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Running head: PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 1
Taking Facebook Offline: The Effects of Perceived Social Reach on Self-Esteem
Leah Brady
Providence College
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 2
Abstract
The use of digital media as means of interaction has become an increasingly popular area of
study in recent years. Elevated levels of self-esteem have been positively correlated to online
self-enhancement, and it was hypothesized that by manipulating perceived social reach it would
have an effect on self-esteem. Participants were tested in two conditions: high perceived social
reach and low perceived social reach, where self-esteem was evaluated before and after the
manipulation through the use of self-report measures. Independent-samples t-tests yielded no
significant results. There was no correlation between initial levels of self-esteem and self-esteem
after manipulating perceived social reach. The lack of results could have been due to the low
sample size, which resulted in low power, or because of human error in the use of certain
materials. The lack of relationship between perceived social reach and self-esteem contradicts
previous findings, and it should be considered that the relationship between self-esteem and
social media may not be as influential as previously thought.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 3
Taking Facebook Offline: The Effects of Perceived Social Reach on Self-Esteem
For decades, media consumption has been studied in the context of social well-being and
self-esteem (Bissell, 2010). The way media is perceived and level of influence people of stature
attain through the media appears to play a role in the development of high self-esteem,
specifically the role of social media (Bissell). Social media allows people to pick and choose the
materials they would like to use to present themselves, meaning that sites such as Facebook offer
an opportunity for people to become the very best versions of themselves, resulting in high self-
confidence and higher self-esteem. Further, Mehdizadeh has previously identified self-
presentation in social media as a factor that enhances self-esteem (2010, p. 358). Recently,
social media has become a growing interest in social psychology. Digital networking is
becoming the primary way people interact with one another, and the online identity can be
constructed very adeptly, allowing for an elevated self-presentation (Mehdizadeh). Often times,
Facebook is the first interaction people have with one another, and people are going to highlight
their best features in order to make a good first-impression. Since the development of social
networking sites in the early 2000’s, self-presentation has played a key role in contemporary
studies of self-esteem (Zywica & Danowski, 2008). The interaction between social self-esteem
online and offline is becoming more and more intertwined as the digital world continues to grow.
Social networking sites like Facebook are designed to share information about the self with the
world. Facebook is so widely used, and has the ability to be so finely edited in every area of
self-presentation that the concept of the self must be augmented online due to the amount of
attention each detail of the self is given.
Previous research has found that becoming self-aware through actively viewing one’s
own Facebook profile boosts self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011). This study, done by
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 4
Gonzales and Hancock (2011), suggests that “selective self-presentation” influences one’s
concept of the self because the way in which one presents themselves on Facebook is idealistic;
it is rare that someone broadcast negative aspects of the self on their Facebook page (Gonzales &
Hancock). Another study, done by Mehdizadeh (2010), coded different aspects of self-
presentation within social networking sites, and found that narcissism was positively correlated
with the amount of self-promotional content on a users Facebook page. The combined findings
of these studies suggest that people generally control how they present themselves online, and
positive qualities are often presented in order to fit ones ideal self-concept; which is conversely
labelled narcissistic. It should also be noted that online self-presentation effects both online and
offline sociability; meaning that Facebook self-presentation influences sociability and, in turn,
influences self-esteem both in the context on the Internet and in the context of real human
interaction (Zywica & Danowski, 2008). Wilcox and Stephen (2012), found that adolescents who
were given positive feedback from others on their social network profile experienced an increase
in self-esteem and well-being.
These studies all compare self-presentation to ones own self-worth. However, the present
study attempts to distinguish between self-esteem and perceived self-esteem in relation to online
self-presentation. More specifically, current research tends to focus on actual social reach rather
than perceived social reach as diagnostically influencing self-esteem. Perceived social reach will
be manipulated in order to determine how perception influences self-esteem. Self-esteem is
operationally defined by Mehdizadeh as “a person’s overall self-evaluation of his or her worth”
(2010, p. 358). Social reach is defined in the current study as a collective score of one’s
Facebook influence based on quantity of Facebook friends, how often one interacts on the site,
and how much clout one’s profile has.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 5
The present study focuses on perceived social reach, or perceived self-presentation
online. By manipulating the participants’ perception of their social popularity through assigning
them random social reach scores, we will be able to measure for the influence of social
networking on overall self-esteem. Unlike previous studies that measure users’ self-esteem
against his or her own self-concept, we will add in the influence of social desirability to
differentiate actual and perceived social reach and it’s influence on self-esteem.
Because offline self-esteem has been positively correlated with others’ evaluation of the
self (Zywica & Danowski, 2008), it was hypothesized that presenting participants with a higher-
than-average social reach score for their Facebook page would increase the participants’ self-
esteem. Conversely, it was also hypothesized that presenting participants’ with lower-than-
average social reach score for their Facebook page would decrease the participants’ self-esteem.
Method
Participants
A total of 37 undergraduate students from a small, Catholic university in New England
participated in the study for credit hours. Of the participants, who were all between the ages of
18 and 21, had a mean age of 18.73 (SD = 0.86); 8 were male and 29 were female. Participants
were required to have a personal Facebook page in order to participate. The study consisted of
two conditions: participants who received a higher-than-average social reach score, and
participants who received a lower-than-average social reach score. Condition A, the lower-than-
average score condition, received a score one standard deviation below the mean score, and
Condition B, the higher-than-average score condition, received a score one standard deviation
higher than the mean. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions, with 19
participants taking part in the high condition and 18 participants in the low condition.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 6
Measures
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) is a ten-item likert scale measuring
self-esteem on a four-point scale. The ten items are statements dealing with general feelings
towards oneself, with responses ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). The
scale ranges from 0 to 30 and the normal range of self esteem falls between scores of 15 and 25.
This was used to gather baseline self-esteem measures in participants and later compared against
another measure of self-esteem. Due to a logistical error, item 10 was left out of the scale, which
read “at times, I think I am no good at all” (Rosenberg, 1965). Appendix B details each measure
on the RSES, note that item 10 is missing from the scale.
The Facebook Intensity Scale (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007) is a scale used to
quantify Facebook usage beyond simple measures of frequency and duration. It assesses
Facebook’s integration into offline life and incorporates emotional ties to the social networking
site. Facebook Intensity score is calculated as the mean of all items on the scale. The scale is
comprised of 21 likert-type statements that are assessed on a scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5
(strongly disagree), and four open-answer questions. Scores are computed through the mean of
the likert-statement scores and the average of the open-ended scores. While this is an actual and
computable scale that will be administered to participants, it will not be calculated. Rather,
participants will be assigned random social reach scores that do not reflect an actual Facebook
Intensity score. Appendix C shows the scale in its entirety.
The State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) is another measure of self-
esteem commonly used in laboratory manipulations. This scale is a 20-item scale made up of
three factors: performance, social and appearance. Because measures of trait and self-esteem are
highly correlated, neutral scores will be highly related to trait measures. This scale was used as a
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 7
variation to the Rosenberg scale, in order to ensure that participants were unaware two measures
of self-esteem were being measured. Appendix B shows the SSES as presented to the
participants.
Procedure
At least 24-hours prior to entering the lab, participants were required to complete the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale online via Qualtrics in order to obtain a baseline measure of self-
esteem. Upon completion of this scale, they were given access to the access code necessary to
sign-up for the second part of the study. This access code gave assurance that participants
completed the Rosenberg self-esteem measure prior to coming into the lab.
Upon arrival participants were seated at a desk with a computer. On the computer screen
was the Facebook log-in page, and participants were asked to log-in to their personal Facebook
and then directed to view their own profile page as means of reference. Once they had access to
their own profile, participants were asked to complete the Facebook Intensity scale. Once they
indicated to the researcher that they had completed the FBI scale, they were asked to log-out of
their Facebook page and seated at another table without a computer. Participants were asked to
work on a word scramble while the researcher left the room to score the FBI. The researcher left
the participant alone in the room for three minutes to give the illusion that they were scoring the
survey. Participants were randomly assigned a social reach score, regardless of the answers they
provided. If assigned to the high condition, they were given a score of 56/100, if assigned to the
low score condition, they were given a score of 46/100. Researchers re-entered the room,
collected the filler task, and handed the participant the scorecard. On the scorecard was a
description of “social reach” (see appendix A) along with their score and the average score. The
average score listed was a predetermined average researchers collected from a sample similar to
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 8
the population being tested. High scores were one standard deviation above this mean and low
scores were one standard deviation below this mean. Participants were instructed to read the
scorecard. Once they had read through it, participants were asked to complete the State Self-
Esteem scale. After they completed the second self-esteem scale, participants were debriefed
and ensured that the score they received was not an actual indication of their social reach score.
Results
Overview
To determine if there was a difference between initial Rosenberg self-esteem between the
two conditions, an independent-samples t-test was conducted. The results of this t-test showed
that there were no significant differences in self-esteem scores between the two conditions (t(37)
= .378, p = .708). Table 1 provides the ratings for mean scores in the RSES. All participants
showed similar levels of initial self-esteem according to the Rosenberg self-esteem scale.
A second independent samples t-test on the State Self-Esteem measure showed that there
were no significant differences in final self-esteem scores between the two conditions (t(37)
= .050, p = .960). Table 2 provides ratings and mean scores for the SSES. Scores indicated that
there was no significant change between initial self-esteem and final self-esteem in either
condition.
Discussion
Due to previous research findings on self-esteem and the use of Facebook, we were
interested in seeing whether or not perceived social reach had an effect on self-esteem. This was
tested through the manipulation of the self-perception variable and through the measuring of
self-esteem before and after the manipulation. Data does not support nor oppose the hypotheses;
presenting participants with a higher or lower-than average social reach score does not have a
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 9
significant effect on self-esteem. The limited sample size may have had a greater effect on the
resulting insignificant data than recognized. Due to the low test-group, we were not able to
apprehend a control group to compare the high and low scores against. Had we had a condition
that was assigned an average social reach score of 46/100, results may have shown more
directionality in that there may have been a more visible difference between that group and the
State Self-Esteem scores from participants in the high and low conditions. Future studies should
take this third condition into consideration in order to support this conclusion.
The lack of significance in our findings could also suggest that the association between
Facebook use and self-esteem is not as prominent as previous research believes it to be. The
findings of the current study are inconsistent with previous findings that social media,
specifically Facebook, has any effect on self-esteem; whether it be in the realm of self-
enhancement, self-awareness, or narcissism. Although we cannot conclude that other factors are
not influenced, it would be interesting to test for the influence of perception of other items in
relation to digital media.
Along with the low sample size resulting in low power, there was also a weak
manipulation and some human error that may have impacted our lack of results. The
manipulation was deemed weak because participants had such recent access to their own
Facebook pages. Participants were actively viewing their own Facebook pages during the study,
and this awareness and self-trust may have influenced the strength of the manipulation. If they
trusted their own knowledge of their Facebook profiles more than they trusted the score they
were given, it would deem the manipulation weak. Participant’s unfamiliarity with a social reach
score may have also influenced their unchanging self-esteem scores because they may have
assumed it was unimportant, so it did not affect their self-worth.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 10
Human error was made in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale; item 10, “At times I think I
am no good at all,” was left out of the scale, meaning that the initial self-esteem scores
apprehended were not completely accurate and encompassing. This was done unintentionally,
and may have had a great impact on our results.
Although it was previously found that selective self-presentation enhances one’s self-
esteem, our findings do not support this theory (Gonzales et al, 2011). Self-esteem remains
constant regardless of how a person presents himself or herself in the digital space. The lack of
significance in the present study could promote the idea that self-esteem in an online space could
be a completely separated version of self-esteem. For example, it may be that the persona one
gives off on Facebook could be a completely separated version of the self, so measuring self-
esteem in the traditional way may not be accurate, which is why our results showed no findings.
Previous research also identifies self-presentation in social media as a factor that enhances self-
esteem. While we did not measure self-presentation in this study, it would be interesting to see if
there is a correlation between self-presentation and social reach (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Future
research might incorporate a measure of self-presentation as a manipulation in a similar study.
Research in the digital world remains a new topic of discussion in social psychology.
Although our results may not be in line with previous findings, it does offer a new direction for
research. There is no doubt that “online personalities” are becoming more and more extensive,
and will continue to become part of the human experience. It could even be argued that the
Internet is making its way into the human psyche. For this reason, research in this area is of
growing importance.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 11
References
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PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 14
Tables
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Differenc
e
Std. Error
Differenc
e
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
rosenberg
_tot
Equal variances
assumed
5.62
2
.023 .378 35 .708 .48246 1.27584 -2.10764 3.07255
Equal variances not
assumed
.383 30.14
4
.704 .48246 1.25993 -2.09015 3.05506
Table 1
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Differenc
e
Std. Error
Differenc
e
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
state_t
ot
Equal variances
assumed
10.565 .003 -.050 35 .960 -.13450 2.66466 -5.54405 5.27504
Equal variances
not assumed
-.051 25.66
9
.959 -.13450 2.61716 -5.51753 5.24853
Table 2
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 15
Appendix A
Participant ID ____________________________
Date____________________________________
Time of Study_________________________
After reviewing your Facebook Intensity Scale (FBI) we have calculated your social reach score.
Your social reach score includes the following things: how many friends you have, how often
others look at your Facebook page, how often you are on Facebook and your over all influence
on social media. Your social reach score is a _________ out of 100. The average social reach
score is 46 out of 100.
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 16
Appendix B
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
InstructionsBelow is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement.
1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. At times I think I am no good at all. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. I take a positive attitude toward myself. 1 2 3 4Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
State Self-Esteem
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 17
This is a questionnaire designed to measure what you are thinking at this moment. There is of course, no right answer for any statement. The best answer is what you feel is true of yourself at the moment. Be sure to answer all of the items, even if you are not certain of the best answer. Again, answer these questions as they are true for you RIGHT NOW.1. I feel confident about my abilities.
1 2 3 4 5 Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
2. I am worried about whether I am regarded as a success or failure. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
3. I feel satisfied with the way my body looks right now. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
4. I feel frustrated or rattled about my performance.1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
5. I feel that I am having trouble understanding things that I read. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
6. I feel that others respect and admire me. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
7. I am dissatisfied with my weight. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
8. I feel self-conscious. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
9. I feel as smart as others. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
10. I feel displeased with myself. 1 2 3 4 5
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 18
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
11. I feel good about myself. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
12. I am pleased with my appearance right now. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
13. I am worried about what other people think of me. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
14. I feel confident that I understand things. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
15. I feel inferior to others at this moment. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
16. I feel unattractive. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
17. I feel concerned about the impression I am making. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
18. I feel that I have less scholastic ability right now than others. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
19. I feel like I'm not doing well. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
20. I am worried about looking foolish. 1 2 3 4 5
Not At All A Little Bit Somewhat Very Much Extremely
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 19
Appendix C
Facebook UseGender:__________________Age:____________________Year:____________________
1. Facebook is part of my everyday activity 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
2. I am proud to tell people I'm on Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
3. Facebook has become part of my daily routine 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
4. I feel out of touch when I haven't logged onto Facebook for a while 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
5. I feel I am part of the Facebook community 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
6. I would be sorry if Facebook shut down 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 20
7. In the past week, on average, approximately how much time PER DAY have you spent actively using Facebook?
__________________
8. Approximately how many TOTAL Facebook friends do you have? *
______________
9. Approximately how many of your total Facebook friends go to Providence College?
______________
10. Approximately how many of your total friends do you consider actual friends?
______________
Imagine a PC student you've never met in real life or had a face-to-face conversation with. How likely are you to do the following?
11. Contact them using Facebook, or by using information from Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
12. Add them as a Facebook friend 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
13. Meet them face-to-face 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
Imagine someone at PC who lives in your residence hall who you would recognize but have never spoken to. How likely are you to do the following?
14. Browse their profile on Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 21
15. Contact them using Facebook, or by using information from Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
16. Add them as a Facebook friend 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
17. Meet them face-to-face 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
Think about one of your close friends. How likely are you to do the following?
18. Browse their profile on Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
19. Contact them using Facebook, or by using information from Facebook 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
20. Add them as a Facebook friend 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
21. Meet them face-to-face 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
Please indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the following statements.
22. I use Facebook to meet new people. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
23. I have used Facebook to check out someone I met socially. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
PERCEIVED SOCIAL REACH & SELF-ESTEEM 22
24. I use Facebook to learn more about other people in my classes. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree
25. I use Facebook to learn more about other people living near me. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree