Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe

Volume 4 | Issue 5 Article 2

10-1984

The Evangelical Church in the G.D.R.: A Church inSocialismMartin N. WaltonUniversity of Leiden, Netherlands

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Recommended CitationWalton, Martin N. (1984) "The Evangelical Church in the G.D.R.: A Church in Socialism," Occasional Papers on Religion in EasternEurope: Vol. 4: Iss. 5, Article 2.Available at: http://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/ree/vol4/iss5/2

THE EVANGELICAL CJIURCB IN THE G .D.R.: A CHURCH IN SOCIALISM

by Martin N. Walton

Martin Walton (United Methodist and Netherlands Reformed) was born in 1953 and ra ised in Texas. Received his B.A. in 1975 from Colo rado College and then spent two years as a "fraternal worke r" in Berlin doing youth and ecumenical work in a Lutheran congregation. During that time travelled to t he G.D.R., Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Moved to the Netherlands in 1978 and received a theology degree from Univers ity of Leiden in 198 3. He is currently continuing his graduate stud ies at the same institution .

When the German Democratic Rep�blic (GDR) was created in

19 49 it was the only socialist government in Easte rn Europe

confronted by a P rotestant maj ority church. But it was not just

a ny Protestant church. On the one hand the re were the demoral­

ized remains of the "German Christian " majority which had given

unconditional support to Hitler and his d iabolical endeavo rs. On

the other hand there was the remnant of the Confessing Church

which had s ought to be faithful to t he B iblical calling in t he

catastrophic years of national-socialism and which now sought to

lay a new foundation for a regenerated church.

The obstacles, however, were great. To begin with there

reigned a general uncertainty and mist rust on both s ides. W hat

could the church expect from the new communist, atheistic

government? The p re judice against communism was much alive. On

the other hand what should the government think of a Christian

ma jority which had sold its soul to Nazism and which had

hi storically identified itself w ith the status quo in the West?

The re had been, of course, the minority of t he Confess ing

Church, but the vast majority of Christians ha d supported or

accepted Hitle r . The few Ch ristians and few commun ists who had

met each ot:her in Nazi prisons were not enough to engender a

conc iliatory atmosphe re.

The mistrust of the government was increased by the

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insistence of the eight provincial churches in the GDR on

maintaining institutional unity with the sister churches in West

Germany. This ref usal by the churches to conform to the new

na tional boundaries helped keep the desire for a united Germany

alive, a desire which the young socialist government viewed as a

threat to its sovereignty . The tension reached a high po int in

1957 when the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD), of f icial ly

representative of the Protestant provincial churches in both

East and West, signed an agreement with the West German military

to provide chaplains. To whom was the allegiance of the church

in East Germany , to its own government or to West Germany? Was

the EKD a NATO-church?

The fifties were thus marked by tensions between church

and state. But although some l aypersons and pastors were

imprisoned , the confrontation never reached the Stalinist.

severity of most other East bloc countries. A critical issue in

those years was the status of the church's youth and student

groups. After the war the youth groups had enjoyed a . new

popularity without there having been, however , an adequate

response either to the recent experiences under fascism or to

the new challenge of socialism. In 1953 the symbol of the

Ch ristian youth, a world globe with a cross, was forbidden. The

youth and student groups were accused of fascist ideas and

Western loyalties.

The intensive campaign against Christian youth work

subsided the same year, but basic problems remained. The state

introd uced a socialist youth initiation to rival church conf ir-.

mation. The policy of the government became one not of

persecuting the church but of fencing it in, of limiting the

possibilities of the church and its members. The church was to

restrict itself to cultic activities like worship and Bible

study.

Another obstacle for the church in the GDR was its history

as "Volkskirche , " a church more or less id.entif ied with the

people and society at large , a church conf ormed to the values

- 2 -

and �!x�ctati ons of that soci ety. The results were a hi erar­

chi cal structure, ( too) large bui ldi ngs requiring mai ntenance,

and an outdated mentali ty, slow to respond to the new challenge

of a sociali st reali ty.

The relati vely slow economi c development in the GDR

c ompared to the economic miracle ( " Wirtschaftswunder") i n West

Ger many caused many to emigrate to the West, especially the

trai ned and educated. It was this economic drain, more than

poli ti cal reasons, whi ch led to the bui ldi ng of the Berli n Wall

i n 1 96 1 . Among the emi grants were Christians as well. And if

they had not actually departed for the West, i nwar dly they had

often emi grated, hopi ng that the communi st storm would blow over

and all of Germany could be like the West.

In the meantime the church was decreasing both in

membershi p and i nfluence. Although appr oximately 55% of the

populace of the GDR b elongs to a church, only a small minority

is act.i ve. ( Approximate current figur es a�e as follows: 8% Roman

catholic, l% Free Churches, e. g. Methodists, Baptists, A dven t­

ists, Moravians, and 46% Evangeli cal, i .e. members of the ei ght

provincial Protestant churches discussed here. ) · The decrease is

not only and perhaps not pri mari ly due to gover nment pressure,

but to the more general i nfluence of i ndustriali zati on and

seculari zation, combi ned with the credibi lity cri si s of the

chur ch under fasci sm and the bankrriptcy of the Volkski rche

mentality. Fi nancially the church i n the GDR i s dependent on the

chur ch in West Germany, a disturbing fact for many East German

Chri sti ans, but a further compari son i s not unfavorable for the

church i n the East.

It was in thi s situation that Di etrich Bonhoeffer, the

martyr of the Confessi ng Church, became of i mportance for the

chur ch in the GDR.1

Hi s theological heri tage hel ped the leader s

of the Ev angelical Churches i n the GDR to avoi d falling to a

vari ety of temptations. Bonhoeffer had pointed out that the

world had grown up and managed i ts own affairs without reli gi on.

There was no sense in the chur ch competi ng fo:r· attention or

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trying to be utilitarian. Nor would this have been possible in

the new socialist setting. The task of the church would be to

proclaim God ' s reality i n a world that did not need God.

Certainly the church was not to seek to regain its former

power or exploit whatever influence it might still possess. It

must neither desire power for itself nor hope to undermine the

existing power structures. The Lord . of t he church is t he

powerless, crucified Lor d. And the powerlessness of the church,

Bonhoeffer insisted, should be accepted as an aid in better

repr esenting the gospel. The chur ch might again become a

renewing force, not by means of political power or social clout,

but by means of the Word of God and discipleship.

A rejection of popularity and power does not mean,

however, that the church should withdraw into itself, seeking

its own self- preservation and becoming a club of those who still

believe. While in prison, Bonhoeffer had asserted that even the

Confessing Church had been more concerned with its own self­

pr eservation than with witness and service to the world. The

church like its Lord is concerned for the redemption of t he

world. It is a chur ch for others.

The theological impulse of Bonhoeffer helped the church to

respond to the new and changing situation. It was furthered by

such persons as the church superintendent of Cottbus, Gunter

Jakob, who spoke of a "post-Constantinian" situation ( 1956) in

which Christians must nevertheless submit themselves to the

governing authorities in the New Testament sense. 2 Elisabeth

Adler of the Evangelical Academy in East Berlin outlined a

position not of resistance or co- existence, but of pro-existence

( 1 9 60 ), following Jeremiah's advice to seek the welfare and

pe ace of the city ( Jer. 29: 7 ). 3

It took some time before the chur ch at large accepted the

new situation and not without pressure from outside. After the

Berlin Wall was erected in 196 1 contacts between the easter n and

western members of the EKD became increasingly difficult and

thoroughly impractical. During the sixties the awareness grew

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that the church in the GDR needed to recognize the political

reality if it was to play an affir mative rol e in the developing

society. In 1968 Bishop Mitzenheim of Thuringen intr oduced the

formula "chur ch in socialism. "4 In the following year the eight

provincial churches in t he GDR took a decisive step. Affirming

the spiritual fraternity but breaking the institutional unity

with the churches in West Germany they created the Federation of

Evangelical Chur ches in the GDR. (It was not until 1972 that the

provincial chur ch of Berlin-Brandenburg was split into "west"

ar.d "east" reg ions. ) In 1970 the Federation defined itself as a

" c ommunity of witness and service of churches in the socialist

society of the GDR, "5 i. e. , "in t his society, not beside it, not

against it, " as formulated in 1971.6

Bishop Albrecht. S chonherr of East Berlin (1972-1981), a

former student of Bonhoeffer and for many years chairman of the

Federation, put it as follows: " For God even a country which

emphatically pr ofesses Marxist-Leninism is not a blank spot on

the map of His 7

earth. " (Implicit in all this is the under-

star:rling that the nature of communism is not equivocable with

national-socialism. There is a humanistic core to communism

which can be appe aled to, whatever the excesses of communist

inspir ed governments. ) The church is alway s called to practice

its task and its responsibility f or humankind in the place where

it is to be found.

Again it must be emphasized that this response of the

chur ch was a slow and often painful process not shared by all.

Anti-communism did not just disappear. •It was kept alive by

continuing incidents of discrimination and by government pres­

sur e and limitations. Among some there remained a continuing

desire f or r eunification with the more affluent and more

" successful" West Ger many. And some still remain categorically

opposed to an atheistic state. In response to this, however, it

ha s been pointed out by such persons as Bishop Werner Krusche of

Magdeburg that the opposition between Marxism and Christianity

is not absol ute, the ideology being only one factor in the

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social reality. (For example, provisionr, for health care, the

social insurance, and the absence of unemployment are social

realities that are to be valued.) Furthermore, it is not so much

the atheistic components of the ideology which are a problem for

the church as it is its absolutistic character.8

There aL·e others who would favor a position of indiffer­

ence regarding political affairs. The church has only to

proclaim the gospeL In practice this attitude generally leads

to a sort of double life, outward conformity in society strictly

separated from one's private life as a Christian. Such a double

life of outward conf ormity and privatization is characteristic

of many non-Christian citizens of the GDR as well.

Bes ides opposition or indifference there is a third

position which the church has refused to take, and that is one

of conformity or corroboration. The East German Christian

Democratic Union, one of the several smaller political parties

subservient to the ruling Socialist Unity Party, sees the

intentions of Christianity as being substantially realized in

the. social programs of communism. It seeks also to win

Christians for active support of the socialist government.

Christians perhaps draw upon their own motivation but should in

pr actical matters accept the leadership of the socialist state.9

There are some in the CDU who appeal in this to Luther's

te aching on two kingdoms. 10 The church's dominion is that of

proclamation and salvation. The general welfare, on the other

ha nd, falls under the dominion of the state. In the former faith

is determinant; in the latter human u nderstanding and ability.

Formally speaking, this coincides with the position of those

pious Christians who opt for political indifference. The twist

given to this teaching by some CDU sympathizers is the resoiute

choice for socialism (and implicitly for the real existent

socialism in the GDR) while reducing Christianity to a private

affair.

The more reformed (calvinist) emphasis on the Lordship of

Christ such as advocated b y Karl Barth in the Barmen Declarati on

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of the Confessing Church (19 3 4) has served as a .::orrect..�.ve in

this matter. 1 1

Christ is Lord even over the atheistic, socialist

leaders of the GDR. This liberating insi9ht allows t he church to

positively but critically practice its service and witness. It

was Provost Heino Falcke who in 1972 stated that Christ

liberates us from the alternatives of either rejection or

conformity for the sake of specific, discerning cooperation. The

ti tle of his speech in Dresden was "Christ liberates--therefore, 1 2

church for others."

It is a "critical solidarity" which Christians in the GDR

practice, cooperating where they can for the sake of the common

welfare, but discerning the incongruences and injustices of

theh- society. It is neither political opposition nor polit.ical

accommodation, for the church is not a political party. In

respecting the sovereignty of their government church leaders

choose to practice their social witness not in the limelight of

the western, often anti-communist, media, but in direct contacts

with their own members and with government officials. It is a

matter of discerning when and how to say "Yes, " and when and how

to say "No."

This position of the church, although not desired by the

state, has won its respect. On March 6 , 1 9 78 , a delegation of

church leaders headed by Bishop Schonherr met with the head of . . 1 3 . .

state and party in the GDR, Er1ch Honecker. In th1.s histone

meeting the state implicitly recognized the church as a

significant social body of its own accord. In addition, various

specific measures were agreed to. The. church received limited

access to the media as well as to prisons and state homes;

permission to import certain theological materials; permission

and support for construction and resto:ration of buildings (with

financial support from the West German churches);· and financial

cooperation and support from the state in matters of church

hcmes, lands and pensions.

The question ar·ose if the church had acted wisely in so

"collabordtinq" wj th the sti.lte and "insuring" :its own posj ti.on.

- 7 -

Was the state, realizing that it was losing influence and

control over its populace, hoping to use the church as a

stabilizing factor in society? Some were uncertain.

A fundamental ideological dialogue did not become

possible, but, assert church leaders, that need not hinder

agreement on practical matters. The March 6 , 1 97 8 meeting

continues to provide the basis for church-state contacts (a

policy of talks), even if specific conflicts remain, especially

regarding the church's peace witness and activities. It is this

which has drawn international attention in recent years and

which is sometimes as complicated as it is important. For that

reason it requires a separate, subsequent treatment.

It is important, however, to note one thing which Bishop

Schonherr said at the March 6 , 1978 meeting: The relation of

church and state is as good as the individual Christian citizen

experiences it in his or her local situation.1 4

What then is the real situation of Christians in the GDR?

It varies geographically and otherwise, but it cannot be denied

that there are difficulties. Christians in the GDR can complain

about their situation, often more to outsiders than to each

other. Of course, like all their fellow citizens, they must

accept limitations on information and on personal and social

freedoms. They can suffer under the ambiguity and seeming

arbitrariness of government actions and decisions. Despite the

meeting of March 6 , 1 9 7 8 , Christians can still be denied

educational and vocational opportunities. Small in numbers and

constantly confronted by the all-pervasive Marxist- Leninist

ideology, they can feel isolated as if living in an 11 ideological 15 diaspora. 11 School children must learn to say and write what is

expected of them ideologically and not what they honestly think.

Christians can also be disappointed in their own

11Volkskirche11 with its inflexible traditions, outdated struc­

tures, and theological and political differences. They can

suffer under lack of insight into the ways of their own. church

leaders. They may be troubled about the growing materialism in

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their society oft.en catered to by the government. They may be

concerned about the severe economic and environmental problems

in their country or about the threats to peace , from their own

government but also from the west. Christians may be frustrated

by the general apathy even among church members. If of ficially

the church in its relation to the state must avoid the extremes

of rejection and conformity , then the individual Christian must

be aware of the dangers of aversive resignation or opportunistic

acceptance.

It is in this context that Christians in the GDR work and

witness. It is in this context that many have affirmed their

God-given situation and chosen to be a good neighbor. They

become free when they assert that it is not so much the

opportunities denied them that count as the opportunities they

themselves fail to take advantage of and use.

In a society characterized by ideological monologue ,

churches become places of dialogue. In a society marked by

mistrust, individual congregations create. a place of trust and

openness. This is especially important for young people, among

whom there are many non-Christians 'fho att.end church youth

meetings. They come seeking a place where they can speak openly

and are listened to. They come asking q·uestions about the

meaning of life, about relationships, about peace, about prayer

and faith in God.

CUlturally , the churches also continue to play a role.

Proportionately the GDR has more church musicians than any other

country in the world. Not only are church concerts well visited,

but many people attend who otherwise do not set foot in a

church.

In a society where the church at the same time must be

B iblical and t�heological if it is to have any just.ification at

all , one is impressed by the depth of Bible stu dy and

theological reflection , not in t he abstract but in response to

specific challenges of life and witness.

In a society where work and productivity are the highest

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proclaimed val ues, the church plays a leading role in caring for

the sick, the hand icapped and the old. Christian hospitals and

hanes, which are being subsidized by government funding, are

known for the personal care one receives. A relatively large

number of Christian young people, realizing that to be a

Christian means a life of service, seek a vocation in the

medical and nursing fields. They may prefer caring for handi­

capped children to a better-paying job elsewhere but with

various political pressures. They develop a sensitivity to

su ffering and to the meaning of life.

In a society where economy has priority to ecology,

Christians gather scarce information on environmental problems

and initiate car-free Sundays and tree-planting activities.

In a society where military instruction, including

learning to hate one's enemies, is part of the regular school

curriculum, the church emphasizes peace education, creating

trust in personal and international rela tionships, solving

conflicts without violence, and loving one's enemies.

If travel to the West is severely restricted, then

Christians in the GDR can visit fellow Christians in other

Eastern European countries, even as far as Siberia. Whereas

their fellow citizens may emphasize the relative poverty of the

GDR in comparison to West Germany, Christians become aware of

their relative affluence in comparison with the Third World.

Relief actions have been undertaken for such varied countries as

Tanzania, Viet Nam, and Poland.

In a country where apathy and privatization are widespread

and the morale of workers is declining, Christians can simply do

their best, demostrate integrity, and contribute to a friendlier

and more human working and living atmosphere. One sometimes

hears the ironic comment that Christians are still the best

citizens.

In a society where the public presence of the church is

restricted, individual Christians can witness in their personal

life and contacts, often more with their being and actions than

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th rough their words. In a society, i n a world, where it is the

bi g thi ngs that count, Chri stians take up the challenge of the

small modest steps.

We must exag ger ate nei ther the problems nor the streng th s

of the chur ch and of Chri stians i n the GDR. Even i n Easterr1

Europe life can be normal and tri vial . But, accordi ng to Bishop

S chonherr, the ch ur ch in the GDR, li ke the church in the enti re

world, is at present engaged in one of th e greatest learning

processes of i ts hi story. The chur ch is even to be seen as a

learning community . 16 Deci si ve i n the pr esent si tuati on ar e the

practical life and bei ng of Christians and congregati ons. As

Bonhoeffer put it, being a Chri stian today will consi st of two 1 7

things, prayi ng and doi ng justice among the people.

FOOTNOTES

1For a more thor ough consi derati on of Bonhoeffer ' s si gni f­i cance see the several arti cles and speech es under the subti tle "Ver such e tiber und mi t Bonhoeffer", in Albrecht Sch onherr , Horizont und Mitte, Aufsatze, Vortrage, Reden 1953-197 7 , (Berl in 1 97 9) .

2 Gunter Jacob, "Der Raum fiir das Evangelium i n Ost and West, " i n Kirchli ches Jahrbuch fur die Evangeli sche Kirche i n peu�schland 1956 , (Gutersloh , 1957), p. 1 1 .

3Eli zabeth Adler, Pro-Exi stenz-Verkundigung und Furbi tte i n der DDR, i n the seri es "unterwegs" 13/1960. Cited by H-J. ROder , "Kirche im S ozia1i smus", i n Die Evange1 i schen Kirchen i n der DDR, ed . Reinhard Henkys, (Munich, 1 982), p. 66 .

4 S ee H-J. ROder , "Kirche i m S ozia1i smus", p. 7 0 . ROder refers to a mimeographed study, "Zum Gebrauch des Begri ffs 'Kir che im S ozia1i smus' ", from the Theologi cal S tudy Department of the Federati on of Evangelical Chur ches in the GDR, in the seri es "Informati on und Texte", No. 5 /198 1 , Berl i n (GDR).

5 Kirchli ches Jahrbuch 1970 (197 2), p. 30 1 . "e.J?d Dokumentati on", (Gemeinschaftswerk der

Frankfurt/Main), No. 28/19 7 0 . p.

Evange1i sch er Evangel isch en

1 2.

Also quoted in Pr essedienst Publi zistik,

6Kirchli ches Jahrbuch 1971 (1973), p. 35 4, and "epd

Dokumentation" 34 /1 971 , p. 14.

7 "epd Dokumentation", 5/1 97 8 , p. 5 .

- 11 -

8 In an address upon receiving an honorary degree from the theological faculty of the University of Basel, November 25, 197 7. Cited by J . A, Hebly, Kerk in bet socialisme, (Baarn, The Netherlands, 19 7 9), p. 4 4 .

9 Cf. J . A . Hebly, p. 5 lff, who refers to a party statement from October 8 , 1 9 5 2, and to a book published by the party in 197 5 with the title Standortbestimmung (Berlin, GDR) in which thirty progressive. theologians account for their support of the socialist order.

1 0 See, e. g. , Gerhard Bassark, "Zur Frage nach theolog ischern Inhalt und Interpretation von 'Heil heute' in einer sozialistischen Gesellschaft", in Zeichen der Zeit 5 /1973; -- Bassark, "Heil heute und Wahl des Mens chen" 1 in Standpunkt 8/197 4; --Rosemarie Mliller-Streisand 1 "Vierzig Jahre Theologischer ErkUi.rung von Barmen, in Standpunkt, supplement to 9/19 74. A noteworthy reply to this theological-political position is: G. Jacob, Weltwirklichkeit und Christusglaube, Wider eine falsche Zweireichelehre, (Stuttgart, 1977).

11 Cf. also Barth's Christengemeinde und Blirgergemeinde,

(Gladbeck, 1946 ).

12In Zurn poli tischen Auf trag der christlichen Gemeinde, �armen II, mit Beitrage von . . . , ed. A. Burgsmliller, (Glitersloh, l97 4) 1 and "epd Dokumentation" 30/1972.

1 3 see "epd Dokumentation" 1 5 /1978 and Kirchliches Jahrbuch 1978 (1982), p. 3 47 ff.

1 4"epd Dokumentation", 1 5 /1978 , p. 1 0.

15 h d . . . f h . h. dd T e escr1pt1on 1s rom W. Kruse e. See 1s a ress to a synod meeting in Hal le (Nov. 1 7, 1973): "Die Gemeinde Jesu Christi auf dem Weg in die Diaspora, " "epd Dokumentation, " 2/19 7 4 . See also "Diaspora, Zum gegenwartigen Gebrauch des Begriffes, " a study byf the Theological Study Department (19 75 ) , published in Kirche al� Lerngemeinschaft, Bischof D. A. Schonherr zum 70. Geburtstag, (Berlin, 1981).

16 A. Schonherr, "Kirche als Lerngemeinschaft, " in "epd

Dokumentation" 52/ 19 74, p. 79 ff.

1 7o. Bonhoeffer, Widerstand und Ergebung, (Munich, 1970) 1

"Gebanken zum Tauftag von D. W.R. Bethge, May 1944 , " p. 3 2 8 . Cf. · Schonhe.tr's "attempt at an interpretation" of this sentence of

Bonhoeffer in Horizont and Mitte1 p. 104ff.

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POLISH MALE ORDERS*

Monastic life started to develop in Poland upon introd uction of

Christianity to Poland by Duke Mieszko I in 966. The first missionaries

working in the Polish lands were mostly monks. At the turn of the 11th

century, groups of hermits appeared, whose life in t he monastic

community was based on the rule of St. Benedict. Five martyr Brethren,

who perished in the Polish lands in 1003, were Benedictine monks.

Alongside the formation of new monastic families in Western Europe,

monasteries of those orders start to be founded also in Poland. The

camel dulites were brought in, in the 11th century. The mid-12th century

m arked the beginning of intensive developnent of new formations:

Cistercians, Canons Regular, Premonstratensians. Then, in 1222, the

Dominicans appeared, and the order of St. Francis ten years later. Over

the one thousand years, some 150 male and female orders operated in the

Polish lands. Some of them were orders founded in Poland or by Poles.

Bringing an already existing order to the country was a much easier

task than founding a new institution from scratch. Until the 19th

century, Church legislation did not favor formation of new orders. The

Lateran Council IV in 1 2 1 5 virtually banned the formation of new orders

and recommended the candidates for monastic life to join the already

recognized orders. However, the Council decisions did not fully come

into operation and a certain number of new orders was formed over the

next centuries. In Poland, for example, the Congregation of Marian

Fathers was founded in the 17th century. The situation basically changed

in the 1 9th century, when the Church consented to the formation of

monastic congregations with simple vows. The 19th century also witnessed

the ultimate shaping of the procedure of approving new orders: first t he

congregation gets legal status under a decree of the local ordinary

bishop and exists as an institution under diocesan law, and then after a

certain period, providing it receives a laudatory decree (decretum

laudis) of the Holy See, it becomes a congregation under Papal law, and

fi nally through ultimate recognition its existence in the Universal

Church becomes consolidated .

*Reprinted by permission from Christian Social Association Information

Bulletin, (Warsaw), No. 12, December 1 98 3 .

- 13 -

Until the end of the 18th century no major iiiitiatives for founding

native orders were noted in Poland, so orders of Polish origin did not

play any greater role and did not reach any major expansion. Out of the

order founded in that period only the Marian Congregation has survived

unti l our times, however in a different shape than that given to it by

its founder. It was only the Polish monastic congregations founded in

the 19th and 20th centuries that made a greater contribution to the life

of the Church in Poland, and some of them extended their activities even

outside of the country. At present there are eight monastic congre­

gations of Polish origin operating within the Church.

Marian Fathers

The Congregation of Marian Fathers of the Immaculate Conception of

the Blessed Virgin Mary (Congregatio Clericorum Regularium Marianorum

sub titulo Immaculatae conceptionis Beatissimae Virginis Mariae, MIC).

The history of the Marian order can be divided into two visibly

separate periods. The first one is from the foundation of the order in

1 6 73 to its almost total disappearance at .the turn of the 20th century.

The second period encompasses the revival of the order th rough its

transformation into a monastic congregation in 1909. I

The order was founded by Father Stanis�aw Papczynski in 167 3 . Pope

Innocent XII confirmed it in 1699 as an order with solemn vows,

promoting the cult of the Immaculate Concep tion of the Blessed Virgin

Mary.

Jan Papczynski was born on May 1 8 , 16 3 1 , in Podegrodzie near Nowy

Sacz, to a peasant family. He entered the Piarist order in 16 54. In

1656, he took the vows as the second Pole in this order assuming the

name of Stanis�aw of Jesus Maria. In 1670, as an effect of a sharp

conflict with the superiors, Papczynski left the Piarist order to found

one of his dwn. In 1 6 73 , bishop of Poznan Stefan Wierzbowski canonically

erected the monastic house of the new congregation in Puszcza

Korabiewska in Mazovia. Papczynski engaged in writing; his chief

religious literary work was a moral-ascetic treatise "Templum Dei

Misticum", published in Cracow in 1 6 7 5 , considered to be one of the most

outstand ing works in Polish 1 7th-century ascetic literature. Papczynski

also published passional deliberations "Orator crucifixus" (Cracow,

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1 6 7 0) and "Christus patiens" (Warsaw, 1690). He died on S eptember 1 7,

1 701 , in G6ra Kal waria. His beatification process was started in 176 7 ,

then i nterrupted in 1 7 7 5 , to b e resumed in 195 3 .

During the lifetime of the founder the Marian order had no more

than 2 0 members in three houses. The congregation was made up of priests

and friars. The first Marian monasteries were opened near Skierniewice,

in G6 ra Kalwaria near Warsaw and in Gozlin in the Podlasie region. Under

the Papal edict of 1699 the Marians became a strict order (ordo) with

solemn vows. They were granted the privileges of mendicant orders and

were incorporated into the order of St. Francis. That superior authority

by no means hampered the activity of the order and was later eliminated.

In 1 75 3, Marians were called to Portugal. At the end of the 18th century

they founded a house in Rome. At a time of its prime, around 1 780, the

order had 147 monks in 12 houses. Poland ' s partitions1 impeded the

development of the order, while in the 19th century it gradually

vanished. The houses abroad and in Poland ceased to exist one after

another. After the fall of a Polish national rising against Russia in

1 86 3/64, the Russian government disbanded all Marian monasteri es save

one in Mariampol, where Marians from the remaining monasteries were

brought and the order was forbidden to run a novitiate. In 1908 only one

Marian remained alive. At that critical moment, Rev. Jerzy Matulewicz,

later on bishop of Wilno and papal legate for Lithuania, becaine a . man of

providence for the order.

Jerzy Matulewicz (Matulaitis, Matulevicius)2 was born on April 1 3 ,

1871 i n Lugine near Mariampol i n Southern Lithuania, to a family of a

Lithuanian pe asant. In 189 1, he entered the Theological Seminary in

Kielce. Then he stud ied at the Warsaw S eminary and t he Theological

Academy in Petersburg, where he was ordained priest in 1898. After

graduating from the University in Fribourg in Switzerland he was

conferred the ti tle of Doctor of Theology. In 1906 , he wa s appointed

profe ssor at the Theological Academy in Petersburg. In 1909, holding

special warrants of Pope Pius X , he took the vows in the Marian order at

the moment when only one Marian monk remained alive. Two years later

Matu lewicz became the General of the order. In 1918, he was nominated

Bishop of Wilno. In 1 9 2 5 , upon his own request, relieved of this

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function, he went to Rome to deal exclusively with the matters of the

congregation. At· the end of 1925, promoted to the rank of archbishop, he

was sent to Lithuania as a Papal delegate. He died in 1 9 2 7 . The

beatification process of Father Matulewicz has been underway since

1953, initiated through the efforts of the Congregation of Marian

Fathers.

Father Matulewicz adjusted the constitution of the congregation to

new conditions. He transformed it into a clerical c ongregati on with

simple vows, made up of priests and friars. In accordance with old

traditions the c ongregation in a special way serves in honor of the

Virgin Mary . The new constitution was approved by the Hol y See in 1910.

The revived Marian order started to develop fast. In 1915, a

mo nastic house and a shelter for 2 0 0 homeles s children were opened in

t he Bielany district in warsaw. In 1918 , Matulewicz organized a monastic

house in Mariampol for Lithuanian Marians. In 1927, the congregation had

over 300 members in 1 3 houses·, in 19 3 7, · 451 members in 24 houses

situated in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, the United States, Italy, England

and the Far East, in Kharbin. The Poli sh province has been in existence

since 1930. The General of the congregation has his offices in Rome.

In 1 982, the congregation of Marian Fathers had 510 members. The

Congregat ion was made up of five provinces: in Poland, two in the United

States, in England and in Brazil (under formation). The Polish province

numbers 196 members in 19 houses.

Resurrectionists

The Congregation of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ

(C ongregatio a Resurrestione Domini Nostri Jesu C hristi , CR) .

After the fall of the 1830/31 Polish national rising against

Russia, a considerable number of Poles was forced to leave the country.

The idea of a new congregation, which was to ensure moral revival of the

emigrant community through consolidation of ca tholic faith and by the

same token fight for independence of the homeland, was put forward by a

great Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz. The congregation was founded in Paris

in 183 6 by Bogdan J anski and his disciples Piotr Semenenko and Hieronim

Kajsiewicz; the last two for many years took turns as General of the

Congr egation of Resurrectionists.

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Bogdan Janski was born in Pogorzelec near Ciechan6w in 1 8 0 7 . In t he

years 1824-2 7 , together with several Polish emigrants, Janski started

community life in a rented house in Paris. Next year he sent Semenenko

and K ajsiew icz to Rome. In order to finally organize the Congregation he

went to Rome himself in 1 840, where he died the same year.

The Congregation of Resurrectionists was formed slowl y , in stages.

In 1 982, two years after J anski' s death, thanks to the eff orts of

Kajsiewicz and Semenenko it started f unctioning as a private association

seated in Rome. It had a rule and a superior , but it had no Church

approval. The Congregation gained legal basis of existence and operation

in the Church under the laudatory decree of the Holy See issued in 1860.

Th e decree recognized the hitherto novitiate and private vows. The

Congr egati on was ultimately approved by Pope Leo XI II in 1 8 88. The

constitution was approved in 190 2.

In 1870, R esurrectionists had 78 members, including 36 priests.

Since that time the order has been constantly growing in numbers. Thanks

to the funds laid out by the Congregation in 1866 the P olish college was

opened in Rome f or cand idates to become priests in Poland. In 187 1 ,

Resurrectionists started working among emigrants · in the United States,

mainly in Chicago. The f irst Resurrectionist outpost in the Polish land

was established in 1 880 i n Lw6w. In 1939, the number of members exceeded

4 0 0 (including 1 37 priests) in 37 houses. In 1982, the Congregation of

R esurrectionists had 4 5 4 members (including 3 3 7 priests) in 5 3 houses. 1

Resurrectionists are gradually losing their character as a purely Poli sh

congregation since there are ever more membe rs of other nationalities in

their ranks.

The Congregation of Resurrectionists is a clerical monastic

c ongregation with simple vows. It has a central board and is divided

into provinces. Members of the Congregation work in parish houses. The

General of the C ongregati on has his offices in R ome. The , congregation

has three provinces: in Poland , in the United States and in Canada, as

well as districts in Italy , Bulgaria and Austria. In 1982 , the Polish

Province of the Cong reg ation of Resurrectionists had 2 0 3 members in 14

monastic houses.

- 1 7 -

Dolorists

The Congregation of the Brothers-Son s of the Blessed Virgin Mary of

the Seven Dolours (Congregation F ratrum Filii Matris Dei dolorosae).

In 188 3, capuchin · monk Father Honorat Koz minski founded in

Zakrocz ym in Mazov ia the first lay frockless monastic congregation of

the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary of St. F rancis of Assisi, which

until the moment of Poland ' s regaining independen ce in 1918 functioned

as a secular charitable association. In 189 3 , the Congregation was

div i�ed in to two g:r·oupings: the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary and

the Son s of the blessed Virgin Mary of the Seven Dolours, commonly known

as Dolorists.

Fat her Hon or at Koz minski was born on October 16 , 1829, in Bia,Ia

Podl aska. He graduated from a secondary school in P,I ock and then

en rolled in the Faculty of Architecture at the School of Fine Arts in

Warsaw. In 1 8 46 , he was arrested by Tzarist authorities for membership

in clandestine political organization s. Acquitted during the in­

vestigation and released in March 1847, he en tered the Capuchin order in

Lubart6w. In 185 2 he was ordained pri est. In the years 1874-1 895 ,

Koz minski founded a number of monastic associations based on the III

Order of St. F rancis. In 189 5 , Kozminski was appointed general

c ommissioner of the Polish Capuchin province. Kozminski pub� ished over

on e hundred works, many of them translation s. These were popular

treatises on asceticism, hagiography, mariology, apologetics, Church

history. He died in Nowe Miasto on the Pilica on December 16 , 1916 . In

1929, the idea of his ·beati fication was conceived in the Capuchin order

and the information process was started in 1949.

In 1893 the Congregation set up the Educational Society

"Przysz,Iosc " (Future). Dolorists set themselves as a goal Christian

education of youth i.a. through runn ing schools, educational insti­

tutions, handicraft workshops and economic entities, mainly in towns. In

the Dolorist Congregation, like in other lay congregations, brothers not

priests constitute the basic core of the congregation. It can have,

however, a certain number of priests. Brothers wear ordinary clothes.

They take simple vows of observing three evangelical counsels: poverty,

obedience, chastity."

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In 1 9 2 4 , t he Congregation was granted the Vatican laudatory decree,

and was ultimately approved in 1936 . The seat of the general authorities

of the Congregation was first situated in L6dz, then in Radzymin, and in

1 95 4 it was moved to Warsaw . In the inter-war period (1918-1939) the

Congregation had 9 monastic houses, it ran ten-odd schools, educational

and charitable institutions. In 1936 it had nearly 180 members . Puring

World War II it suffered considerable human and material losses. After

the war, the Congregation was active until 1949, when the state

authorities dissolved the "Przysz,Iosc " Society and took over the

institutions and property of the Society, and monks were replaced by

secular staff. Since that time the Congregation has been experiencing an

acute crisis and has been constantly shrinking . In the early 1950s it

still had 70 members, while in the mid-1 9 70 s only 22 members, of whom 19

were brothers and 3 priests. As of December 3 1 , 198 2 , the Congregation

had 16 members, incl uding 1 priest. The general house of the

Congregation is situated in Warsaw .

Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary

The Congregation of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary

(Congregatio Fratrum Servorum Beatae Mariae Immaculatae).

The Congregation was formed in 189 3 as an effect of the division of

the Congregation of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary of St.

Francis of Assisi, founded ten years earlier by Father Honorat Kozminski

(see above Dolorists). The Congregation dedicated itself to the care of

rural youth. Until 1 907, it had two categories of members : those living

together (in 1 9 06 - 3 26 brothers) and so-called associated members, that

is, not connected with close community ties (in 1906 -304 brothers).

Members of the Congregation take simple vows of observing three

evangelical counsels: poverty, obedience and chastity. In 1910, the

Congregation was granted the laudatory decree of the Holy See. In the

years 1922-1939, servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary ran voca tional­

artisanal schools and workshops (tailoring, . shoemaking, bakery). After

W orld War II the Congreg ation has been experiencing a crisis as a result

of a drop in the number· of vocations. In 1 9 7 3 , the C ongrega tion had 45

br others in 5 houses. As of December 3 1 , 198 2 , the Congregation is

situa ted in Nowe Miasto on the Pilica river.

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Albert ins

The Congregation of the F ri ars of the I I I Order of St. Francis

" Serv ing the Poor" (Congregatio Fratrum I II Ordinis s . Francisci

"Pauperibum S ervientium " ) .

The Congregation of Albertin F ri ars was founded by Adam Chmielewski

in 1 8 88 in Cracow.

Adam Chmielowski was born on August 2 2 , 1 846 in Igo,!omia in · the

Cracow region. For one year he attended the military school in

Petersburg then a private secondary school in Warsaw. After graduating

he en rolled in the agricultural school in Pu,!awy. Aft er the outbreak of

a national rising against Russia in 186 3 , Adam Chmielowski joined the

ranks of insurgents. In one of the battles he lost a leg. After the fall

of the uprising he dedicated hims elf to artistic studi es in Paris , G ent

and Munich . In 1884, he came to Cracow and ther e , apa rt from artistic

work , he engaged in humanitarian and religious work. In 1 88 8, he put on

a frock made to his own design , similar to the Francisc an frock , assumed

th e name of Albert and took private vows accepted by cardinal Albin

Dunaj ewski. At the same time , he became manager of the so.-called warming

hous e for the poor in Cracow. Together with his fellow brethren he

formed a germ of a new Congregation . He died in 1916 in Cracow. In 1 983,

during his second trip to Poland , Pope John Paul II beatified Brother

Albert in Cracow.

The work of brother Alb ert soon started to expand in the . Polish

lands. Alms-houses run by Albertins are established in Tarnow , Lw6w ,

Zakopane , P rzemysl , Stanis,!aw6w.

O rganizationally , Alb ertins constituted themselves spontaneously.

The life of people who joined brother Albert was regulated by " The guide

to the I I I order , " written by himself in 188 8, and the common practice

of austere living. The absence of own rule affected furth er devel opment

of the Congr egation , however , especially after the death of the founder.

The constitution was worked out after World W ar I , taking into account

th e guiding principles of brother Alb ert. In 1928 , it was approved by

archbishop of Cracow Adam Stefan Sapieh a ; at the same time Albertins

were aggregated in th e order of Conventual Franciscans.

The binding princip le within the Congregation is common living on

- 20 -

the basis of the · vows of obedience, poverty and chastity , which are

taken by brothers after the novitiate, first as temporary and then as

eternal ones. The Congregation is managed by "elder brother" elected by

the general ch apter for six years. Superiors of houses are directly

subordinated to him. The Congregation of A lber tins is a lay congre­

gation; it can have, however , its own priests for carrying out ministry

in the institutions they run.

The basis of subsistence of Albertins and their charges is work and

charity. In the period of its prime (19 39) the c ongregation had some 100

brothers, 15 houses, its own printing shop in Warsaw, and from 1932

published a monthly "Nasza Mysl " , whose title was ch anged in 1937 to

"G,los Bra ta Alberta" .

Today , Albertin Friars are working in somewhat different con­

ditions. They dedicate themselves to nursing the chronically sick, the

disabled and old people in welfare houses. As of December 31 , 1982 the

Congregation had 38 brothers in 7 houses.

Michaelites

The Congregation of St. Michael Archangel (Congregatio Sancti

Michaelis Archangeli , CSMA ) .

The Congregation of St. Michael Archangel was founded in 1897 in

M iejsce Piastowe near Krosno by Bronis,law Markiewicz. Since the

Congregation was not immediately accepted by the Church as a monastic

c ongr egation, until 1 92 1 it operated as a lay association c alled

"Powsciagliwosc i praca" (Temperance and work) .

Rev. Bronis,Iaw Markiewicz was born in Prudnik near Jaros,law in 1842

to a catholic middle-class family. He entered the theological seminary

in P rudnik , where in 1867 he was ordained priest. As a priest he worked

successively in several parishes in Przemysl diocese. In the years

1 8 73-1 875, he studied philosophy at the Lw6w and Cracow universities. In

188 5 , he went to Italy , where he en tered the Salesian Congregation in

T urin. His vows were accep ted by St. John Bosco in 1 88 7 . In 1892, on the

order of the superiors, he came to Miejsce ( today Miejsce Piastoe) . Five

years later he left the Salesian Congregation and s tarted efforts for

the erection of new monastic orders, male and female , whose tasks would

be to educate poor and desolate youth. Rev. M arkiewicz died on January

- 2 1 -

29, 191 2, in Miejsce Piastowe in t he opinion of sainthood . The

information process was started in 195 8 .

The C ongregation of St. Michael was ecclesiastically erected in

1921. A year later the constitution of the Congregation was approved.

The spirit, program and line of activity of the Congregation boil down

to the motto "Temperance and work". Members of the Congregation are

priests and brothers, both having a share in the ma nagement of . the

Congregation, though brothers cannot act as superiors. In 1966, the

Congregation was given the laudatory decree of the Holy See.

The Constitution of the Congreg<:ttion approved under the Roman

decree · did not provide f or certain new elements introduced by Vatican

II. Gen eral chapters of the Congregation re-edited the monastic

regulations in the spirit of the Council. In the light of the re-edited

regulations the Congregation of St. Michael Archangel is a monastic

institute dedicated to apostolic mission. The Congregation deals with

education of youth, especially the poor and desolate, does pastoral

work, especially to religiously neglected people, popular missions,

foreign missions, publishing activity as well as awakening and

cultivating priestly and monastic vocations.

In 1939, the Congregation had 107 members in 8 houses. As of

December 3 1 , 1 982, the Congregation of St. Michael had 2 35 members

(including 84 priests) i n . 7 houses; 48 members of the Congregation stay

abroad in 10 posts in canada, Federal Republic of Germany, Paraguay, New

Guinea, Italy, Zaire and Australia.

Brothers of the Heart of Jesus

The Congregation of the Brothers of the Heart of Jesus (Congregatio

Fratrum Cordis Jesu).

The Congregation was founded in 1920 in Poznan by Rev. Kazimierz

Malinski. Members of the Congregation inc� ude exclusively brothers, who

work in parishes as organists and sacristians, as assistants in parish

chancelleries, they distribute catholic pape rs, work as servants in

episcop:1l residences and theol ogical seminaries. The Congregation was

approved in 1931 by August Cardinal Hlond. In 1 9 36 , the Congregati on had

35 brothers in 5 posts; in 1982, 55 brothers in 8 houses. The

Congregation has central administration, simple vows; it has remained

- 22 -

under the diocesan law until the present. Brothers wear a black f rock

tied with a leather belt.

Christists

The Society of Christ for P olish emigrants (Societas Chri sti pro

emigrantibus P olonis, SChr).

The history of the Congregation is linked with the phenomenon of

emigration caused by economic, social and poliltical transformations in

Europe at the turn of the 2 0th century.

The phenomenon of emigration made it necessary to establish special

pa storal care. A manifestation of that was the approval of monastic

congregations for emigrants by the Holy See. In 1 887, the Italian

"Association of Missionaries of St. Charles for Italian Emigrants" was

established. In Germany, in 1 9 26 , the "Association of Guardian Angels"

was formed, preparing mi nisters for German emigrants.

The monastic congregation f or ministry to P olish emigrants was

founded by August Cardinal Hlond, P rimate of P oland (1926-1948). The

formal erection of the new C ongregation took pla ce on September 8 , 1932,

wh en Rev. I gnacy Posadzy, co-founder of the Society of Christ, came to

the cradle of the Congregation in P otulice near Nak,Xo. By the end of

1 9 3 2, the society had 40 members, and next year that number tripled.

Already in 1 9 3 7, the Society started to implement its mission abroad,

that is, apostolate f or compatriots living outside of the country and in

case of need, also f or emi grants of other nationalities. The f irst

members of Christ Congregation went to work a mong P olonia 3 in 1937 to

Paris and London, and in 19 38 to Estonia. In 1 9 39, the C ongregation had

1 84 members.

During World War II, members of the Congregation of Christ had to

seek new f orms of pastoral work. In Nazi-occupied P oland the Congre­

gation openly worked in transit camps for Poles being deported to

Germany. The war and the German occupation inf l ic ted considerable losses

in the ranks of the Congregation; 26 of its members perished.

After the war, due to the lack of priests in the weste rn

terri tories incorporated in P oland4, the Society gave the majority of

its members to ministry among settlers. In the post-war period, the

number of Society ' s members was growing by the year, and its activity

- 2 3 -

was appreciated by the Holy See. In 195 0 , the Congregation was given the

laudatory decree, and in 1964 the Congregation and its constitution were

ultimately approved.

The Society of Christ has central admin istration with the general

superior. It is a clerical congregation with simple vows, but it also

has lay brothers who work in the houses of the Society as assistants or

in foreign pastoral posts as catechists.

There are six foreign provinces subordinated to the general house

in Poznan :

-in the United States, based in !sterling Heights (Michigan) USA;

-in Brazil , based in Curitiba;

-in Australia, based in Sydney ;

-in England , based in London;

-in France, based in Hesdigneul- les-Bethune ;

-for Ital y and Germany , based in Essen.

In 1982 , these provinces had altogether 1 30 members. In Poi and the

congregation had 321 members in 6 monastic houses.

At the Foreign Seminary of the Society of Christ in Poznan the

seminarians, prospective ministers for emigrants, apa rt from t he normal

theological-philosophical curriculum , study a number of subjects

connected with the problem of emigration. The Polonia center at the

Semi nary collects materials on the history of Polish emigration

/ChSS-- m. 160/

FOOTNOTES

1Three territorial divisions· of Poland combined with annexation

carried out by Russia, Prussia and A ustria in the years 1 77 2 -1 7 95 until

th e total liquidation of the Polish state. 2

Entering the Theological Seminary Matulewicz changed his name from

Matulaitis to Matulewicz. Writing in Lithuanian according to the spirit

of this language he signed himself Matulevicius. 3

colloquial term for the totality of Polish emigrants and their

descendants. 4

Land regained by Poles in the wake of World War II , so-called

Oder-Nei sse Territories.

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