THE EFFECTS OF FARMING ACTIVITIES ON ATTENDANCE AND

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

PUPILS AT WAWASUA AND ITS SURROUNDING COMMUNITIES

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM CONTENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In developing countries like Ghana, agriculture is seen as the backbone of the economy,

so is education seen as the bedrock of socio-economic development of every nation.

Indeed, no nation can develop without paying much heed to the quality of education of its

citizens (Bartels, 2006). Sheehan (1973) regarded education as an investment that is,

“something that is purchased for the sake of the benefits that are expected to yield in the

future”.

No doubt that developed nations such as Singapore, Japan and the like having invested in

education are reaping the benefits of education. (Forson and Tiyo, 2005)

Efforts are being made both globally and locally to put in place policies that will boost

the fishing sub-sectors to increase their production levels. Ghana’s fishing industry has

improved over the few years with the establishment of the Ministry of Fisheries and its

subsequent detachment from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) (Goodman,

2004).

Farming has been the major occupation for most Ghanaians over the past years. The

agric industry is any activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving,

storing, transporting and marketing of farm products (Goodman, 2004).

This study places much focus subsistent farming in Akomadan.

The study discusses how farming activities in Akomadan affect attendance and academic

performance of student in Akomadan Senior High Schools. Many educationists define

education in different ways. One of the definitions is by Thompson (1981) who said

education is a preparation for life and to a large extent a process of accumulating

knowledge for latter application for both local communities, national and international

levels. Education is seen as an investment such that if a country places much attention in

spending on education now, it is expected to benefit in return of having qualified and

skilled human resources in the future.

Farming activities over the years have been the most lucrative economic activity among

the people of Akomadan. In Ghana 75 percent inhabitants of Elmina perform jobs which

directly and indirectly are associated with fishing. Over the past few years, the fishing

industry has experienced a number of changes through technogical advancement and

Fishing Continuation School for first cycle school graduates. (Ministry of Local

Government, Rural Development and Environment, 2006)

While much efforts is put towards the development of the fish industry by the Ministry of

Fisheries and other stakeholders, the sector is invariably having a negative effect on other

social sectors like education. Though one can not underestimate the impact education

would have brought to the fishing industry, stakeholders seems to pay less attention to the

negative impact it has on education, that is attendance and academic performance of

pupils in the primary and junior high school in Elmina. The study seeks to research into

how the fishing activities in Elmina are affecting the attendance and academic

performance of pupils within the municipality.

1.2 Problem Statement

In Ghana every child of school going age has the right to basic education. As stated in the

second goal of the Millennium Development Goals, “to achieve universal primary

education’. The target of the goal is to ensure that children everywhere, boys and girls

alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling.

There are various reasons why pupils may perform poorly in school and also not punctual

hence contributing to the falling standard of education in Elmina. Some think teachers are

to blame for not putting much effort in training the pupils; others think it is on the part of

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the pupils who are refusing to learn. Another class of people believe it has to do with

financial constrain on the part of the parents. (Forson and Tiyo, 2005)

Most educational policies seem to be finding solutions to the possible causes stated

above, which may be far from being the major cause of absenteeism and poor academic

performance in the area. Most children are engaged in the fishing industry at a tender age

alongside attending school which leads to the irregularity in school and eventually poor

performance.

Concerns expressed about the performance of candidates from the municipality in the

Basic Education Certificate Examination, describing it as "not encouraging. This was

said by the District Chief Executive of the Municipality in 2003.

In 2004 and 2005, concerns about the continuing general poor performance of candidates

in the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE), was described as “too high” He

was unhappy that 1,000 and 842 of the 2,465 and 2,608 candidates presented during the

years under review, failed respectively. (Ato Arthur, 2006).

Also, concerns about the fallen standards of education in the District and about the fact

that just two schools in the area recorded aggregate six, while two others, had zero per

cent in the last Basic Education Certificate Examination. Members, civil society and all

stakeholders were urged to come out with a clear policy on how to deal with the situation

and appealed to the Inspectorate Division of Ghana Education Service to step up its

supervisory role in schools to improve the academic performance of pupils. Mr. Frank

Appiah, Presiding Member of the area commented (Ghana News Agency, 2006).

School attendance is not much encouraging during the periods between August and

September when there is bumper catch of fish. During this period everyone including

pupils you are to be in school engage massively in the catching, smoking or hawking of

the fish. This has been a problem confronting the educational sector of the region.

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Due to the above, the study has chosen to research into fishing related activities and the

extent to which it affect school attendance and academic performance in primary and

junior high schools in Elmina.

1.3 Research Questions

Some of the questions emanating from the problems are as follows:

What is the performance of Primary and Junior High School pupils in Elmina?

What is the attendance rate of pupils in fishing communities?

What other factors account for poor performance and absenteeism of pupils in

Elmina?

Who are the stakeholders involved in ensuring pupils attendance and good

academic performance in fishing communities?

1.2 Objectives of the study

The overall goal of the study is to assess the effects of fishing activities on attendance and

academic performance of Primary and Junior High School Pupils. However, the specific

objectives of the study are;

To find out the main causes of poor performance of pupils in primary and junior

high school level.

To determine the attendance rate of pupils in primary and junior high school level.

To find out how the economic status of parents in Elmina affect pupils attendance

and academic performance.

To identify the other factors that account for poor performance and absenteeism

of pupils in Elmina.

To identify the stakeholders involved in ensuring good performance and

attendance of pupils.

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To make policy recommendations to inform decision making.

1.5 Justification of the study

The study would provide information to policy makers which would be useful in the

formulation of policies pertaining to the fisheries sub sector.

Since education is one of the major sectors of the economy, if well studied it can

determine its achievement of the existing policies of the sector. Information from the

study will determine whether Ghana is on its way of achieving the Millennium

Development Goal (MDG 2), of “achieving universal primary education and the policies

put in place under the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS II). (GPRS II,

2006-2009)

The study will also contribute to knowledge on how fishing activities affect academic

performance and attendance through recommendations which will also expose students,

teachers and the community to the influence of fishing on academic performance and

attendance. It will also create awareness and the appreciation of the need of education to

the society, major stakeholders in both sectors and those who lack the knowledge.

1.6 Scope

Geographically the scope of the study is Elmina which is bounded in the South by the

Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Guinea), the East by Cape Coast, the North by Twifo-Hemang

and the West by the Mpohor-Wassa.

The conceptual scope is the effects of the fishing activity on attendance and academic

performance of primary and junior high school pupils in Elmina. This basically covers

effects of fishing activities on attendance and academic performance.

5

1.7 Methodology

This aspect deals with the steps, processes and procedures which would be adopted in

carrying out the study.

1.7.1 Mode of Data Collection

In order to undertake this study successfully, data from primary source would be

collected using interviews guides, observations and structured questionnaires. The major

groups that would be interviewed for relevant primary data include fishermen,

fishmongers, sampled public schools and the district directorate of education.

Also, the Head teachers would be interviewed on academic performance rate and

attendance of pupils. This would also be a major area where primary data would be

retrieved. Secondary data would also be sourced from past research reports from the

ministry of education, internet and journals.

1.7.2 Sampling Technique

The decision on the number of questionnaires to be administered would be guided by a

purposive sampling technique. The research is based on the researcher’s judgement and

the purpose of study. This is best used when there is limited time and money to work

with. Before any sampling can be done accurately, it will require that there is {a} an

identification of a sampling frame. {b} a determination of the appropriate sample to be a

representation of the whole {c} spreading the sample to ensure equal representation

(Kumekpor, 2002).

Here only households who are into fishing would be interviewed. The selection of the

schools would be from the public schools in the area because most of the educational

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policies are applicable to only public schools where most children may prefer to attend

school. Schools closer to the coastal shores will be specially considered in the research.

1.7.3 Data Analysis

The analysis of data is very crucial in any research. This is because it gives an idea or in-

depth information and the major findings of about the topic under study. Primary data

where necessary will be coded and processed using Statistical Package for Social

Scientist (SPSS-version 12) and would be presented in a form of percentages, tables and

charts to give a pictorial view of the analyzed data.

1.8 Organization of the Study

The whole study will be organized in four chapters. The first chapter would entail the

general introduction of the topic under study, objectives, problem statement, research

questions, scope, methodology and justification.

Literature review of the topic which would be based on both theoretical and issues of

concern related to the topic under study would be considered in chapter two.

Chapter three would give a general overview of the study area to provide the necessary

setting for the researcher. Analyzed data would also be presented in this chapter.

Major findings, recommendations and conclusion will be spelt out in chapter four.

References

Ato Arthur, (2006). Unhappy about BECE Result, Regional News

Ato Arthur, (December 2003). Government Earmarks 15.8 Billion

Cedis for Edinaman Secondary School, Regional News. Elmina

Kwame Baah-Forson and Adriana Tiyo, (2005). Education, a Tool for

Human Resource Development.

7

Ghana News Agency, (27 August, 2003). Cabinet considering contract

for dredging of Elmina Fishing Harbour

National Development Planning Commission, (2005). Growth and

Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS II), (2006-2009)

Tony Goodman (2004). Local Fishing Gets a Boast

Betty Abena Bartels, (2006). Implementation of Capitation Grant ,

Ghana institute of journalism Accra. Published in Daily Graphic May,

2006.

Tom Kumekpor (2002), Research Methods

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON THE EFFECTS OF FISHING ACTIVITIES ON

ATTENDANCE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY AND

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is designed to review literature on related concepts pertaining to the study.

After carefully reading journals, reports, articles from books and the internet, literature is

reviewed on the concepts relating to the topic “the effects of fishing activities on

attendance and academic performance of primary and junior high school pupils”.

Literature reviewed would serve as a guide to what should be expected during and after

the survey.

2.1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING ACTIVITIES.

2.1.1 History of Fishing Activities in the Global Perspective

Fishing activities date back to the Upper Paleolithic period. Archaeological findings

showed that sea food was important for survival and consumed in significant quantities.

In that era, people in permanent settlements were those who were associated with fishing

as a major source of foods (Thames and Hudson, 1997).

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There are two types of fishing namely inland and marine fishing. The inland fishing is

also known as fish farming. Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or

enclosures, usually for food. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish,

tilapia, cod, carp, trout and others. Marine fishing is done in open environment especially

in lakes and in the Ocean. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing

operation have caused widespread over fishing (Thames and Hudson, 1997).

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2006), the world fish harvest

in 2005 was around 93.2 million tones captured by commercial fishing plus 48.1 million

tones produced through fish farms.

The top producing countries were, in order, the People's Republic of China (excluding

Hong Kong and Taiwan), Peru, Japan, the United States of America, Chile, Indonesia,

Russia, India, Thailand, Norway and Iceland. Those countries accounted for more than

half of the world's production; China alone accounted for a third of the world's

production (Royal Society of Edinburgh, 2003).

2.1.2 Fishing in Ghana

In Ghana, fishing forms part of the country’s non traditional exports and therefore also

contributes to the total of the world production of fish. There are many fishing sites in

Ghana. These include Teshie, Jamestown, Chorkor, Shama, Axim, Moree and the

geographical focus of this study, Elmina. These sites are estimated to have accounted for

200,769 tones of fish in 2002. Fishing in the country has improved since the creation of

Ministries of Fisheries to support the industry with the formulation of policies for the

fishing industry. Due to the growth in the fishing industry, many people in the coastal

areas find fishing activities more lucrative hence around 75 percent of the labour force

engaged in the fishing industry (Goodman, 2004).

The current legislation governing the fisheries sector, Fisheries Act 625 of 2003, amends

and formulates existing laws on fisheries. It provides for regulation and management of

fisheries, the development of the fishing industry and the sustainable exploitation of the

resources. It attempts to streamline legislation to respond directly to chronic and

9

emerging issues and to conform to the national and international fishery resource

development and management strategies. Specifically the Act strengthens legislations and

established the Fisheries Commission to oversee the Fisheries Directorate, which is

responsible for policy-making, administration and enforcement. (ibid, 2004)

Ghana’s fishing industry has improved over the few years with the establishment of the

Ministry of Fisheries and its subsequent detachment from the Ministry of food and

Agriculture (MOFA). The mission of the Fisheries Ministry is to ensure fish availability

all year round at affordable prices and for local consumption and export. There is no

gain-saying the fact that Ghana has the potential to turn round the fortunes of her fish

output to meet local and export requirements. (ibid, 2004)

The fisheries sub-sector in Ghana accounts for 5 percent of the Gross Domestic Product

(GDP). Fishermen, fish processors, traders, canoe and boat builders, mechanics and

families who depend on this sub-sector for a livelihood constitute 10 percent of the total

Ghanaian population. Fish makes up 60 percent of the Ghanaian animal protein intake.

As such 75 percent of the total production of fish is consumed domestically. (Ministry of

Local Government, Rural Development and Environment, 2006)

2.1.3 Fishing in Elmina

Two main types of fishing are practised in Elmina.  These are: Marine and inland fishing

(fish farming).

Inland Fishing

This is done on a limited scale by fish farmers who usually combine it with their normal

farming activities.  From official records, only two (2) active fish farmers are known in

the district although other unregistered fish farmers exist. (Ibid, 2006)

Marine fishing

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Two groups of fishing fleet engage in marine fishing.  The two groups together have a

total fleet of 760 canoes and fishing vessels. Fishing operates for six days of the week

targeting mainly sardines, some demersal species and crustaceans. (Ibid, 2006)

Fish Landing

Elmina is the only fishing town in the district with fish landing which offers the only

berthing and landing facilities for both inshore and canoe fleet.  The rest of the fishing

villages and towns lack this facility. (Ibid, 2006)

Fish Storage

Fresh fish is usually stored in refrigerators.  There are only two cold storage facilities at

Elmina but no ice making plants.  The inadequacy of storage facilities has resulted in the

pervasive fish smoking along the coastal zone of the district. Alternatively, some of the

smoked fish is converted into fish powder, which is packaged for sale.  This product can

be preserved much longer than the smoked fish (Ministry of Local Government, Rural

Development and Environment, 2006)

Fish Processing

Fish landed by the canoes and inshore fleet is sold directly to the fishmongers who smoke

the bulk of it with the rest being sun-dried or salted. Some of the fish is also sold directly

to consumers at the landing sites. (Ibid, 2006)

Fish processing is done mainly through smoking by using the traditional round mud

ovens and the “Choker Smoker”. The traditional method of smoking contributes greatly

to air pollution along the coastal zone due to inefficient biomass combustion generating

large volumes of smoke. (Ibid, 2006)

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The ‘choker smoker’ has many advantages over the first and need to be adopted.

However, the limiting factor is finance. CEDECOM has constructed one but it needs to

be tested.  It is located at the fishing village at Elmina (ibid, 2006)

2.2 Characteristics of Fishing in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem (KEEA)

Municipality

The Fisheries Department created by the Ministry of Fisheries to manage the fishing

industry in Elmina suggested that there are 9,669 fishermen using 924 canoes and 60 in-

shore vessels for fishing in the KEEA district.

There could be large fluctuations in the amount of catches. It seems worthwhile to

undertake a study into the causes of fluctuation in fish catches, for a better understanding

of the dynamics of this important economic activity in KEEA (especially Elmina). The

peak season for fishing lies between June and September. Most of the fish caught in the

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem (KEEA) municipality is landed in Elmina.

About 75 percent of the inhabitants of Elmina perform jobs which are directly and

indirectly associated with fishing. The importance of fishing in Elmina town has

prompted programmes like a ’Fishing Continuation School’ for first cycle school

graduates and the establishment of the Paul Isert Centre to give update information on

fishing technology (Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and

Environment, 2006)

In the late 1960’s a fish-landing site (now called Mpoben) for diesel engine motorized

boats was constructed in Elmina. Discussions about the construction of a modern fishing

harbour or the upgrading of the current harbour are regularly held, but have not resulted

in any concrete planning and implementation. Among the types of fish landed in Elmina

are burrito, round and flat sardines, cassava fish, tuna, scad mackerel, sea breams, red

fish, ribrin fish, barracuda, lobsters, prawns and crabs. Apart from the sale of fish as a

major source of income, there are other sources of incomes from supportive services like

fuel supply, vessel engine repairs, fish gear sales, fish processing, and food and ware

vending at the landing sites, as well as tolls.

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Elmina has four fish landing sites, namely Mpoben, Zion, Liverpool Street and Post

Office. These sites each has a chief fisherman referred to as ‘Apofohene’. The

‘Apofohene’ is elected from all the fishermen and is made the overall leader of all the

fishermen in Elmina. There are advisors to help them in their duties. The Apofohene and

the advisors make regulations about fishing in Elmina, receive non-citizen (or guest)

fishermen in Elmina and settle disputes. To support their duties, each vessel makes a

financial contribution for the running of the governing body. The Apofohene is not only

the spokesman for the fishermen, but also interacts with other agencies to make it easier

for fishermen to acquire fishing equipment and capital.

Similarly women, who buy the fish from the fishermen and either process or market it,

have a ’queen mother’ called ‘Konkohenmaa’. Together with her advisors, she sets the

rules for fish trading and settles misunderstandings. Both the ‘Apofohene’ and

‘Konkohenmaa’ are channels through which communication, information, and education

pass to the fishermen and fish traders. What this local organization does not do is the

pricing of fish catches. That is left to be determined by market forces. By convention the

local measure for a fish catch is not by tonnage but by basins or crates (Ministry of Local

Government, Rural Development and Environment, 2006).

2.3 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION

2.3.1 Definition of Education

According to Schultz (1963), education means “to draw out of a person, something

potential or latent, to develop a person morally and mentally so that he is sensitive to

individual and social choices and is able to act on them, to fit him for a calling by

systematic institution and to train, discipline and form abilities.

Smith (1985) also said education means all sought of self improvement in addition to the

transfer of knowledge and skills.

According to UNESCO (1975), education comprises organized and sustained

communication designed to bring about learning. It also gives the skills that will enable

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people and the communities in which they live to take charge of their own lives, and their

living and shape their own destinies.

According to Fagerlind and Saha (1983), education is a formal and deliberate process by

which the cultural and normative heritage of a society is transmitted from generation to

generation.

According to Thompson (1981), education is a preparation for life and a large extent, a

process of accumulating knowledge for later application in both local communities and at

the international level.

2.3.2 Meaning of Education

Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching. Educate is further

defined as "to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of..." Thus, from these

definitions, we might assume that the purpose of education is to develop the knowledge,

skill, or character of students. Unfortunately, this definition offers little unless we further

define words such as develop, knowledge, and character. (Teacher’s mind Resources,

2001-2002)

This is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was

about drawing out what was already within the student. (As many of you know, the word

education comes from the Latin e-ducere meaning "to lead out.") At the same time, the

Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give students the necessary

knowledge and skills to gain positions with the city-state. (Teacher’s mind Resources,

2001-2002)

“No one has yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the kindness and generosity hidden in

the soul of a child. The effort of every true education should be to unlock that treasure.”

(Emma Goldman, 2001-2002)

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“One purpose of education is to teach a student how to live his life-by developing his

mind and equipping him to deal with reality. The training he needs is theoretical, i.e.,

conceptual. He has to be taught to think, to understand, to integrate, to prove. He has to

be taught the essentials of the knowledge discovered in the past-and he has to be

equipped to acquire further knowledge by his own effort” (Ayn Rand, 2001- 2002)

“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—

rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the

memory with the thoughts of other men.” (Bill Beattie, 2001- 2002)

“The one real object of education is to leave man in the condition of continually asking

questions.” (Bishop Creighton, 2001-2002) “The central job of schools is to maximize the

capacity of each student.” (Carol Ann Tomlinson, 2001-2002)

2.4 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN GHANA

Granted the fact that education is one of the most important tool for national development

it becomes the responsibility of any progressive government anywhere to provide and

promote sound educational policies as well as infrastructure that will help its people to

acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable them to develop their potentials

(Eyiah, 2004)

McWilliam and Kwamena-Poh (1975) state that it was not until the last quarter of the

19th century that Ghana began to take first steps towards a state-organized education.

Before then informal systems of education had been the main way in which Ghanaian

communities prepared their members for citizenship. It is interesting to note that in

Ghana the first school was the home: the teachers were the parents and the elders in the

family. The curriculum was life and learning was by observation. According to

McWilliam and Kwamena-Poh (1975), the first major purpose of such education was the

inculcation of good character and good health in the young members of the community.

The second was to give them adequate knowledge of their history, beliefs and culture,

thus enabling them to participate fully in social life. It could be seen from the foregoing

comment that the purpose of non-formal education since the beginning of the Ghanaian

society has been for national development (ibid, 2004)

15

Castle Schools:

Though the traditional educational system in Ghana provided special training for

members of the community it would certainly not have been adequate to modern needs.

The building of formal educational system started with the colonial government in the

form of castle schools in the foreign endeavors of the then Gold Coast in the 1600s and

later as colonial schools in the 1800s. A native of Ghana (then Gold Coast), Philip

Quaque was trained in England at the early age of thirteen and after his graduation

became the first African headmaster of the Colonial School at Cape Coast, Ghana in 1766

and held the position till his death fifty years later. The Colonial School at Cape Coast

produced the first generation of English-educated Africans, which though small had great

influence on the development of the country. Prominent among them was George

Blankson of Anomabu, who in 1861 became the first pure African member of the

Legislative Council (ibid, 2004)

Mission Schools:

Mission Schools followed the Castle Schools with the arrival of the Missions in the

country. The Wesleyan and Basel Missionaries established schools in Cape Coast,

Dixcove, Anomabu, Accra, all along the coast and Akropong, few miles away from the

coast respectively in the 1830s and 1850s. The now Ashanti Region of Ghana began to

experience some formal schooling when in 1831 two Asante princes were sent to the

Cape Coast castle school to be educated at the expense of the then Governor of Gold

Coast, Maclean. They were Owusu Kwantabisa, the son of the Asantehene, Osei Yao

(1824-34), and Owusu Ansah, son of his predecessor, Osei Bonsu (1800-24). The two

Asante boys were later sent to England to further their education for the next three years.

They returned to the region in 1841 as British agents.

Meanwhile, the Wesleyan missionaries had moved to Kumasi, which is the capital town

of Ashanti to establish mission schools there. Not only were missions regarded as the

right bodies to manage education; they had more money than the government with which

to do so. ( McWilliam and Kwamena-Poh, 2004 cited in Eyiah, 2004).Yet the

missionaries opened schools not to spread literacy or to train their students to earn a

16

living; they did so because they thought that schools were one of the best means of

spreading the Christian faith (ibid, 2004).

First Education Ordinance:

The first Education Ordinance in the country was passed in 1852 under Governor

Stephen Hill. It was to provide for the better education of the inhabitants of Her

Majesty’s forts and settlements on the Gold Coast. The ordinance failed due to the refusal

of the people to bear the cost of education through the Poll Tax. Another Education

Ordinance in 1882 brought two categories of primary schools in the country. Government

and assisted schools. The latter were run by non-government bodies. The government

policies had no influence on education in Asante and the Northern Territories until the

annexation of Asante by the British in 1901, and the establishment of the Northern

Territories Protectorate at about the same time (Eyiah, 2004)

The Accelerated Development Plan:

Governor Guggisberg brought improvement to the economic, health and education

sectors of the country. In 1920 he established the Educationists Committee which

recommendations saw tremendous expansion to the education system in the Gold Coast.

Later, in the 1940s under the rule of Governor Burns the desire for compulsory education

for all children in the country engineered the Accelerated Development Plan for

Education in Ghana. This was to be given a big attention in post-independent Ghana

under the Premiership of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah (ibid).

The rapid development notwithstanding education practices in northern Ghana present

one of the many education inequalities and disparities of the system of education that the

country inherited from the colonial powers. Educational development in the north is very

recent compared to the south. In addition, people in northern Ghana are underserved by

the nation’s educational system. The area has few schools when compared to number of

children of school going age. The northern area also has high pupil to teacher ratio, most

17

of the teachers who are recruited lack pre-service training, and the state of school

infrastructure in that part of the country is comparatively poor (ibid).

Post-Independence Educational Development:

After Ghana attained independence from British Colonial rule on March 6, 1957

education became a high priority on the government’s agenda. There were policies on

free compulsory basic education, free textbooks for all students and, the creation of local

education authorities with responsibilities for buildings, equipment and maintenance

grants for primary schools (Asiedu-Akrofi, 1982 cited in Eyiah, 2004). There was a

dramatic increase in the number of elementary and secondary schools during the regime

of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah which was overthrown in a military coup in 1966.

Though a new education committee under Professor Kwapong was appointed

immediately after the overthrow of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah to fix the weakness in Ghana’s

education, at the close of the 1970s, Ghana’s education could only be described as

“decayed” and needed organic rejuvenation. The decay was a result of political

instability with its resulting poor management, corruption, and general macroeconomic

turmoil (Mfum-Mensah, 1998 cited in Eyiah, 2004).

By the 1980s, Ghana’s education system had become dysfunctional. Serious challenges

confronted it. In 1988, the military government of Jerry John Rawlings implemented

broad reforms that touched all levels of the education system and attempted to address the

recurring issues affecting the system. The reforms reduced pre-university education in the

country from 17 years to 12 years (six years of primary, three years of junior secondary-

JSS and three years of senior secondary-SSS education). There was also national literacy

campaign through non-formal education for school drop-outs and adult learners. The

civilian government of Ghana under President J.J. Rawlings in 1996 implemented the

Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE). This was specially designed to

focus on basic education access and quality through improving the quality of teaching

and learning, efficiency in management and, increasing access and local participation

(Eyiah, 2004).

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Since 2001, President Kufuor came up with some education reforms for the sector. Some

of the reforms are the change of the name of Junior Secondary School (JSS) to Junior

High School (JHS) and change from Senior Secondary School (SSS) to Senior High

School (SHS), the amendment of the three years spent in secondary education to four

years. Some of the programmes initiated by president Kufour to improve the education in

the country are the Capitation Grant, the School Feeding Programme and the free ride for

basic school children. Some of the programmes have been successful though very little

has been achieved in the light of those living in rural communities. That is the Ghana’s

education system as at now (ibid, 2004).

2.5 DEFINING PRIMARY AND JUNIOR HIGH EDUCATION; THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS AND CONTENT

2.5.1 Primary Education

In the industrialized countries primary schooling is usually compulsory and free, but it is

only the first stage of a free, compulsory education process lasting from eight years to

eleven years. In some developing countries, by contrast, it has not yet proved possible to

guarantee four or five years of primary schooling for everybody. Properly understood, the

key stone of any educational policy is the pre-service and in-service training of teachers.

It is generally noticed that a highly qualified teacher can provide good teaching even

when curricula and materials are not up to standard and the unqualified teacher will fail

even when the curricula and the materials are of the best. Much focus must therefore be

on the training of teachers to handle the primary level which is the base where the

foundation of pupils would be well built for further studies. (Blanc, 1994)

Content of Primary Education

The content of primary education was prepared by the International Bureau of Education

due to the problems identified in primary education by UNESCO. The content prepared

constitutes a worldwide scope of subjects which may be applicable universally in primary

education (Blanc, 1994)

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The course content of recent year’s primary education has been categorized in to two

phases. The first is when the curricula were modified by the introduction of new

materials without any real reduction of the existing matter. Recently several countries

have revised there primary school curricula to retain the essential part of the previous

basic programme while adding new materials for the development of societies. During

the first phase new emphasize was given to certain aspects of existing disciplines. These

include:

Environmental education, this is important to make young people aware of their

environment and its related problems which will be a vital one for all citizens in the years

to come and prepare them to take necessary decisions and resulting actions (ibid, 1994)

Earlier study of experimental and in particular natural sciences are important so that the

idea of protecting nature will be better understood and the struggle against various forms

of pollution more effective (ibid, 1994)

Emphasis is on the teaching of mathematics, physical science and technology to enable

people on the leaving the primary school to integrate more easily in a society where

scientific and technical activities are of ever growing importance.

Education has found a place in the curricula of several countries to facilitate the study of

a second language and the cultural elements which accompany it.

The early study of the second language is also becoming widespread through out the

world. This may be another language of the same country or a widely used foreign

language. This is the best way to facilitate communication neighbours or distant countries

(ibid, 1994)

As a complement to education and natural science, health and sex education are also of

increasing inputs in primary schools in all countries. There is also the introduction of

domestic science and basic economics. These are what make up the content of primary

education in most countries. These mostly are to give bases to young people for further

studies (ibid, 1994)

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2.5.2 Levels of Education in Ghana

Kindergarten

Currently, most kindergartens are private-run. Public kindergartens are usually affiliated

to primary schools. Pupils aged four to six are admitted for 1-2 years of schooling

( Keteku, 1999).

Primary School

Ghanaian children enter Class One (first grade) during the calendar year in which they

reach their sixth birthdays. For the first three years, teaching may be entirely in English

or may integrate English and local languages. The majority of teachers are certified,

having graduated from three-year Teacher Training Colleges. Children are taught to read

in English, and all textbooks are in English (ibid, 1999).

Primary schools are mostly under the jurisdiction of county/city and municipal

governments. All children aged at least six qualify for primary schooling without entry

tests. After six years, students graduate with a primary diploma (ibid, 1999)

Junior High School

Junior High School (JHS) which was formally known as Junior Secondary School (JSS)

comprises Forms I through III (grades seven through nine). Admission is open to any

student who has completed primary class six; there are no entrance exams, and junior

secondary schools are part of the country’s nine-year Basic Education scheme to which

all Ghanaian children are entitled. Junior secondary schools are usually sited on the same

compounds as primary schools, and the school year for both systems runs for forty

weeks, from October to August, six hours per day. The majority of JSS teachers are

certified; in urban private schools, university graduates are found on teaching staffs (ibid,

1999)

At the end of JSS Form III (ninth grade, fifteen years of age), students take the Basic

Education Certificate Examination (BECE). In 1998, the number of subjects examined

21

was reduced from eleven or twelve to nine or ten, French being the optional subject. The

BECE is administered and graded by West Africa Examination Council (WAEC).

Grading is on a descending 1-9 scale and consists of Continuous Assessment grades

submitted by the student’s school (30%) and the BECE national examination (70%) (ibid,

1999).

Admission to the Senior Secondary School is based exclusively on BECE results. At the

most competitive senior secondary schools in Ghana, students may need nine or ten

grades of ‘1’ on their BECE exams to gain admission (ibid,1999).

Junior high schools mostly fall under the jurisdiction of districts, municipal or regional

governments. After implementation of the nine-year compulsory education, primary

school graduates aged at least 12 qualify for junior high school education lasting for three

years. Successful graduates receive a junior high school certificate (ibid, 1999).

The content of this level include; a Ghanaian language, English, French, Social Studies,

General Science, Mathematics, life skills, Agricultural Science, Physical Education,

technical Skills, Religious and Moral Education and Pre-Vocational Skills (ibid, 1999).

Senior High School

Senior high schools, run by the government or by private institutions, are classified into:

senior high school and senior vocational school. Students are required to take the BECE

and persons who qualify enter into a senior high school. Students who complete the three

years of studies with a passing grade will be awarded a certificate. Most upper-secondary

vocational programmes are provided by senior vocational schools, some vocational

programmes are already being included in comprehensive high schools though. A senior

vocational school graduate may choose to take a job or go on to further studies. The

channels for further education are three-year teacher training colleges, three year

polytechnic and four-year programs in universities (ibid, 1999).

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Though the current senior high school is four years, views are been sought as to whether

the new system should be changed in terms of the years spent into the pass system of

three years.

Universities and Private Colleges

Universities and independent colleges may be established and run either by the

government or the private sector. The admission currently in effect is basically

application for admission based on the results of the student. In principle, students are

required to undergo the four-year education. However, such period may be prolonged for

a year or two in consideration of specific requirements of the programme taken. Students

who complete the required course within the designated time and all other requirements

for graduation are awarded a bachelor’s degree (ibid, 1999).

Graduates school

Public and private universities and independent colleges in good standing may establish

graduate schools upon approval by the Ministry of Education. Applicants must meet

specific admission criteria and pass an entrance examination administered by the

university. A master’s or doctoral degree will be conferred by the university only after a

student has completed the graduate program of study with satisfactory performance and

after passing a comprehensive examination (doctoral candidates are further required to

pass a qualifying evaluation). Master’s level students matriculated for at least a year and

who have shown outstanding performance may be recommended to directly pursue a

doctoral degree (ibid, 1999).

2.6 School Attendance

According to Encarta dictionary (2008), attendance can be defined as an instance of being

at an event, or the practice of regularly going to a school, church or other institution.

School attendance is of utmost importance for children to be able to reach their potential

and become economically productive and engaged citizens. School attendance is not

23

merely an issue of fairness and equality. It is an issue of practicality, the pathway to

economic and social development. Children are the country’s next generation of adults. If

they are not educated, future generations are undermined. Moreover, education is a

fundamental human right provided for in articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations

Convention on the Rights of the Child (Ray and Lancaster, 2003).

School attendance can be “habit forming” in the sense that, ceteris paribus, the more

schooling experience a child gets the less likely that she/he will drop out of school. An

increase in the household’s access to water and light and in its possession of assets such

as television and telephone helps to put its children in category of “school only” status

with no labour market participation (ibid)

Not disputing the fact that school attendance is very essential for the achievement of

good academic performance, At North Canyon High School they strongly believe, and

research supports this, that regular attendance is essential for student success. In

addition, a student’s best preparation for the Aims graduation requirement as well as

other standardized tests is regular daily attendance. This the school shares in the motto

that "Every Day Counts” belief that the attainment of academic excellence requires

attending school on a regular basis. The attendance records of school pupils they belief

depends on the pupil, parent and school personnel. Parents and school personnel are to

excuse pupils for valid reasons. Attendance incentive program that rewards good

attendance pupils at North Canyon High School is that Students can earn up to a 5%

bonus for good attendance at the end of each quarter and have this added to their final

grade for a course. This is to encourage students to attend school regularly via

engaging in relevant and rigorous instruction (North Canyon High School, 2007).

In Ghana especially in rural areas, children can be found working in picking, fishing,

herding and as contract farm labor. Children also work as domestics, porters,

hawkers, miners and quarry workers, and fare-collectors (Eldring et al, 2000). These

children instead of being in school are found through out the week working to earn

income for a living. In urban centers, street children work mainly as truck pushers,

porters, and sales workers. The fishing industry on Lake Volta has a high number of

24

children engaged in potentially hazardous work like casting and drawing nets in deep

waters (U.S. Department of State, 2003).

Education is compulsory for children of primary and junior secondary age, the

equivalent of grades 1 to 9. The authorities do not enforce school attendance, however,

and parents rarely face penalties if their children do not attend school. Gross and net

enrollments ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary

school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance (World Bank,

2004).

2.7 Academic Performance

The involvement of school children in fishing activities is a major factor affecting

academic performance in coastal areas especially in Elmina. Children who sell fish

product after school get stressed up and are unable to do their home work, learn what has

being taught the previous day and may sleep in class during classes hours hence affecting

their performance. Several factors have generally been identified as other causes of poor

academic performance. These include;

Agyeman (1993) reported that a teacher who does not have both the academic and the

professional teacher qualification would undoubtedly have a negative influence on the

teaching and learning of his/her subject. However, he further stated that a teacher who

is academically and professionally qualified, but works under unfavorable conditions

of service would be less dedicated to his work and thus be less productive than a

teacher who is unqualified but works under favorable conditions of service.

Etsey, Amedahe and Edjah (2004) in a study of 60 schools from peri-urban (29 schools)

and rural (31 schools) areas in Ghana found that academic performance was better in

private schools than public schools because of more effective supervision of work.

Another factor is motivation. A highly motivated person puts in the maximum effort in

his or her job. Several factors produce motivation and job satisfaction. Young (1988)

examined the job satisfaction of Californian public school teachers in the USA and found

25

that one of the overall job predictors was the salary one earned from it. Studies by

Lockheed et al. (1991) indicated that lack of motivation and professional commitment

produce poor attendance and unprofessional attitudes towards students which in turn

affect the performance of students academically ( Perkins, 2008).

The availability and use of teaching and learning materials affect the effectiveness of a

teacher’s lessons. According to Broom (1973), the creative use of a variety of media

increases the probability that the student would learn more, retain better what they learn

and improve their performance on the skills that they are expected to develop. Ausubel

(1973) also stated that young children are capable of understanding abstract ideas if they

are provided with sufficient materials and concrete experiences with the phenomenon that

they are to understand (Perkins, 2008).

2.8 Threats and Opportunities to Achieving Universal Primary Education

Progress in achieving the education and gender Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

depends not just on providing education but on addressing the barriers that prevent some

children from starting or completing school. These disparities represent significant

challenges for policy makers and development agencies; recognition of their importance

presents clear opportunities for progress over the next 10 years (UNICEF, 2005).

Among the significant barriers are poverty, child labour, child trafficking, HIV/AIDS,

remote geographic location, poor infrastructure, ethnicity, women’s low social status and

mothers’ lack of education, civil conflict, natural disasters and violence. Since these

disparities often overlap, it is not always easy to discern how they interact to impact on

education. There is therefore a paramount need for gathering disaggregated statistics in

these areas that can inform future policy and practice. Disaggregated statistics can

illuminate, for example, the ways in which girls are affected by a combination of their

gender, vulnerability to sexual exploitation and HIV/AIDS, and their origin from poor

households or within rural areas (ibid).

26

Regions in the Eastern/Southern Africa had only 62 per cent of primary-school-age

children in school and, despite its relatively small population compared with Asia, it

accounted for 19 per cent of the world’s total number of children out of primary school.

In many countries of the region, progress towards the goal of education for all has been

massively disrupted by HIV/ AIDS. The pandemic has ravaged education systems in a

multitude of ways. It has deprived schools of teachers and managers who were struck

down in their prime. It has forced orphaned children to assume the burden of care for the

family, making school attendance impossibility. And it has undermined the traditional

safety net of the extended y family, straining community resources to the breaking point

(ibid).

Against this background, and notwithstanding the long road yet to be traveled to

education for all, countries in the Eastern and Southern Africa regions have posted some

notable achievements by showing strong political will and making universal primary

education an absolute priority. Some of the measures that appear to have made an impact

in the region include policies to abolish school fees and other charges (ibid).

Indeed, the abolition of tuition fees has become more generalized in the region since the

1980s – a period of economic austerity – and has proved to be one of the keys to swift

progress in primary enrolment. Malawi’s abolition of fees for primary education in 1994

stimulated an enormous demand from children, and the experience of other countries has

been similar. In the United Republic of Tanzania in 2002 the abolition of school fees

caused primary school enrolment to jump from 1.4 million to 3 million; in Kenya in 2003

it boosted numbers by 22 per cent in the first week alone (ibid).

Uganda’s variant of the model, offering free primary education to the first four children

in each family, has also proved popular and successful. For countries that have abolished

school fees, the main difficulty has been to safeguard quality education through adequate

classroom accommodation, supply of materials and sufficient numbers of teachers to

cope with the extra demand. The countries that have made such bold policy decisions

deserve the extra encouragement and funds that debt relief and increased aid can provide;

27

they have demonstrated to the rest of the developing world what is possible in the push

towards universal primary completion (ibid).

East African countries are still a world away from seeing all their children in primary

school and that make the overall regional statistics much lower. In 2001 the Net

Enrolment/Attendance Ratio (NE/AR) in Eritrea was just 42.9 per cent, in Ethiopia 30.6

per cent and in Somalia an unimaginable 10.8 per cent. Ethiopia alone had 7.8 million of

the world’s children out of primary school in 2001, a number exceeded only by India. It

is encouraging that many countries that have made significant progress towards universal

primary education are now facing a demand for secondary education from children who

are ready to move on (ibid).

In Kenya, for example, the massive response from children hungry for education is now

feeding through to secondary level. There was an almost 12 per cent increase in the

number of children sitting for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education in 2004. Yet

less than half of those who left primary school could be accommodated in the country’s

4,000 public secondary schools (ibid).

2.9 Relationship between fishing and education

Though efforts have been put in place to improve the fishing industry, it invariably has its

negative effect on other social sectors like education. The study is to examine whether a

relationship exists between the hours of children’s work and school attendance and

academic performance (Ray and Lancaster, 2004).

Education is said to be the bedrock of socio-economic development of every nation.

Indeed, no nation can develop without paying heed to the quality education of its citizens.

There is the saying that goes ‘the best legacy that any parent can bequeath his or her child

is education’. If this saying is to go by then it confirms another saying that goes

‘education is not a privilege but a right’ (Bartels, 2006).

28

If education therefore is to be viewed as a right and not a privileged, much focus should

be geared towards activity that should serve as a constraint in the achievement of basic

education as a right. In this document, the fishing activity in Elmina is seen as a major

constraint to pupils enjoying full basic education as their right. Past gains need to be

safeguarded against the eroding effects of problems such as child labour, child

trafficking, HIV/AIDS and emergencies such as civil conflict and natural disasters are

some of the constraint to the achievement of universal primary completion by 2015

(UNICEF, 2005).

The benefits education would have had on the fishing industry is of no doubt but less

attention is given to how fishing is destroying education attainment in the coastal areas of

Ghana especially in Elmina. This is where children are involved in economic activities to

the neglect of regular school attendance.

Heady (2000), similarly observes on Ghanaian data that “work has a substantial effect on

learning achievement in the key areas of reading and mathematics….these results confirm

the accepted wisdom of the negative effects of work on education”. According to Rosati

and Rossi (2001), using data from Pakistan and Nicaragua, conclude that an increase in

the hours worked by children significantly affects their human capital accumulation.

In the Asian countries, Cambodia, Philippines and Sri Lanka, a much greater percentage

of children combine schooling with employment than in the other countries.

There are several instances of gender differential between boys and girls. In Belize and

Sri Lanka, for example, boys work longer hours than girls on International Labour

Organization (ILO) defined child work but girls work longer hours on household chores

or domestic duties. Both sexes have little time to study hence affect their academic

performance (Ray and Lancaster, 2004).

Sri Lankan children record the best schooling outcome. It is disappointing to note that

children in the age group 12-14 years in Belize, Cambodia and Panama lag so far behind

the Sri Lankan children. Incidentally, that even in Sri Lanka the child’s school

29

performance deteriorates sharply at high work hours though the children record best

schooling outcome (ibid).

Children in female headed households and in households with low levels of adult

education tend to perform worse than other children. Adult education levels reduce the

number of failures experienced by the child in Portugal and increases the child’s study

time in Sri Lanka. Better educated adults will, by ensuring that their children make more

efficient use of the non labour time for study, will help to reduce the damage done to the

child’s learning by her work hours (Perkins, 2008).

The occupation of the child has an impact on the child’s school performance. Evidence

for Philippines is presented to be 63.46% of children employed in the Fishing industry.

Estimate of the Fishing dummy confirms that, ceteris paribus, children employed in the

fishing industry have a lower probability of attending school than those employed in the

Trade occupation (Ray and Lancaster, 2004).

In Ghana much has been done towards the realization of achieving primary universal

education. Some of the current policies in the educational system are the reforms of the

educational system, the capitation grant, free ride for school children and the school

feeding programme. These are all programmes put in place to improve the quantitative

and qualitative nature of the educational system in Ghana, but all the programmes are

leading to an increase in enrollment of pupils. Enrollment of a child is quite different

from regular attendance to school and having all opportunities available to perform better

in class.

In Elmina, statistics shows that there has been an increase in enrollment since the

introduction of the programmes above, but little efforts are put in place to keep the

children in school.

Reference

30

A Public - Private Partnership Programme between Min. of Local Govt., Rural Dev. &

Environment & Maks Publications, 2006

Daily Graphic, (May 1, 2006). Implementation of Capitation Grant

Documentation and Information, (1994). Development and Reform of Primary

Education. North Canyon High School, (2007). Proud to be part of the Paradise Valley

Unified School District.

Etsey, Y. K. A., Amedahe, F. K. & Edjah, K (2005). Do private primary schools perform

better than public schools in Ghana? Unpublished paper. Department of Educational

Foundations, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast.

Frances Perkins (2008), Bureau of International Labor Affairs U.S. Department of

Labour

Information on Fisheries Management in the Republic of Ghana, 2004

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem District in Perspective, (2005)

Line Eldring, Sabata Nakanyane, and Malehoko Tshoaedi, (2000) Child Labour in the

Tobacco Growing Sector in Africa.

Nancy W. Keteku, (November, 1999). Educational Reform in Ghana, the senior

secondary school

UNICEF (2005). Progress for Children. A Report Card on Gender Parity and Primary

Education Number Children Development Accounts in Africa: A Pilot Study Fred M.

Ssewamala 2005 Columbia University

Ranjan Ray and Geoffrey Lancaster, (2004). Does Child Labour Affect School

Attendance and School Performance? Multi Country Evidence on SIMPOC Data School

of Economics University of Tasmania Hobart Australia.

31

Royal Society of Edinburgh, (2004). Inquiry into the Future of the Scottish Fishing

Industry. 128pp.

U.S. Department of State (2003). Country Reports- Ghana, Section 6d Teacher’s mind

Resources, The Meaning of Education 2001-2002 Educational

World Bank, World Development Indicators 2004 [CD-ROM], Washington, D.C.

32