The Ethiopian wolf – an endangered endemic canid · The endemic giant mole-rat Tachyoryctes...

ORYX VOL 26 NO 4 OCTOBER 1992

The Ethiopian wolf - an endangeredendemic canid

Dada Gottelli and Claudio Sillero-Zubiri

The Ethiopian wolf is a social canid endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia. Todayperhaps only 500 individuals survive, making it the world's rarest and probablymost endangered canid. Its range has already been reduced and it is threatened byfurther loss of habitat to high-altitude subsistence agriculture and overgrazing bylivestock. Today it survives in only six locations, with the largest and probablyonly genetically viable population being found in the Bale Mountains NationalPark. The most immediate threats for the survival of Ethiopian wolves are disease,domestic dogs and human persecution. Improved management in Bale and SimienMountains National Parks and the establishment of a captive-breeding programmeare urgently needed to prevent the extinction of this species.

Until as recently as 10,000 years ago (Messerliet al., 1977), the highlands of Ethiopia werewidely covered with Afro-alpine moorlandand grassland. These habitats generally lackedthe herds of large ungulates characteristic ofthe African plains, but smaller mammals werepresent in great abundance, particularly molerats (Rhizomyinae) and grass rats (Murinae).The Ethiopian wolf*, Canis simensis, a special-ist rodent hunter also known as the Simienjackal, must have been shaped morphological-ly by this environment. The species, endemicto Ethiopia, is only one of many that haveevolved and persisted in the country becauseof the sheer size of the mountain massif.

Ethiopian wolves may have never been veryabundant, due to their specialized adaptationto Afro-alpine habitat. They occur now onlyabove 3000 m above sea level in open moor-lands with short vegetation. Analysis of their

* A recent IUCN Canid Specialist Group meetingdecided that the English name of Canis simensisshould be the Ethiopian wolf, rather than the Simienjackal or fox, red jackal, or Abyssinian wolf. Thisdecision was prompted by preliminary findings ofan ongoing genetic study, which show that Canissimensis is closely related to wolves and very distantfrom jackals. The species probably reached Africa inthe relatively recent past, by a land bridge in the latePleistocene.

diet reveals that they subsist primarily onrodents; interestingly, most of their preyspecies are also endemic to the Ethiopianmoorlands.

With a population of 340-520 individuals,this distinctive carnivore is considered to bethe rarest and most endangered canid in theworld and the most endangered in sub-Saharan Africa. More than half of today'sworld population live in the Bale MountainsNational Park (BMNP) on the south-easternrim of the Rift Valley where, since 1988, wehave been carrying out a field study on thebehavioural ecology of the species.

Ecology

Ethiopian wolves are territorial social canids,organized in multi-male packs of up to 13adult animals. Average group size is seven (+2.2 SD n = 9). Adult sex ratio is biased towardmales 1.8:1 (n = 58, from nine packs). Males donot disperse, whereas females disperse at 2years of age. Pack home ranges in optimalhabitat average 6.4 sq km (n = 9 packs; range=2.4-10.6 sq km), and 10-12 sq km in areas oflower rodent prey productivity (n = 3). Allpack members participate actively in thedefence and marking of the territory and con-

205

https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605300023735Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.39.106.173, on 31 Mar 2021 at 06:45:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at

https://www.cambridge.org/core/termshttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605300023735https://www.cambridge.org/core


tribute to the rearing of pups (36 pack/years).Ethiopian wolves are solitary diurnal preda-

tors. Analysis of faecal samples revealed thatrodents account for 95.8 per cent of all prey.The endemic giant mole-rat Tachyoryctesmacrocephalus is the main food item in the diet,followed by three species of grass rats. Rodentprey can reach astonishing densities. In theAfro-alpine meadows of BMNP rodentbiomass was estimated at 3000^4000 kg per sqkm.

Habitat available to the Ethiopian wolf

The Afro-alpine habitat - characteristicallyrepresented by the Sanetti Plateau in BaleMountains - was geographically widespreadduring the Pleistocene (Yalden, 1983). Duringthe last glacial period (70,000-10,000 years BP)the African tropics were generally colder anddrier than at present (Bonnefille et al., 1990);consequently, the moorland zones of EastAfrican mountains were about 1000 m lower15,000 years ago than they are now (Flenley,1979). Extrapolation of the present distributionof Afro-alpine habitat in Ethiopia to all landsituated up to 1000 m below its present loweraltitudinal limit suggests that up to 100,000 sqkm of habitat may have been available to theEthiopian wolf and its rodent prey during thelast glaciation.

The end of the Pleistocene brought climaticchange and the extensive Ethiopian Afro-alpine moorlands shrunk to their presentstate, reducing the habitat available to theEthiopian wolf Joy one order of magnitude.Today about 2 per cent (or 22,750 sq km) ofthe total land area of Ethiopia is above 3000 m(Yalden, 1983). Of that, less than 10 per centconsists of Afro-alpine steppes or montanegrasslands suitable for the Ethiopian wolf,which is now found only in a few localizedmountain pockets.

Table 1 summarizes the availability of habi-tat for the species throughout Ethiopia.Practical constraints did not allow a thoroughsurvey of all areas of Ethiopian wolf habitat,therefore it was assumed that heather moor-land habitat was the dominant vegetation

206

between 3400 and 3800 m and that Afro-alpinemeadows were characteristic above 3800 m.This was supported by data collected in BaleMountains, during visits to some of the loca-tions in Bale, Arssi and Shoa regions, andfrom the literature (e.g. Scott, 1958; Brown,1964a, b).

Past and present distribution

Yalden et al. (1980) was the first attempt to col-late all known Ethiopian wolf locations fromthe literature. With the exception of the popu-lation in the Bale Mountains, the Ethiopianwolf is certainly less common than in the pastand also has a reduced range (Figure 1). Thereare no recent records at altitudes below 3000m, although specimens were collected at 2500m from north-west Shoa at the beginning ofthe century (Yalden et al., 1980). It is probablethat the species was restricted altitudinallywith increasing agricultural pressure and per-secution.

For want of local data on ecology, and abso-lute distribution and density, it is difficult to

Table 1. Afro-alpine and montane habitatpotentially available to the Ethiopian wolfthroughout Ethiopia (small isolated mountain peaksnot included)

Region

Bale*WolloShoa*Arssi*GojjamGondar*SidamoTigrayHarargeOthers

Total

Landabove3000 m(sq km)

4,9504,0753,4003,0502,5752,475

350350150

1,375

22,750

Ethiopian wolfpotential habitat

Above3400 m(sq km)

1,284~ 1,000

112428

-600796

50?2?

- 4,272

Above3800m(sq km)

420-300

-117

?

204_--

-1,041

* Regions where the species occurs today.Total land above 3000 m from Yalden (1983).



THE ETHIOPIAN WOLF

Although a solitary forager subsisting on small rodents, the Ethiopian wolf lives in packs of up to 13 adultanimals and has a fascinating social organization (Sillero and GotteHi/WCI)-

arrive at population estimates outside BMNPwith any accuracy. However, an attempt ismade here to estimate the population of adult

Key -(§§§( Land above 3000 m a^J \

0i

14°

•12°

• ioc

8°

\V

6°

36i

a Past records j \• Present distribution \? Uncertain or i \

unconfirmed / \t 200 k m / E r i t r e a \ ^

} Simien'*-—. -r-/ M o u n t a i n s ^ Tl9raV

\ ^""^Gonder0 / ^ ' v - - '

I /—'"£-))


tion of firewood and overgrazing by livestock.Most of the Ethiopian wolf's world popu-

lation lives south-east of the Rift Valley, wherethe race C. s. citernii occurs in the Arssi, Baleand Somkaro mountains. The largest popu-lation is that of Bale, where about 1200 sq kmof Afro-alpine habitat constitute the largestrange of such habitat on the continent.

The Bale Mountains

The Bale Mountains are situated in the easternEthiopian Highlands along the eastern edge ofthe Rift Valley. The BMNP covers 2400 sq kmand was established in 1970 in order to con-serve the Ethiopian wolf and the endemicmountain nyala, Tragelaphus buxtoni (Hillman,

1986a). It includes the major part of the moun-tains' high-altitude plateau, over 3500 mabove sea level, as well as the forested slopesto the south down to 1500 m. Theclimate is characterized by an 8-month rainyseason, followed by a 4-month dry seasonwith extremely cold nights and warm days.

Ethiopian wolves are common above 3000m and up to the summit of Tullu Deemtu at4377 m (the highest mountain in southernEthiopia), with two areas of concentration: oneon the Sanetti Plateau at about 4000 m and theother in the Web Valley at 3500 m (Figure 2).

The first estimate for the Bale populationwas that by J. Malcolm of between 350 and 475animals (Morris and Malcolm, 1977). Malcolm(1987) revisited Bale and concluded that thepopulation had remained stable or even

Table 2. Summary of Ethiopian wolf populations

Location

NW of Rift ValleySimien Mountains NP

Mount Guna

North-east ShoaGosh Meda/AnkoberMahal Meda/Menz

SE of Rift ValleyBale Mountains NP

West BaleSomkaro /Korduro MtsWitit'ana Valley

Arssi MountainsMount KakaMount Chilalo/Ticho

Totals

Habitat availableTotal *(sq km)

680

110

4666

1,209

10055

110318

2,694

Afro-alpine(sq km)

180

THE ETHIOPIAN WOLF

Key>»S Type A Optimal habitat::::::;:: Type B Good habitat

Type C Marginal habitat

0 10 km

Figure 2. Distribution of the Ethiopian wolf in BaleMountains National Park showing different degreesof habitat quality for the species.

increased during the previous 10 years,reassessing its size at 450-600. Hillman(1986b) carried out wildlife counts between1983 and 1986 and estimated the total numberof wolves to be around 700. A questionnaireand interviews with pastoralists living inBMNP suggest Ethiopian wolf numbersincreased since the park was established(Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri, 1990).

During this present study absolute densitiesof Ethiopian wolf were calculated for differentareas and habitat types inside BMNP. Theavailability of different habitats was estimatedfrom a 1:100,000 map and from evaluation ofhabitat quality on the ground, based on rodentdensity, vegetation type and terrain. Habitatavailable was classified into three categoriesaccording to different degrees of habitat qual-ity (Table 3). Based on this classification ofhabitat types and respective wolf densities thetotal population of adult animals in BMNPwas calculated at 440-470 during 1990 (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli, 1991). The current popu-

lation is estimated at 205-270 (March 1992 -densities as in Table 3). Disease and shootingaccounted for this dramatic populationdecline (see below).

The density of Ethiopian wolves is nega-tively correlated with vegetation height andpositively correlated with the density ofrodent prey, with the highest concentrationson the Sanetti Plateau and Web Valley.Ethiopian wolves are uncommon in largeareas of heather moorlands and on barrenpeaks where shallow soils prevent high rodentconcentrations.

Status

The Ethiopian wolf is protected by NationalLaw in Ethiopia. The Wildlife ConservationRegulations, 1974, include Cam's simensis in thelist of protected species. Suitable habitat isprotected within two national parks - SimienMountains and BMNP. The species is listed asendangered in the 1990 IUCN Red List ofThreatened Animals (IUCN, 1990). Ginsbergand Macdonald (1990) recommended that itsstatus should remain as endangered untilpopulation levels have stabilized and protec-tion of the areas where it occurs are secured.Ethiopian wolves do not appear to be affectedby poaching or trade and the species is notlisted by CITES; probably it should not beincluded unless it requires protection fromtrade in the future.

Threats to the Ethiopian wolf

Habitat destruction and fragmentation

Today, the highlands of Ethiopia are amongthe most densely populated agricultural areaswithin Africa; rural densities of 47 people/sqkm are typical (Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, 1972).The problems of habitat destruction, soildegradation and high population pressure arepersistent; they are concentrated in the northof the country but are spreading south rapidly.Remnants of Afro-alpine ecosystems increas-ingly resemble islands surrounded by lowland

209




areas as ecological boundaries (Hurni, 1986).The potential risk of local extinctions of manyendemic species has to be seen in connectionwith this process of insularisation (Kingdon,1990).

Unlike the highlands of northern Ethiopia,the Bale Mountains have never been heavilypopulated. In 1984 an aerial survey showedthat an estimated 2500 people were perma-nently settled in the park, approximately oneperson per sq km (Hillman, 1986b). Aboutone-third live in Ethiopian wolf habitat. Thesepeople are Oromo pastoralists, depending fortheir livelihood on cattle and small stock,which they graze in the mountain meadows.In areas below 3500 m livestock-raising iscombined with cultivation of barley. Althoughthe Oromo within the BMNP have coexistedpeacefully with the Ethiopian wolf in the past,this is quickly changing.

Extensive overgrazing by cattle probablyhas a significant unfavourable impact on therodent populations. For example, Delanystudied rodent ecology in the Queen ElizabethNational Park, Uganda, and concluded thatthe highest populations of rodents occurredwhere large mammals were least numerous,and that the areas heavily grazed by the latterspecies had fewer rodents (Delany, 1972).Regular livestock censuses in the Web Valleyindicated a maximum of 3000 head of cattleand 220 horses and donkeys using an area of

70 sq km at any given time (46 head/sq km).Sheep and goats forage on the steep valleysides and ridges. Livestock numbers in theWeb Valley are highest during the late wetseason when the herds are kept away from theextensive wheat crops in the lowlands.Livestock numbers are lowest in the dry sea-son, when the herds are taken to feed on thefields that have been left to lie fallow.Traditionally, people from all around BMNPtake their cattle regularly to the high-altitudemineral springs, but the prolonged stay oflivestock by the springs suggests that their useis becoming the excuse for grazing at high alti-tudes.

Domestic dogs

Domestic dogs, kept to guard livestock frompredators, are present throughout BMNP.Very few dogs are fed or looked after, ratherthey are feral, living on offal and carrion. Dogspose a threat to wildlife in the northern areasof the park, where they have taken to huntingantelopes. Dogs are also known to have killedsheep and are a threat to the human popu-lation as vectors of rabies, a common diseasein Bale Region. Every settlement in the WebValley has several dogs. We estimated a totalof 147 dogs in the survey area, an average of11 dogs per settlement (0.7 dogs per sq km).The presence of large numbers of domestic

Table 3. Estimate of Ethiopian wolf densities in 1990 and 1992 for different habitat typesin the Bale Mountains National Park

Area Density (individuals/sq km)Habitat (sqkm) 1990 1992 Habitat characterized by

Optimal

Good

Marginal

158 1.0/1.2 0.35/0.5 Afro-alpine meadows with short grass andherbs. Rodent biomass estimated at3500-4000 kg/sq km

Uniform Helichrysum scrub. Rodentbiomass one-third of optimal habitat

Northern grasslands. Rodent biomass one-third of optimal habitat

Heather moorlands. Rodent biomass one-fifth to one-tenth of optimal habitat.

Barren peaks and lava flows

396

42

521

92

0.25/0.35

0.25/0.35

0.1/0.2

0.1

0.2/0.3

0.2/0.3

0.1

0.1

210



THE ETHIOPIAN WOLF

dogs in prime Ethiopian wolf habitat is themost immediate threat faced by the species inBMNP. Domestic dogs may affect wild canidspecies in three ways: (i) by direct competitionand aggression; (ii) by transmitting disease;and (iii) by hybridization.

No information is available on wolf-doginteractions in other Ethiopian wolf popu-lations. However, contact between bothspecies is greater at the lower limits of thespecies's altitudinal range, and this is likely toincrease with growing human density andhabitat fragmentation. Wolf packs located atthe periphery of a restricted population willbe more exposed to contact with domesticdogs. Non-resident females dispersing fromcentres of high wolf density will face increas-ing chances of meeting a dog instead ofanother wolf.

In BMNP dogs roam across wide areas ofEthiopian wolf range and forage on rodents,the wolf's main food resource. Additionally,ungulate carcasses that may become availableto carnivores, including those of livestock, arequickly monopolized by dogs. Wolves nor-mally avoid direct contact with dogs: in all 34antagonistic interactions observed during thisstudy dogs were stronger than wolves andalways chased the latter away. Wolves werefaster than dogs and managed to escape fromthe attacks.

The world's largest concentration ofEthiopian wolves in Bale, as well as the otherfew remaining populations, are potential vic-tims of any epidemic outbreak (see Diseasebelow). In Bale, dogs travel regularly withtheir owners in and out of the mountain mas-sif and are then in contact with many otherdogs attracted to garbage and carrion in vil-lages. These dogs may thus transmitpathogens to their wild relatives.

Within the population of Ethiopian wolfthat occupies the Web Valley some animalsare unusual in that they have shorter muzzlesand ears, more heavily built bodies and atypi-cal coat patterns. Because it was consideredpossible that these differences may havearisen through hybridization with feral dogs,a detailed analysis of interspecific hybridiza-tion and genetic variability in the Ethiopian

Ethiopian wolves are threatened by habitat loss,persecution, domestic dogs and road traffic(Sillero and GotteUi/WCI).

wolf was initiated. To date, analysis of mito-chondrial DNA has contributed no evidenceto suggest that introgression with dogs isoccurring; other genetic techniques are cur-rently being tested (R. Wayne, pers. comm.).

Canis simensis is closely related to the greywolf and coyote group (R. Wayne, pers.comm.) thus making hybridization withdomestic dogs a distinct possibility. Followinghybridization, a population may be affectedby a reduction in fitness (in either fertility orviability) known as outbreeding depression(Templeton, 1986).

Persecution by humans

Until recently the Oromo people living withinwolf range in the Bale Mountains have shownremarkable tolerance to the wolves. Fouryears of close observations on wolf-humaninteractions in the Web Valley showed thatEthiopian wolves and Oromo pastoralistsinteracted very little and coexisted peacefully.They did not appear to regard the Ethiopianwolf as a threat to their stock and even occa-sionally left their sheep unattended during theday. Sixty per cent of 40 heads of family inter-viewed in areas of high wolf density declaredlosing at least one lamb from their herd to

211




wolves within the last 3 years, but dismissedsuch losses when compared to damage byspotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta. Only twocases of predation upon livestock wereobserved in Bale during this study.

Following the overthrow of the Mengistu'sgovernment in May 1991, peaceful coexistenceturned into persecution. Automatic weaponssold by deserting soldiers became widelyavailable and Ethiopian wolves and otherwildlife became shooting targets. The killingwas probably fuelled by old grudges againstthe park administration. At least six knownadult wolves were shot in late 1991. Theshooting of a breeding female led to the deathof her 3-week-old litter. In another instancetwo pups perished after their den wasplugged with the corpse of a shot wolf. Theslaughter subsided after lengthy discussionswith the local elders, but the threat is likely topersist until most guns are confiscated.

Disease

As a species becomes more endangered, theirlast remaining individuals are likely to be con-centrated in a few relict populations. Any ofthese populations could be eradicated by thesudden outbreak of disease. Many wild popu-lations of canids are subject to disease out-breaks - from distemper in the bat-eared foxOtocyon megalotis in Serengeti, to leishmaniasisin the crab-eating fox Cerdocyon thous of Brazil,and rabies in African wild dog Lycaon pictus(Fanshawe et ah, 1991). Artificially high den-sities of hosts, such as occur when animals arerestricted in their movements by reserveboundaries or lack of suitable dispersal habi-tat, will increase the rates of transmission ofall types of direct life-cycle pathogens(Dobson and May, 1986).

Population decline due to disease has beenobserved in two study populations in Bale. In1990, 73 per cent of 34 known adults on theSanetti Plateau were lost (n = 3 packs). In 1991and early 1992, there was a 75 per cent loss inthe Web Valley (n = 48 adults, five packs). Thecause(s) of the death have yet to be deter-mined. Weight loss, empty digestive tractsand diarrhoea were common to all carcasses

212

recovered, suggesting enteric disorders.The most widespread, and possibly the

most dangerous, disease that may affect theEthiopian wolf is rabies. Rabies is notunknown in the Bale Region (Gottelli andSillero-Zubiri, 1990). Local residents inter-viewed in the Web Valley reported a cyclicoccurrence of an illness killing many dogs andsome Ethiopian wolves every 5-8 years. Of 15Ethiopian wolf blood serum samples testedfor rabies antibody two were found positive.Additionally, 8 out of 10 samples of unvacci-nated domestic dogs tested showed positiveresults (Mebatsion et al., \99Ti. Any out-breakof this or other canid-related disease couldspread via infected dogs to susceptibleEthiopian wolves.

Road kills

On the Sanetti Plateau an all-weather roadruns across 40 kilometres of prime Ethiopianwolf habitat. An average of 26 vehicles (mostlytrucks) uses the road every day. At least fourwolves have been killed by vehicles since1988. Two other animals have been shot fromthe road and another two were left with per-manent limps. Similar accidents may occur inother roads across Ethiopian wolf habitat suchas the Ankober road and Mehal Meda road innorth-east Shoa and the road to Ticho in Arssi.

Conservation

Brown (1971) discussed the extinction processaffecting mammals on mountain tops and pro-posed large body size and habitat specializa-tion as traits detrimental to long-termsurvival. The Ethiopian wolf qualifies in bothcategories. Because its current distribution islimited to isolated pockets of Afro-alpine habi-tat where small rodents are abundant, the suc-cessful conservation of this ecosystem isessential to ensure the survival of the species.Degradation of habitat by grazing and high-altitude agriculture is further fragmenting thehabitat available to the species, and makingthe already habitat-constrained populationssusceptible to extinction hazards, such as



THE ETHIOPIAN WOLF

human persecution, outbreeding depression,inbreeding, disease and natural catastrophes.

The Ethiopian wolf population in the BaleMountains has apparently increased since theBMNP was established, and illustrates theimportance of conservation areas to ensure thesurvival of the species. However, the dramaticdecline that population suffered since 1990,the small numbers remaining elsewhere andthe fragmentation of its population indicatethe vulnerability of this species.

The Ethiopian wolf is now more endan-gered than it has ever been. Ethiopia and theworld stand in extreme likelihood of losingthe species if action is not taken now. Everyeffort should be made to prevent rabies andother diseases from reaching the Ethiopianwolf population, rather than trying to containthe disease after an epidemic. The susceptiblepopulation of wild carnivores in the BaleMountains can be protected by preventingcontact with infected animals, i.e. by dog con-trol within and around BMNP, and probablythe implementation of a massive oral vaccina-tion programme using baits laced with rabiesvaccine (Ginsberg and Macdonald, 1990). Thelatter technique needs further refinement andtesting before it becomes a feasible possibility.

Any future management of Ethiopian wolfpopulations should concentrate on preservingthe species's genetic integrity. Conservationefforts should focus on the total removal ofdomestic dogs from Ethiopian wolf range andbuffer zones around it. Conservation aware-ness and tolerance towards wildlife will onlybe possible when direct benefits of conser-vation reach the local community.

In view of the persisting human impact onits overall distribution and its vulnerability toextinction, the establishment of a captivebreeding programme must be undertaken.

Captive breeding

The aims of captive breeding are to create agenetically pure population safe from thethreats faced by wild populations and to pro-duce founder populations for reintroductionprogrammes. It is an insurance programmefor the continuity of the endangered species

regardless of crises in its natural habitat.Captive breeding of wild animals can alsoserve as latter-day 'arks' (gene banks) if wildpopulations become extinct.

Three approaches are considered to enhanceconservation of the Ethiopian wolf: (i) estab-lishment of a captive-breeding facility inEthiopia, preferably in suitable habitat, (ii)captive breeding at an existing internationalcaptive-breeding facility, (iii) conservation ofhabitat and eventual reintroduction of cap-tive-bred animals.

The in-situ and ex-situ captive-breedingapproaches provide different advantages andare mutually supporting, the advantages ofeach one working to the benefit of the other(Ginsberg and Macdonald, 1990). Imperativeto the whole programme is the third compo-nent of continued maintenance of the species'natural habitat in Ethiopia.

Conclusions

In the northern part of their range, Ethiopianwolves may be on the verge of extinction as aresult of habitat destruction by increased agri-cultural practices at high altitudes and over-grazing. However, in north-eastern Shoa,Ethiopian wolves have survived in smallrelicts of original habitat and in the presenceof a high human population. With the prob-able exception of Simien, remnant wolf popu-lations north-west of the Rift Valley are sosmall that they may not be viable. To thesouth, the Arssi population is subject to simi-lar human pressures for pasture and arableland. There are good possibilities of conserv-ing additional areas of Afro-alpine habitat,provided Ethiopia's current attempts to securepeace and stability succeed and more fundingbecomes available.

Protective measures in the case of theEthiopian wolf require active efforts to moni-tor its remaining populations. Conservationpriorities must be decided pragmatically withregard to the allocation of resources and man-power, which implies that current conser-vation efforts should be directed to establishedconservation areas, i.e. BMNP and Simien

213




Mountains National Park, and the global cap-tive-breeding programme. Provided that theEthiopian authorities step up appropriate parkmanagement with increasing support from theinternational community, the BMNP willremain the best refuge for the survival of thesefascinating canids.

Acknowledgments

The Bale Mountains Research Project is supportedby Wildlife Conservation International, New YorkZoological Society, under the auspices of theEthiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation. Wewould like to thank Chris Hillman, Derek Yaldenand Josh Ginsberg for their helpful comments on adraft of this article. We also extend our thanks to theBMNP staff and Edriss Ebu for their support andfriendship.

References

Bonnefille, R., Roeland J.C. and Guiot, J. 1990.Temperature and rainfall estimates for the past40,000 years in equatorial Africa. Nature, 346,347-349.

Brown, J.H. 1971. Mammals on mountain tops:nonequilibrium insular bio-geography. AmericanNaturalist, 105,467-478.

Brown, L.H. 1964a. A report on the wildlife situationin the Semien mountains of north Ethiopia withspecial reference to the Walia ibex, Capra walieand the Semien fox, Simenia simensis. Report toWWF, Mimeo, 28 pp.

Brown, L.H. 1964b. A report on the mountain nyalaTragelaphus buxtoni, the Semien fox Simenia simen-sis, and other animals in the Mendebo mountains,Bale Province, Ethiopia. Report to WWF, Mimeo,13 pp.

Delany, M.J. 1972. The ecology of small rodents intropical Africa. Mammal Rev. 2,1—42.

Dobson, A. and May, R. 1986. Disease and conser-vation. In Conservation Biology: The Science ofScarcity and Diversity (ed. M. E. Soule), pp.345-365, University of Michigan.

Fanshawe, J.H., Frame, L.H. and Ginsberg, J.R. 1991.The wild dog - Africa's vanishing carnivore.Oryx, 25,137-146.

Flenley, J. 1979. The Equatorial Rain Forest: AGeological History. Butterworths, London.

Ginsberg, J.R. and Macdonald, D.W. 1990. Foxes,Wolves, Jackals and Dogs. An Action Plan for theConservation of Canids. IUCN/SSC CanidSpecialist Group and Wolf Specialist Group,IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Gottelli, D. and Sillero-Zubiri, C. 1990. The SimienJackal: Ecology and Conservation. WildlifeConservation International, New York.

Hillman, J.C. 1986a. Conservation in Bale MountainsNational Park, Ethiopia. Oryx, 20, 89-94.

Hillman, J.C. 1986b. Bale Mountains National ParkManagement Plan. Ethiopian Wildlife ConservationOrganisation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Hurni, H. 1986. Management Plan: Simien MountainNational Park and Surrounding Rural Areas. WildlifeConservation Organisation. Ministry of Agriculture,Ethiopia.

IUCN, 1990. 1990 IUCN Red list of ThreatenedAnimals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland andCambridge, UK.

Kingdon, J. 1990. Island Africa. Collins. London.Malcolm, J.R. 1987. A recensus of Simien jackals

(Canis simensis) in Bale, Ethiopia. Report toEthiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisationand National Geographic Society. Mimeo.

Mebatsion, T., Sillero-Zubiri, C, Gottelli, D. andCox, J.H. 1992. Detection of rabies antibody byELISA and REFIT in unvaccinated dogs and in theendangered Simien jackal of Ethiopia. J. Vet Med.B39 (in press).

Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, 1972. An IntroductoryGeography of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.

Messerli, B., Hurni, H., Kienholz, H. and Winiger,M. 1977. Bale Mountains: largest Pleistocenemountain glacier system of Ethiopia. INQAAbstracts, Birmingham.

Morris P.A. and Malcolm, J.R. 1977. The Simien foxin the Bale Mountains. Oryx, 14,151-160.

Scott, H. 1958. Biogeographical research in highSimien. Proc. Linn. Soc. 170,1-91.

Sillero-Zubiri, C. and Gottelli, D. 1991. Conservationof the endemic Ky Kebero (Canis simensis). Walia,13,35^6.

Templeton, A. 1986. Coadaptation and outbreedingdepression. In Conservation Biology: The Science ofScarcity and Diversity (ed M.E. Soule), pp. 105-116.University of Michigan.

Yalden D.W. 1983. The extent of high ground inEthiopia compared to the rest of Africa. Sinet: Eth.J. Sci. 6,35-38.

Yalden D.W., Largen, M.J. and Kock, D. 1980. Catalogueof the mammals of Ethiopia. 4. Carnivora. Monit.Zool. Ital. NS Suppl XIIK8), 169-272.

Dada Gottelli and Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, WildlifeConservation International, New York ZoologicalSociety, Bronx 10460, USA, andWildlife Conservation Research Unit, ZoologyDepartment, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS,UK.

214


The Ethiopian wolf – an endangered endemic canid · The endemic giant mole-rat Tachyoryctes...

Documents

Transcript of The Ethiopian wolf – an endangered endemic canid · The endemic giant mole-rat Tachyoryctes...