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THE EFFECTS OF URBAN FORM ON WALKING TO TRANSIT
Ayşe ÖZBİL1, John PEPONIS2
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January, 2012 Santiago, Chile
1 Okan University Department of Architecture, İstanbul 2 GaTech College of Architecture, Atlanta
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
3
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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purpose:
the impacts of urban form, in general, and street network, in
particular, on public transport-related walking urban form
. population densities . land-use patterns . street networks
aim:
how far street connectivity is related to transit walk-mode
shares after controlling for socio-demographic attributes and
transit service features
hypothesis:
connected environments supporting different kinds of walking
support public transportation and promote walking as transit
access/egress mode choice
objectives
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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question:
to what extent local conditions of station environments
contribute to an explanation of variations in
transit-access/egress walking shares (number of riders
walking from within a range as a proportion of total ridership)?
contribution:
to better understand how far street network connectivity
influences the choice to walk for transit
implication:
relevant in assessing the sensitivity of transit access/egress
walk mode choice to changes in urban form
contribution
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
6
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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source: Belmont 2002
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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source: Quade and Douglas Inc. 1996
source: Belmont 2002
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
RIDERSHIP WALKING for TRANSIT
(transit/auto trips-VMT per person/household & station boardings) ▪ (walking trips per person/household (proportion of trips by transit) ▪ (walk mode share)
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
RIDERSHIP WALKING for TRANSIT
(transit/auto trips-VMT per person/household & station boardings) ▪ (walking trips per person/household (proportion of trips by transit) ▪ (walk mode share)
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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probability commute by walk/bicyclesource: Krizek 2003
many businesses (black dots) indicating high land use mix.
fewer businesses (black dots) indicating lower land use mix.
source: Cervero 1996
probability commute by walk/bicycle
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
RIDERSHIP WALKING for TRANSIT
(transit/auto trips-VMT per person/household & station boardings) ▪ (walking trips per person/household (proportion of trips by transit) ▪ (walk mode share)
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source: Southworth and Owens 1993
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
RIDERSHIP WALKING for TRANSIT
(transit/auto trips-VMT per person/household & station boardings) ▪ (walking trips per person/household (proportion of trips by transit) ▪ (walk mode share)
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source: Cervero and Radisch 1996
traditional neighborhood (TND)
planned unit development (PND)
source: Kulkarni and McNally 1997
traditional neighborhood contemporary neighborhood
15
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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source: Ozbil and Peponis 2007
R2=0.30; p<0.0003; n=55
lowest global integration
Integration rn
logp
ed/2
0min
highest global integration
axial lines analysis of Virginia Highland according to global integration
correlation between movement counts and global integration in Virginia Highland
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
17
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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MARTA system overlaid on the map of Atlanta. Gray lines represent roads; red lines denote the freeway system.
2001-2002 Regional On-Board
Transit Survey
. trip origin
. final destination
. boarding (bus/train on) location
. alighting (bus/train off) location
. access/egress mode (walk, bus, car, etc.)
. household size
. household income
. auto availability
walk-mode share :
total walk trips / total ridership by station
MARTA rail transit stations
10.13 – 12.09 2001 & February 2002
trip origins
case context & data
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transit service features (park&ride facilities, service frequency, feeder bus services, station structures)
parcel-based land-use data (based on 2004 data acquired by SMARTRAQ program)
population density (based on 2000 Census Data)
socio-demographics (acquired from transit survey)
street connectivity measures (based on ESRI Streetmap 2003)
case context & data
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*
. Accessibility:
sidewalk availability measuring the percentage of streets with sidewalk
. Density: population density (people in gross acres) within 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mile radii of stations established using US 2000 census data.
. Land-Use: mixed-use entropy index* computed using parcel-based land-use data. Separate entropy indices computed for each range.
. Transit service characteristics: number of station-area parking supplies; service frequency (# of inbound trains in am peak
hour); availability of feederbus services at station; types of station structure (underground, elevated, at-grade)
. Composite socio-demographic variable:
auto-ownership relativized by per-capita income
. Measures of street connectivity:
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
independent variables
* Cervero and Kockelman (1997); Cervero (2006); Greenwald (2006)
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Segment-based Measures of Connectivity
definition of line segments and road segments
source: Peponis et al. 2008
independent variables
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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independent variables
Segment-based Measures of Connectivity
Metric Reach
definition of Metric Reach
source: Peponis et al. 2008
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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independent variables
Segment-based Measures of Connectivity
Directional Reach
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The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
definition of Directional Reach
source: Peponis et al. 2008
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metric reach (1 mile, 0.5 mile, 0.25 mile)
(total linear footage within each
buffer)
2-directional reach (10o) (every
street segment and portion of street segment)
directional distance (average
# of turns needed to access all portions of streets within
metric reach)
composite connectivity measure (metric reach / directional distance, 10o)
independent variables
Segment-based Measures of Connectivity
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
25
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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sum of squares F ratio prob>F
sum of squares F ratio prob>F
sum of squares F ratio prob>F
sum of squares F ratio prob>F
sum of squares F ratio prob>F
0.051 8.844 0.006 0.002 0.567 0.458 0.008 2.748 0.109 0.0095 3.0113 0.094 0.0094 2.8784 0.1017
0.023 1.994 0.154 0.016 1.931 0.163 0.020 3.220 0.055 0.0199 3.1619 0.0584 0.020 3.030 0.066
0.002 0.395 0.535 0.003 0.805 0.377 0.031 10.215 0.003 0.032 10.168 0.0036 0.028 8.637 0.007
0.111 19.360 0.000 0.044 10.458 0.003 0.030 9.641 0.004 0.0303 9.6295 0.0045 0.027 8.255 0.008
0.053 9.346 0.005 0.009 2.133 0.155 0.000 0.060 0.809 0.000 0.0061 0.9381 0.000 0.008 0.928
0.048 11.350 0.002 0.046 14.967 0.001 0.044 13.965 0.001 0.039 11.942 0.002
0.037 12.201 0.002 0.029 9.307 0.005 0.018 5.512 0.027
0.001 0.338 0.566 0.001 0.304 0.586
0.000 0.004 0.949
N=37
R 2
R2 adjusted
Notes:
coefficient of residual variability,V e
std. error,S e 0.08 0.07 0.06
0.62 0.72 0.80
+ Density
0.06 0.06
0.79 0.78
+ Land Use + Connectivity +Accessibility
auto ownership relativized by per-capita income*
total riders walked / total ridership per station
Controls
station structure typeb
service frequency‡
feederbus services (no)
parking supplies
avg. Reach (1mile)
sidewalk availabilitya
population density: persons per gross acre within 1 mile of station
mixed-land use index†
0.84 0.84
b types of station structure: at-grade, elevated, underground ‡ number of inbound trains in am peak hour (7am-9am)* ratio of average auto-ownership to average per-capita income calculated per station
Numbers in bold = p< 0.05; numbers in italics = p<0.10
a proportion of roads with sidewalk
†
0.69 0.77 0.84
39.17
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
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F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F
0.051 8.844 0.006 0.002 0.567 0.458 0.008 2.748 0.109 0.0095 3.0113 0.094 0.0094 2.8784 0.1017
0.023 1.994 0.154 0.016 1.931 0.163 0.020 3.220 0.055 0.0199 3.1619 0.0584 0.020 3.030 0.066
0.002 0.395 0.535 0.003 0.805 0.377 0.031 10.215 0.003 0.032 10.168 0.0036 0.028 8.637 0.007
0.111 19.360 0.000 0.044 10.458 0.003 0.030 9.641 0.004 0.0303 9.6295 0.0045 0.027 8.255 0.008
0.053 9.346 0.005 0.009 2.133 0.155 0.000 0.060 0.809 0.000 0.0061 0.9381 0.000 0.008 0.928
0.048 11.350 0.002 0.046 14.967 0.001 0.044 13.965 0.001 0.039 11.942 0.002
0.037 12.201 0.002 0.029 9.307 0.005 0.018 5.512 0.027
0.001 0.338 0.566 0.001 0.304 0.586
0.000 0.004 0.949
N=37
R2 adjusted
Notes:
b types of station structure: at-grade, elevated, underground ‡ number of inbound trains in am peak hour (7am-9am)* ratio of average auto-ownership to average per-capita income calculated per station
Numbers in bold = p< 0.05; numbers in italics = p<0.10
a proportion of roads with sidewalk
†
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
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B t std β B t std β B t std β
0.15 0.22 4.20
-0.002 -2.471 -0.256 0.049 3.156 0.317 -0.127 -3.480 -0.442
0.062 3.334 0.280 0.404 5.915 0.592 0.027 3.299 0.429
0.773 6.800 0.605 0.014 2.214 0.197 0.025 2.361 0.304
0.016 3.908 0.421N N
N N N
R 2 R 2 R 2
Prob>F Prob>F Prob>F
Notes:
0.00
avg.metric reach(1mile)/ directional distance(10°)
37
0.81
R 2 adjusted 0.79
std. error,S e 0.06
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
B t std β B t std β B t std β
0.15 0.22 4.20
-0.002 -2.471 -0.256 0.049 3.156 0.317 -0.127 -3.480 -0.442
0.062 3.334 0.280 0.404 5.915 0.592 0.027 3.299 0.429
0.773 6.800 0.605 0.014 2.214 0.197 0.025 2.361 0.304
0.016 3.908 0.421
N N N
Prob>F Prob>F Prob>F
Notes:
Reduced Model
total riders walked within 1 mile / total ridership per station
constant
service frequency‡
Feederbus services (no)
avg.metric reach(1mile)/ directional distance(10°)
mixed-land use index†
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
B t std β B t std β B t std β
constant -0.936 -0.389 3.906
-0.031 -2.254 -0.214 0.043 2.621 0.278 -0.117 -3.869 -0.408
-0.003 -2.882 -0.324 0.398 5.741 0.583 -0.001 -3.526 -0.495
0.052 2.725 0.235 0.006 2.059 0.202 0.022 3.185 0.355
0.765 6.365 0.599 0.036 5.142 0.751
0.005 3.480 0.457
N N N
Prob>F Prob>F Prob>F
Notes:
avg. Reach (1mile)
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
B t std β B t std β B t std β
constant -0.936 -0.389 3.906
-0.031 -2.254 -0.214 0.043 2.621 0.278 -0.117 -3.869 -0.408
-0.003 -2.882 -0.324 0.398 5.741 0.583 -0.001 -3.526 -0.495
0.052 2.725 0.235 0.006 2.059 0.202 0.022 3.185 0.355
0.765 6.365 0.599 0.036 5.142 0.751
0.005 3.480 0.457
N N N
R 2 R 2 R 2
R 2 adjusted R 2 adjusted R 2 adjusted
Prob>F Prob>F Prob>F
Notes:
std. error,S e
total riders walked / total ridership per station
Reduced Model
0.00
0.79
0.06
0.8337
mixed-land use index†
avg. Reach (1mile)
service frequency‡
feederbus services (no)
station structure typeb
(elevated)
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F F ratio prob>F
0.051 8.844 0.006 0.002 0.567 0.458 0.008 2.748 0.109 0.0095 3.0113 0.094 0.0094 2.8784 0.1017
0.023 1.994 0.154 0.016 1.931 0.163 0.020 3.220 0.055 0.0199 3.1619 0.0584 0.020 3.030 0.066
0.002 0.395 0.535 0.003 0.805 0.377 0.031 10.215 0.003 0.032 10.168 0.0036 0.028 8.637 0.007
0.111 19.360 0.000 0.044 10.458 0.003 0.030 9.641 0.004 0.0303 9.6295 0.0045 0.027 8.255 0.008
0.053 9.346 0.005 0.009 2.133 0.155 0.000 0.060 0.809 0.000 0.0061 0.9381 0.000 0.008 0.928
0.048 11.350 0.002 0.046 14.967 0.001 0.044 13.965 0.001 0.039 11.942 0.002
0.037 12.201 0.002 0.029 9.307 0.005 0.018 5.512 0.027
0.001 0.338 0.566 0.001 0.304 0.586
0.000 0.004 0.949
N=37
R2 adjusted
Notes:
b types of station structure: at-grade, elevated, underground ‡ number of inbound trains in am peak hour (7am-9am)* ratio of average auto-ownership to average per-capita income calculated per station
Numbers in bold = p< 0.05; numbers in italics = p<0.10
a proportion of roads with sidewalk
†
k
pp
entropyuseMixed
k
iii
ln
ln
1 1
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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• introduction
• research background
• analytical framework
• street connectivity and transit-related walking
• conclusions/implications
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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confirm hypothesis:
street network design and land-use mix around stations are
significantly associated with walk-mode shares, controlling
for population density, personal attributes, and transit
service characteristics
theoretical implications
30
8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
mixed-use developments increase the odds of walking
to/from transit ; street networks with denser connections
significantly affect walking shares
directional accessibility affects people's willingness and
capacity to walk for transit as significantly as metric
accessibility
takeaway: incorporating measures of street density and
directional accessibility in transit-oriented studies can lead
to enhanced models of urban form & function
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takeaway for practice:
guide future efforts to integrate subdivision with zoning
regulations in developing sparse suburban areas towards
dense transit-oriented urban hubs
transit-oriented policies are compatible with policies aimed
at the enhancement of health and the reduction of obesity
through daily physical activity (walking to/from the station)
effective policies developed to encourage new designs with
the option to walk will support more sustainable cities
practical implications
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis
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thank you.
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8th International Space Syntax Symposium 3-6 January Santiago, Chile
The Effects of Urban Form on Walking to Transit Ayşe Özbil, John Peponis