University of Ljubljana

Faculty of Arts

Department of English

THE END OF THE PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY

by

Jan Hacin

A paper submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the course

Introduction to Academic Writing and Presentation Techniques

Supervisor: Izr. Prof. Dr. Gašper Ilc Date of

submission: 20. 2. 2012

Table of Contents

Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i

Abstract-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii

1. Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

2. The Ptolemaic dynasty's end: a comparison between the presentation

in Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir and actual historical events – the

background--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

3. Cleopatra VII.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3

3.1. Mark Antony and Cleopatra----------------------------------------------------------4

3.2. Cleopatra's death-------------------------------------------------------------------------6

4. Ptolemy XV. Caesarion-----------------------------------------------------------------------8

4.1. The possibility of Caesarion being the son of Julius Caesar------------8

4.2. Caesarion's death-----------------------------------------------------------------------10

5. Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13

List of references---------------------------------------------------------------------------------14

Abstract

This paper compares the characters and events in Gillian Bradshaw's

novel Cleopatra's Heir to historical facts about the last years and deaths

of Cleopatra VII and her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion, the last two of the

Ptolemaic dynasty who were co-rulers of Egypt in the time of

Hellenization. Historical facts are obtained from several classical texts

and modern historical works. The section on Cleopatra discusses her

relationship with Mark Antony and the manner of her death. Results show

that Cleopatra's relationship with Antony was one of the major causes for

the war with the Roman emperor Octavian. By comparing the two

versions of Cleopatra's death and the arguments provided for them, we

can assume that she did not die from a cobra bite; most likely, she used

some kind of poison. The section on Caesarion discusses the possibility of

him being Julius Caesar's son, and the reason for his death. Although it is

hard for historians to deduce the truth about these matters from various

historical sources, it is safe to say that there is a high possibility of

Caesar really being Caesarion's father. That he never acknowledged it

was most likely because he wanted to avoid negative public opinion.

Octavian ordered Caesarion's death in order to eliminate any potential

threat of the supposed son of Caesar. Bradshaw's book mostly follows the

historical facts, although, concerning Cleopatra's death, it only mentions

the story with the snake. It also depicts the Romans' denial of Caesarion

as being Julius Caesar's son.

i

1. Introduction

The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian Greek royal family, which ruled

over Egypt from 305 B.C. to 30 B.C. Their reign began with Ptolemy I. He

was one of Alexander's most trusted generals, who divided among

themselves the territory of the previous great empire. Egypt was one of

the most powerful Hellenistic kingdoms for quite some time, until it fell to

Rome's power in 30 B.C. The last two of the family to rule over the

kingdom were Cleopatra VII and her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion.

Cleopatra had great plans for her partnership with Rome and was able to

charm two of the great Roman leaders – the dictator Julius Caesar, and

the triumvir Mark Antony. She bore children to Antony, and Caesarion

was the supposed son of Caesar. The lives of Cleopatra and Caesarion,

however, ended tragically, with suicide and murder.

This seminar paper compares the fall of the dynasty, as recorded in

historical sources, to Gillian Bradshaw's novel Cleopatra's Heir, which

proposes the question of what would happen if Ptolemy Caesarion had

escaped his death. By comparing the representations of characters and

events in this book to different classical texts and modern historical

works, the paper focuses on Cleopatra and Caesarion, their last years and

the circumstances surrounding their deaths. Section 2 offers the

historical background of the events and shortly summarizes Bradshaw's

book. Section 3 discusses Cleopatra, her relationship with Mark Antony

and her death. It also attempts to answer the question of how Cleopatra

really died, which has mystified historians since antiquity. Section 4

focuses on Caesarion, the possibility of him being Julius Caesar's son and

the reason for the boy's death. The section ends with a short explanation

of what happened to his siblings. Section 5 sums up the paper.

1

2. The Ptolemaic dynasty's end: a comparison between the

presentation in Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir and

actual historical events – the background

During his short, thirteen years long reign (336 – 323 B.C.),

Alexander III of Macedon carried out an extraordinary military campaign,

leading his army across the eastern Mediterranean all the way to western

India. He conquered the Persian Empire, which was a previously thought

impossible dream of Greek intellectuals. His unexpected death at the age

of 32 aborted any plans he may have had and caused four decades of civil

war between his generals. In place of the previous great empire was a

series of kingdoms ruled by Macedonian dynasties. The history of the

Ptolemaic dynasty, also known as the Lagids or Lagidae1, began in 305

B.C. with Ptolemy I, who controlled the kingdom of Egypt. He secured

Egypt's territory and greatly increased its wealth. His ancestors

continued his work and, over the decades and centuries, Egypt remained

one of the superior Hellenistic kingdoms. In the meantime, however,

Rome was clearly becoming the dominant power in the Mediterranean

and started suspecting Egypt as one of its potential threats. To

strengthen his own position, Ptolemy VIII, in his will, named Rome as his

heir and that was a practice later repeated. (Burstein, 2004, p. 1-11)

The last Lagid who had power over Egypt was Cleopatra VII. "And

yet, she was [not] quite the last." Following the tradition, she made her

infant son Ptolemy XV Caesar (the populace called him "Little Caesar" –

Caesarion in Greek) king and co-ruler. She claimed he was Julius Caesar's

son, although the Romans denied it at all times. Cleopatra's plans for

partnership with Rome ended with Caesar's death. Mark Antony, the man

she chose to replace him, was defeated by Octavian, Caesar's heir and the

first Roman emperor. Octavian did not want the supposed son of Julius

1 Ptolemy I was the supposed son of Lagus, a descendant of the Macedonian royal family (Bennett, Lagus, n.d.)

2

Caesar to be a potential threat. When he conquered Egypt in 30 B.C., he

wanted him dead and Cleopatra taken prisoner. (Bradshaw, 2002, p. 10)

Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir is a fictitious historical novel

which poses a question of what would happen if the son of Cleopatra and

Julius Caesar escaped death. The story begins with Caesarion waking up

from an epileptic seizure (the disease was the author's invention) after

the Roman attack on his camp. Because the disease has been hidden from

the public, the Romans think he is dead and he is able to escape

unnoticed. On the way, he almost dies of exhaustion but is saved by an

Egyptian merchant named Ani, who decides to take care of him, at least

until his wounds recover. With his family's cause lost, Caesarion almost

abandons all hope, but eventually decides to travel with Ani back to

Alexandria in order to receive some help from his mother's supporters,

and to see if he can possibly help his siblings. While travelling, he meets

with Romans a few times, but manages to keep his identity hidden. Ani

and his family eventually grow on him, especially the daughter Melanthe,

whom he falls in love with. They reach Alexandria, but after being there

for some time, Caesarion has a major epileptic seizure in public. One of

the people who notice that is Areios Didymos, a good friend of Octavian,

who decides to take the boy to him. Octavian interrogates Caesarion and

Ani, and at first still feels that the son of Cleopatra is a potential threat to

him, but is eventually convinced to let him go, on one condition:

Caesarion must keep his fake identity as Arion and live with Ani's family.

The boy accepts this proposal and goes on with his life.

3. Cleopatra VII.

Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian Greek queen of Egypt, was born

in 69 B.C. as the second child of Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos; the identity

of her mother is unknown2. We also do not know much about her

2 Historians generally assume that Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's sister and wife was her mother. The geographer Strabo, however, noted that she was illegitimate. (Burstein,

3

childhood and teenage years. As stated by Burstein (2004, p. 11), "[s]he

suddenly emerges on the historical scene in 50 [B.C.] as a clear-header,

resourceful, and, above all, ambitious young queen fully able to match

wits with her rivals and to engage the interest of Romans such as Julius

Caesar."

In Bradshaw's book, Cleopatra is on several occasions described as

an intelligent, graceful, passionate, brave, extraordinary woman. When a

priest has a conversation about her with Caesarion, he says: "I thought

her the greatest and most godlike being I have ever encountered[,]" (p.

202). Even her greatest enemy, the Roman emperor Octavian, highly

respects her: "She was an extraordinary woman. Even at the end, as a

prisoner. When she was in a room, everyone else seemed to fade. A

glorious creature" (p. 418).

Plutarch describes the queen's magnificent presence, even compares

it to portraits of the goddess Aphrodite. According to him, the way she

conversed was charming, persuasive, sweet and stimulating. He also

points out her ability to speak several different languages (The Life of

Antony, par. 26-27)

Cleopatra, as many of her ancestors, identified herself with Egyptian

gods, claiming to be the human incarnation of the goddess Isis, mother of

Horus, who represents Caesarion. The father of Horus, in this case Julius

Caesar, was Osiris, whom the Greeks saw as a version of Dionysos. Roller

(2010, p. 116-117) states that Julius Caesar took upon himself divine

characteristics even before his death, as did his successor Mark Antony,

who called himself the New Dionysos and ordered that others should

address him in the same way.

3.1. Mark Antony and Cleopatra

2004, p. 11)

4

In 41 B.C. Mark Antony, one of the three triumvirs who ruled over

Rome, summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus3 for questioning. She charmed him

so much that he decided to spend the next winter with her in Alexandria

(Plutarch, The Life of Antony, par. 28-30; Appian, Civil Wars, par. 5). In

40 B.C., she gave birth to two of his children, the twins Alexander Helios

and Cleopatra Selene II. Four years later he made Alexandria his new

home.

After Antony conquered Armenia in 34 B.C., he donated his territory

and armies to Cleopatra and her children. He recognized Caesarion as

Julius Caesar's legitimate son. Octavian exploited this and launched a

fierce propaganda against him, declaring him a traitor of Rome. Antony

severed the last link between him and Octavian by divorcing his wife

Octavia and marrying Cleopatra. By doing so, he clearly defied Octavian

and in 32 B.C. both sides started their preparations for war. (Burstein,

2004, p. 29)

In Cleopatra's Heir, Caesarion thinks about Antony on several

occasions. He remembers him as "a loud, swaggering man, vigorous,

crude, and inclined to drunkenness." He does not know what his mother

ever saw in the man (p. 283).

After their defeat at Actium in 31 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony

returned to Alexandria, where they spent the last year of their lives.

Antony was most of the time depressed and suicidal. In the meantime,

Cleopatra took command of the situation and tried to find a way to save

her kingdom.

When Caesarion has a conversation with the merchant Ani, he is told

that, according to rumours, Cleopatra tried to sail off to the East with all

her treasure and "make herself queen of somewhere else", but the ships

were burned (p. 43).

3 Tarsus was a historic city in south-central Turkey, capital of the province of Cilicia (Wikipedia, 2012)

5

Roller (2010, p. 142) also claims that the queen planned to hand over

her throne to Caesarion and take her troops and money in order to start a

life somewhere else, perhaps even in India. Her plans, however, were

aborted when Malchos of Natabaea burned her fleet and she was forced

to stay in Alexandria. What followed were desertion, treachery and

deceit.

This does not seem to surprise Caesarion in Cleopatra's Heir, when

he asks Ani about the gossip concerning Alexandria. Ani tells him that the

Alexandrian army deserted to Octavian without a fight, and they have

been doing so ever since it became clear that the war is over; even the

Egyptians, who were expected to be loyal. Antony thought that Cleopatra

was deserting him as well, and he started to run around threatening to

kill her. She was so frightened that she spread a false rumour of her

death, which upset Antony so much that he committed suicide. Caesarion

is not at all surprised hearing such news, because he has been hearing

that story for years (p. 66-67).

Roller (2010, p. 145) claims that Antony thought the desertions were

all Cleopatra's work. Apparently Cleopatra sent the message of her death

to Antony because she wanted to plant the idea of suicide in his mind.

She knew he had threatened to kill himself at least twice before and this

time, he responded as expected.

Bradshaw provides an explanation as to why Antony and, especially

Cleopatra, ended their lives so tragically. In the words of Octavian,

Cleopatra was mistaken in her view of the importance of public opinion.

She and Antony might have survived, if their people remained loyal – but

everyone deserted them when the war was visibly over. Octavian says

that Cleopatra "never cared whether she was hated, so long as she was

obeyed". He, on the other hand, cares and hopes to rule longer than her

(p. 414).

6

3.2. Cleopatra's death

Even after her defeat and Antony's suicide, Cleopatra remained a

proud queen. Octavian planned to take her back to Rome to march in a

triumph, as was the Roman tradition4. She refused to be humiliated, and

decided to escape by taking her own life. There are two most common

theories about her death. The snakebite theory (Cassius Dio, Roman

History: Book 51, par. 14; Plutarch, The Life of Antony, par. 85-86) is the

most famous one. However, many historians claim or mention the

possibility that she merely took some kind of poison (Mahaffy, 1899, p.

251; Cassius Dio, Roman History: Book 51, par. 14; Burstein, 2004, p. 31-

32; Roller, 2010, p. 147-149).

In her book, Bradshaw uses only the snakebite theory. A priest tells

Caesarion the news of his mother's death: "The queen is dead. [….] They

say that she had a serpent smuggled to her in a basket of figs." (p. 193)

Plutarch (The Life of Antony, par. 86) claims that no one ever really

knew the truth, although he mentions both theories. He said that the

snake was, according to the first theory, smuggled in either a basket of

figs or a water jar. The other theory is that she carried poison in a hollow

comb, which she kept in her hair at all times. And yet, there was no sign

of poison on her body, or any trace of a snake found in the chamber,

where she died. Some said that there were two slight and indistinct

punctures on her arm. It seems that Octavian believed the snakebite story

and used the image of a snake clinging to Cleopatra in his triumph.

Cassius Dio (Roman History: Book 51, par. 14) is also unsure on the

matter and accepts both possibilities. However, he mentions something

Plutarch does not. According to him, some people described the poison in

4 The Roman Triumph was the crowning achievement of a Roman general. It was, in a way, a parade of the Roman army, along with captured leaders, slaves and treasure. It was a grand spectacle, but often very shameful for the captured people. (Roman Triumph, n.d.)

7

her comb as something that "in ordinary circumstances […] would not

injure the body at all, but if it came into contact with even a drop of blood

would destroy the body very quietly and painlessly[,]" which could explain

why there were no signs of it on her body.

Burstein (2004, p. 31-32) prefers the poison theory and claims that

it is difficult to imagine how a cobra could have been smuggled in to

Cleopatra, or how it could have been responsible for the death of her and

two of her servants. Roller (2010, p. 147-149) gives several arguments as

to why the snake story is probably untrue. First of all, Dio Cassius and

Plutarch ignore the fact that the curious basket of figs would have been

very large (the Egyptian cobra is several feet long). Second, no source

discusses the difficulty of bringing the snake to Cleopatra and getting it

to perform exactly as wished. "[I]t would be a complex method of death

with little certainty of success." As Roller points out, the story quickly

entered the world of poetry and drama either because Octavian believed

it or because it was suitably dramatic, and soon started to influence

historians such as Plutarch and Dio Cassius. Hölbl (2001, p. 293) claims

that the story has metaphorical overtones, the ultimate victory of

Egyptian ways over Rome.

We can assume that the story with the cobra is false. There are

simply too many opposing arguments. We are not even sure whether

Octavian himself believed it, even though he used the image in his

triumph. It was quite possibly his way of honouring the memory of

Cleopatra. They were enemies, nevertheless they respected each other,

and people would sooner forget the story with some kind of poison than

the one with the famous Egyptian cobra. Cleopatra may have set her

goals too high, which resulted in her defeat and death, yet she remains a

symbol of womanly power, wits and sexuality.

8

4. Ptolemy XV. Caesarion

Caesarion was born in 47 B.C. in Egypt as the son of Cleopatra VII

and, quite possibly, Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination in 44 B.C.,

his mother associated him in the throne as "Ptolemy Caesar, […] [Theos]

Philopator Philometor []" (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 244) – "the god who loves his

father and his mother" (Burstein, 2004, p. 22). As Mahaffy states,

"Caesarion is one of those figures about whom we should gladly learn

more, but about whom history preserves an obstinate silence" (p. 252) He

was co-ruler with his mother until 30 B.C., when he was killed by order of

Octavian.

In her book, Bradshaw inflicts Caesarion with epilepsy, which is

mostly referred to as the 'sacred disease'5. As explained in the afterword,

it is her attempt to make the character more sympathetic to the reader by

giving him a disability, which he has to overcome. We have to consider

that there is the possibility of the real Caesarion having such a condition.

His supposed father Julius Caesar was, as is known, epileptic and the

disease is inheritable (p. 444). Even if it were true, though, history would

probably have little to no record of it, as it is not something Cleopatra

would want to be known. Epileptic seizures are a frightening sight and, as

shown in the book, people in Egypt at that time would see a man inflicted

with such a condition as weak and unable to be king.

4.1. The possibility of Caesarion being the son of Julius Caesar

Soon after Julius Caesar's stay in Alexandria in the winter of 48-47

B.C., Cleopatra bore her first son and claimed him to be Caesar's, which

is why she named him Caesarion – "Little Caesar" in Greek.

5 This phrase was utilized by Hippocrates in his writings. The term has been encouraged by Greeks who saw people with the disease as beings possessed by gods or a spirit. (Garretson, n.d.)

9

Caesar never officially acknowledged him, and neither did the other

Romans. It would be shameful for him to have an illegitimate son with a

non-Roman woman, while his Roman wife Octavia was childless for more

than a decade (Roller, 2010, p. 70).

Cleopatra's Heir proposes another reason – property. When

Caesarion has a conversation about his father, he says that the main

reason why Romans do not acknowledge marriage or children with

foreigners is that they do not want Roman property in foreign hands. He

also mentions the law which prohibits any Roman to make a will leaving

any property to a foreigner (p. 256-257).

Caesar followed this law and denied the rumours of Caesarion in

his will (Adams, par. 20).

According to some Greek writers, Caesarion had similar looks and

other characteristics as Julius Caesar. Mark Antony supposedly

announced to the senate that Caesar acknowledged the boy and Caesar's

friends knew of this (Suetonius, The Life of Julius Caesar, par. 52.). There

were rumours that Caesar was seeking legislation to marry Cleopatra and

move the capital of the empire from Rome to Alexandria (Burstein, 2004,

p. 21).

There is a high possibility that Caesarion really was the only child of

Julius Caesar. However, Caesar's position at the time is understandable:

declaring he had a son with a foreigner would do him no good; it would

only stir up trouble. In all likelihood, he wanted to keep quiet about it, but

Cleopatra's repetitive assertions made it harder for him to do so; she had

great plans for her partnership with Rome. In late 30 B.C., Antony and

Octavian started a propaganda war in which they tried to, on one side,

prove, and on the other, reject Caesar's role in this matter. They

complicated it so much that, today, it is impossible to know what Caesar's

actual response was (Roller, 2010, p. 70).

10

4.2. Caesarion's death

In Cleopatra's Heir, Caesarion and his group are sent to flee from

Alexandria to the port in Berenike6, where a ship is supposed to wait for

them and take them somewhere to the East. Caesarion's tutor Rhodon,

however, decides that the war is over and that there have been enough

lives lost. At one point, he lets the group go ahead without him and goes

to the Romans. He takes them to the camp and tries to take Caesarion

back to Alexandria. Caesarion responds in shock and almost dies on a

spear, while going into a major epileptic seizure. The Romans, without

realizing that he is in fact having the seizure, set the bodies of the boy

and three other men on a funeral pyre. When Caesarion awakes, there is

no one around to notice it, and he uses the opportunity to escape. Later

on, he sees the pyre burn from a distance, which, to him, indicates that

no one noticed his escape.

The real Caesarion was, almost certainly, killed in the summer of 30

B.C. by order of Octavian. Plutarch's version of the story claims that he

was sent by his mother into India, passing through Ethiopia. Rhodon

persuaded him to go back on the ground that Octavian invited him to take

the kingdom. In Alexandria, however, he was put to death (Life of Antony,

pars. 81-82.). Dio Cassius provides a different account of his fate: while

fleeing to Ethiopia, Caesarion was overtaken on the road and murdered

(Roman History, Book 51, par. 15.). Many historians prefer to quote

Plutarch's version. (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 253; Burstein, 2004, p. 32; Roller,

2010, p. 150)

According to Plutarch, the Alexandrian philosopher Areios Didymos

said that "Not a good thing were a Caesar too many". This piece of advice

6 Also known as Berenice or Berenice Troglodytica, an ancient seaport of Egypt on the west coast of the Red Seas, founded by Ptolemy II, who named it after his mother, Berenice I of Egypt. (Wikipedia, 2012)

11

supposedly ended Octavian's deliberations on the matter of how to handle

Caesarion when he was brought back to Alexandria (Life of Antony, par.

81).

This story is, in the same manner, presented in Bradshaw's book.

When Caesarion once again meets Rhodon in Alexandria, he is told that

the emperor did consider letting him live, but he was persuaded to do

otherwise by Areios. Areios was a philosopher who felt he did not obtain

the royal appointment he deserved in Alexandria. He departed for Rome

to advise Octavian on Alexandrian issues, and his hostility towards the

royal house was quite possibly the reason he advised Octavian to kill

Cleopatra's son. Caesarion does not believe Rhodon's story, saying

"Octavian probably put it about to deflect criticism from himself []" (295).

Bradshaw's book explains Octavian's probable motives for the

order of Caesarion's death, when the young emperor has a conversation

with the merchant Ani: "Leaving that young man alive would be like

defeating an army and leaving it intact with all its weapons and its

paychest, […] He is a threat to peace as long as he draws breath."

Especially now, if people find out that a king has returned from the dead,

it would cause too much trouble. Ani, who has become very close friends

with Caesarion, is able to persuade Octavian that the boy is no longer a

threat to him. The emperor eventually decides to trust him on the matter

and allows Caesarion to live on as Arion, while Ani takes on the

responsibility of ensuring he never reveals his real identity (p. 421).

As for Caesarion's siblings, Antony's children Ptolemy Philadelphus,

Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, Octavian says that he will have

them adorn his triumph in a respectable manner, then take them back to

Rome, where they will be raised by his sister Octavia, Antony's former

wife, along will the other children of Antony. Caesarion knows of

Octavia's reputation for piety, grace, good behaviour and is pleased with

12

the outcome, although he knows he would miss them, especially the little

boy Philadelphus. (p. 431)

As evidence shows, Cleopatra's other children were, in reality, raised

by Octavia (Burstein, 2004, p. 32; Roller, 2010, p. 150; Plutarch: Life of

Antony, par. 87.). We do not know anything of their fate after that, except

for Cleopatra Selene, who married Juba II, King of Mauretania in North

Africa (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 253; Burstein, 2004, p. 32). According to

Mahaffy, Juba was a friend of Octavian, who visited Egypt and was

impressed with Cleopatra Selene's beauty and the tradition of her race.

Octavian allowed Juba and his wife to take Alexander Helios and Ptolemy

Philadelphus with them to their new African home (p. 253). Burstein

(2004, p. 32) adds that their son Ptolemy succeeded Juba and ruled his

kingdom until 40 A.D., when he was executed by the Roman emperor

Caligula. His death finally ended the long line of Ptolemies.

Ptolemy XV Caesarion's death was inevitable. Although there is no

record of him ever claiming to be the heir of Julius Caesar, or his

intentions, he was the figure which needed to be removed in order for the

young Roman emperor Octavian to ensure peace. Romans were very

proud of their heritage and they despised the idea of a foreigner being

the son of the glorified Caesar. They saw Cleopatra as a seductress, who

was responsible for Caesar and Antony's miscalculated actions. The

population of Ptolemaic Egypt saw the royal family as descendants of the

great Alexander; they may have even seen them as godlike beings. As

long as even one of them lived, there would be the potential threat of

rebellion. Although the dynasty ended in suicide and murder, they were a

great line of people, who managed to overcome many desperate

situations.

13

5. Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to compare the representation of characters

and events Bradshaw's novel Cleopatra's Heir to actual historical facts.

The conclusions on the topic were made using several classical texts and

modern works by historians.

Cleopatra was a great woman with powerful presence. She was able to

charm two of the great Romans, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Her

relationship with Antony and her misunderstanding of the power of public

opinion was, however, what ended her reign. The manner of her death

has troubled many historians and we will probably never find out the

truth, but it is safe to assume that she did not die of snakebite. This story

became popular because of its highly dramatic value. The only other

rational explanation is that she used some kind of poison, which is quite

believable. She might have had a child with Caesar, and this is another

subject still debated upon. We can assume that there is a high possibility

of it being true and that Caesarion was Julius Caesar's only son. He never

officially acknowledged it, though, and even if it were true, his denial is

14

understandable. His acknowledgment would only negatively affect public

opinion and cause trouble. Caesar's heir Octavian understood the

importance of public opinion and, therefore, ordered Caesarion's death

once he conquered Alexandria. The boy was a figure, which needed

removing in order to ensure peace. The end of the Ptolemaic dynasty

came about tragically, but was expected.

Further research on the topic could more closely examine Caesarion and

his relationship with Cleopatra, although the resources for such a

research would be quite limited. The possible son of two great people is

an interesting topic to research.

15

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