of three members. consisted of three members. Louis Brownlow, , Charles Merriam, and , and Luther Gulick. All were prominent political . All were prominent political scientists. Go to the hot links to explore scientists. Go to the hot links to explore their areas of expertise.their areas of expertise.

Some of the most important committee Some of the most important committee recommendations were creating presidential aides recommendations were creating presidential aides to deal with the administrative tasks assigned to to deal with the administrative tasks assigned to the President. It also suggested that the President the President. It also suggested that the President should have direct control over the administrative should have direct control over the administrative departments. In its third suggestion, the committee departments. In its third suggestion, the committee said that the managerial agencies - The Civil said that the managerial agencies - The Civil Service Administration, the Bureau of the Budget, Service Administration, the Bureau of the Budget, and the National Resources Board - should be part and the National Resources Board - should be part of the Executive Office. Read a summary of the of the Executive Office. Read a summary of the report report here..

Only two of the committee’s recommendations Only two of the committee’s recommendations were adopted by Congress through the were adopted by Congress through the Reorganization Act of 1939. However, the Act Reorganization Act of 1939. However, the Act gave President Roosevelt executive authority to gave President Roosevelt executive authority to make changes so that most of the various make changes so that most of the various agencies and government corporations were agencies and government corporations were organized within various cabinet level organized within various cabinet level departments, greatly improving accountability departments, greatly improving accountability among the various agencies.among the various agencies.

By executive order, the president acted to create By executive order, the president acted to create the Executive Office of the President and also the Executive Office of the President and also created an advisory group of six executive level created an advisory group of six executive level assistants.assistants.

The current White House staff consists of The current White House staff consists of around 460 people, with another 100-150 around 460 people, with another 100-150 detailed to it for specific assignments. See who detailed to it for specific assignments. See who these people were in 2013 by clicking these people were in 2013 by clicking here.

The Executive Office of the President now The Executive Office of the President now consists of around 4,000 people, the number consists of around 4,000 people, the number varying across different administrations and as varying across different administrations and as new offices come and go.new offices come and go.

Click here for the current organization of EOP.Click here for the current organization of EOP.

With about 2.7 million civilian employees, the With about 2.7 million civilian employees, the Federal Government, excluding the Postal Federal Government, excluding the Postal Service, is the Nation's largest employer.Service, is the Nation's largest employer.

Interestingly, the size was larger (about 3 Interestingly, the size was larger (about 3 million) during the Reagan-Bush I era, but million) during the Reagan-Bush I era, but declined during Clinton and later (about 2.7 declined during Clinton and later (about 2.7 million). See here for a time series from 1962.million). See here for a time series from 1962.

About 85 percent of Federal employees work About 85 percent of Federal employees work outside the Washington, DC metropolitan area.outside the Washington, DC metropolitan area.

Salary Scales for Federal Civilian Employees

A more complete picture of the A more complete picture of the characteristics of federal employees is here.characteristics of federal employees is here.

Paul Light reported (click here) that the true size Paul Light reported (click here) that the true size of the federal government was about 12.1 million of the federal government was about 12.1 million people in 2002, including everyone who draws a people in 2002, including everyone who draws a salary paid for by the federal government. This salary paid for by the federal government. This includes the postal service (875,000), the military includes the postal service (875,000), the military (1,456,000), contractors (5,168,000), and (1,456,000), contractors (5,168,000), and grantees (2,860,000). However, his figure does grantees (2,860,000). However, his figure does not include state and local employment mandated not include state and local employment mandated by federal law. Of course, that was 14 years ago, by federal law. Of course, that was 14 years ago, so what is it now?so what is it now?

Here is a Congressional Research Service Report Here is a Congressional Research Service Report from 2011 that informs on change since 2002 and from 2011 that informs on change since 2002 and current characteristics. current characteristics. http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL34685_2011041http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL34685_20110419.pdf 9.pdf

At this link you can see the current organization of the entire federal government of which the presidency is a part.

http://www.firstgov.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive.shtml

History of ChangeHistory of Change1789- Department of State, Department 1789- Department of State, Department of Treasury, Department of War, Post of Treasury, Department of War, Post Office, Attorney GeneralOffice, Attorney General1798- Department of Navy1798- Department of Navy1849-Department of Interior1849-Department of Interior1862-Department of Agriculture1862-Department of Agriculture1903-Department of Commerce and 1903-Department of Commerce and LaborLabor1913-Department of Commerce, 1913-Department of Commerce, Department of LaborDepartment of Labor1947-Department of Defense1947-Department of Defense1953-Department of Health, Education, 1953-Department of Health, Education, and Welfareand Welfare1965-Housing and Urban Development1965-Housing and Urban Development1966-Transportation1966-Transportation1977-Energy1977-Energy1980-Health and Human Services1980-Health and Human Services1980-Education1980-Education1988-Veteran1988-Veteran’’s Affairss Affairs2002-Department of Homeland Security2002-Department of Homeland Security

Each presidency has seen expansion in the Each presidency has seen expansion in the EOP as a function of both presidential and EOP as a function of both presidential and congressional interests. congressional interests.

The Bureau of the Budget was created in 1921 The Bureau of the Budget was created in 1921 to help the president with the budgeting to help the president with the budgeting function. It is now called the Office of function. It is now called the Office of Management and Budget. This very important Management and Budget. This very important office helps the president with budgeting, office helps the president with budgeting, efficiency management, legislative clearance, efficiency management, legislative clearance, rulemaking oversight, and a variety of other rulemaking oversight, and a variety of other functions.functions.

The Council of Economic Advisors was The Council of Economic Advisors was created in 1946 to assist the president with created in 1946 to assist the president with implementation of the Employment Act of implementation of the Employment Act of 1946.1946.

The National Security Council was created in The National Security Council was created in 1947 to advise the president on matters of 1947 to advise the president on matters of national security.national security.

The Office of Personnel Management The Office of Personnel Management was created in 1980 to help the president was created in 1980 to help the president with staffing the large federal with staffing the large federal bureaucracy. bureaucracy.

Various presidents have also expanded Various presidents have also expanded EOP as a result of more personal EOP as a result of more personal interests. For example, George H.W. interests. For example, George H.W. Bush established the Office of National Bush established the Office of National Drug Control Policy in response to Drug Control Policy in response to campaign promises to control the drug campaign promises to control the drug trade. George W. Bush created the Office trade. George W. Bush created the Office of Faith Based Initiatives in response to of Faith Based Initiatives in response to promises made to the Christian right.promises made to the Christian right.

DiscussionDiscussion

Pre-modern presidencies are often thought of Pre-modern presidencies are often thought of as clerks. Woodrow Wilsonas clerks. Woodrow Wilson’’s book entitled s book entitled Congressional GovernmentCongressional Government..

Post modern presidencies are characterized Post modern presidencies are characterized by increased expectations for presidential by increased expectations for presidential leadership and increased presidential capacity leadership and increased presidential capacity to lead. Presidents are held accountable for to lead. Presidents are held accountable for their leadership and policies.their leadership and policies.

There are at least two views of the presidentThere are at least two views of the president’’s s ability to satisfy the increased expectations.ability to satisfy the increased expectations.

Neustadt argues that there is an Neustadt argues that there is an ““expectations expectations gapgap”” between what people expect of a between what people expect of a president and the presidents ability to deliver. president and the presidents ability to deliver. The presidentThe president’’s ability to lead is grounded in s ability to lead is grounded in skill, reputation, and prestige which determine skill, reputation, and prestige which determine the presidentthe president’’s power to persuade. The s power to persuade. The president is highly constrainedpresident is highly constrained

In contrast, Moe sees the presidency as In contrast, Moe sees the presidency as possessing significant resources for possessing significant resources for leadership. Structural advantages relative leadership. Structural advantages relative to Congress. Information and expertise to Congress. Information and expertise advantages. Unilateral initiative and advantages. Unilateral initiative and actions. Politicization of the bureaucracy actions. Politicization of the bureaucracy through appointments. Centralized through appointments. Centralized decision making processes such as decision making processes such as regulatory review.regulatory review.

Context may be important to presidential Context may be important to presidential power. power.

The stage of the electoral cycle. Power and The stage of the electoral cycle. Power and the ability to accomplish things is greater at the ability to accomplish things is greater at the beginning of the presidentthe beginning of the president’’s term. s term. Congressional elections impede presidential Congressional elections impede presidential power as members of Congress become more power as members of Congress become more responsive to constituents. First term/second responsive to constituents. First term/second term effects. Lame ducks.term effects. Lame ducks.

Steve Skowronick suggests that there is a Steve Skowronick suggests that there is a concept that crosses multiple administrations concept that crosses multiple administrations called called ““political timepolitical time””. Political time relates to . Political time relates to the alignment of forces facing the presidency the alignment of forces facing the presidency and his relation to those forces.and his relation to those forces.– Reconstruction presidencies- Here the ruling order Reconstruction presidencies- Here the ruling order

is vulnerable and the president opposes that ruling is vulnerable and the president opposes that ruling order. (Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, FD Roosevelt.order. (Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, FD Roosevelt.

– Articulation presidencies- Here the ruling order is Articulation presidencies- Here the ruling order is resilient and the president is affiliated with the ruling resilient and the president is affiliated with the ruling order.(Monroe, Polk, Lyndon Johnson, George H.W. order.(Monroe, Polk, Lyndon Johnson, George H.W. Bush.)Bush.)

– Disjunctive presidencies- Here the ruling order is Disjunctive presidencies- Here the ruling order is vulnerable and the president is affiliated with the vulnerable and the president is affiliated with the ruling order.(John Adams, John Quincy Adams, ruling order.(John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Pierce, Hoover, Carter)Pierce, Hoover, Carter)

– Preemption presidencies- Here the ruling order is Preemption presidencies- Here the ruling order is resilient and the president is an opponent of that resilient and the president is an opponent of that ruling order. (Tyler, Andrew Johnson, Woodrow ruling order. (Tyler, Andrew Johnson, Woodrow Wilson, Richard Nixon, William J. Clinton)Wilson, Richard Nixon, William J. Clinton)