THE EFFECTS OF A COMPUTER GENERATED - Repositories
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Transcript of THE EFFECTS OF A COMPUTER GENERATED - Repositories
THE EFFECTS OF A COMPUTER GENERATED TACHISTOSCOPE-LIKE
PROGRAM ON BRAILLE READING BEHAVIORS IN
BLIND UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
by
DENNIS LYNN GATES, B.A., M.A., M.Ed.
A DISSERTATION
IN
EDUCATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Approved
Accepted
August, 1986
ft?
C-oP'^
© I9B6 Dennis L. Gates
ACKNOWLEDanEHTS
Completion of this dissertation is due in large part
to the guidance and support received from Dr. Virginia
Sowell. Through her expertise in braille and the education
of the visually handicapped. Dr. So\rell has been most
helpful in the development of this study. Expressions of
gratitude are also in order to members of my committee,
particularly the minor chairperson. Dr. Jerry \/illis.
Dr. \Jillis v/as TiOst helpful \7ith computer related issues
and in helping ne to better understand single subject
research design. I \/ould also like to thank Dr. Vivian
Correa for her early participation on my dissertation
committee and contributing her single subject expertise. A
special v/ord of thanks is due to Dr. Kathryn Evans for
igniting within rie the desire to pursue a doctorate in
education. Finally, I v/ant to thank my wife Sue for the
sacrifices she has made. \/ithout her loving support, this
effort would not have been possible. Because of my undying
gratitude to her, I dedicate this dissertation to my v/ife
Sue Gates.
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
ACKNOULEDGIIENTS ii
LIST OP FIGURES vi
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Significance of the Study 11
Purpose of the Study 19
Research Questions 21
Summary 21
II. REVIEV7 OF LITERATURE 23
Improvement of Reading Rate 25
Tachistoscopes and Controlled Reading
Devices 3^
Improving Braille Reading Rate 38
Perception 42
Tachistoscopes and Braille 45
Computers and Braille Reading Speed 50
Single Subject and the Visually Handicapped 52 Hypotheses 54
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Ill. HETHODOLOGY 56
Subjects 58
Environment 6l
Materials 62
Variables 64
ExT eriiiiental Design 64
Treatment 67
Ilaintenance 69
Procedures 70
Instrumentation and Data Collection 72
Summary 75
IV. RESULTS 76
Interobserver Agreement 77
Hypothesis 1 77
Hypothesis 2 80
Hypothesis 3 85
Hypothesis 4 85
Hypothesis 5 88
V. DISCUSSION 95
Discussion of Hypotheses 95
Limitations of the Study 102
Education Implications 104
Implications for Future Research 109
Conclusions 110
IV
REFERENCES 112
APPENDICES 125
A. CONSENT FORM 126
B. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET 127
C. LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 129
D. TRAINING PROTOCOL 131
E. OBSERVATION*INSTRUMENT 137
P. OBSERVATION INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTIONS 138
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Example of multiple baseline design across subjects 65
2. VersaBraille reading speed 78
3. VersaBraille regressions 82
4. Paper braille regression 84
5. Scrubbing behaviors 86
6. Paper braille reading speed 87
7. VersaBraille comprehension/recall of sentence halves 89
8. VersaBraille comprehension/estimate of comprehension 90
9. Paper braille comprehension/recall of sentence halves 91
10. Paper braille comprehension/estimate of comprehension 92
11. Number of seconds needed to recognize phrases displayed on a VersaBraille IO6
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Blind students, particularly at the college level,
need to improve braille reading speed if they are to
maintain academic success. Compared with print reading
speeds among sighted college students, braille reading
speeds for blind college students are much slov/er. This
situation results in the decreased use of braille which
limits the blind student's independence as a reader and
researcher. This study will measure gains in braille
reading speed and reductions in inefficient reading
behaviors that can be attributed to an intervention
technique incorporating the use of a personal computer and
a portable cassette braille machine.
Braille consists of tv/o grades and may be described as
follows:
Grade 1 Braille is in full spelling and consists of letters of the alphabet, punctuation, numbers, and a group of composition signs which are special to braille. Grade 2 braille consists of Grade 1 and 189 contractions and short-form words, and should be known as "English Braille." However, uncontracted braille should be designated as "English Braille Grade 1" (AAUB, AEVH and NBA, 1982, p. 2).
A more contracted form of braille knovm as Grade 3 has also
been developed, but is not widely used (Foulke, 1971). The
braille cell consists of six raised dots arranged in tne
following configuration:
1 * * 4
2 * * 5
3 * " 6
Harley, Henderson, and Truan (1979) provide the following
description of the mechanics of braille reading:
The hand position should be such as to make the most efficient use of the pads of the fingers as the reading surface. The fingers should be curved comfortably to allow the pads to focus major attention on the upper part of the cell, where the majority of the dots appear, but also to span the entire three-dot depth of the cell.... The tips of all eight fingers, or at least the first three on each hand, should rest lightly on the reading line.... Braille is perceived through the pressure points within the surface of the finger pads. A very light pressure is conducive to good perception.... As many fingers as possible should be utilized in the reading process...most students utilize the index finger or the index and middle fingers on one or both hands as the primary reading fingers. Other fingers serve to maintain orientation on the braille line, to pick up missed cues and correct faulty impressions, or to move ahead perceiving punctuation or checking to make sure the line is completed (pp. 76-77).
In view of the comparatively slower reading rates among
blind students, persons working with blind people must find
effective means of increasing braille reading speeds,
especially in academic settings. Although braille has
enjoyed a long history of use and has been recognized as a
valuable means of dealing with scientific and mathematical
material (Foulke, I98I), it continues to be "derided and
used half-heartedly" (Birns, 1976). This dissatisfaction
with braille becomes more threatening each time technology
offers a new means of communication for visually handi
capped individuals. Indeed, braille is on the decline
among the blind adult population as a whole (Clark, 1979).
Despite problems, braille as a mode for higher level
academic pursuits provides totally blind individuals with a
means for gaining information. Mack (1984) surveyed thirty
blind adults to determine the extent to v/hich braille was
used. Among those surveyed, 30 percent indicated that they
always use braille and 20 percent responded that braille
was rarely used. This lack of enthusiasm for braille can
be understood by examining its advantages and disadvan
tages.
The chief advantage of braille may be the independence
it gives to the visually handicapped individual. Unlike
the auditory modality, braille enables the visually
handicapped person to handle such tasks as taking notes,
studying grammar, and relying on his or her own intellect
and emotions (Birns, 1976). Graham (1962) addresses the
issue of independence in research by suggesting that
blind individuals are motivated enough by a desire to
be independent that they are willing to live with its
problems. Foulke (1970) states that braille users can vary
reading rate as needed, retrace, and use various formatting
cues to facilitate searching for specific information. As
Clark (1979) points out, the braille user is able to make
use of random access when referencing data. Indeed,
braille allows an individual to view an entire page
utilizing all of the cues necessary to locate a particular
item. According to Mack (1984), "braille preserves some
of the operations of print which are lost in auditory
presentations" (p. 311). Braille has been described as the
best means of informing blind persons about the environ
ment, which Heber, Long, and Flanigan (1967, p. 1) feel is
important for independent living.
Other media such as speech synthesis or voice record
ings, as well as the use of readers, offer what seems to be
the logical answer to the inability to read print. However,
Rose and Rose (I983, p. 371), in discussing the highly
personal nature of reading, suggest that voice may be
intellectually and emotionally inferior. Clark (1979)
addresses this issue by pointing out that braille and
inkprint require active participation, whereas talking
books on records or tapes are passive. Some braille users
prefer the independence braille affords to the speed which
voice recordings have to offer (Graham, 1962, p. 105).
Like voice recordings, speech synthesis via a micro
computer, offers an attractive alternative to braille.
Certain inadequacies do exist, however. Clark (1979)
points out that average reading speeds for the Kurzv/eil
Reading Machine approximate those of braille. In a
comparison of normal speech and speech synthesis, Clark
(1979, p. 9) offers the following comments:
Normal speech contains redundancy of the information-carrying elements of the speech signal and is extremely resistant to interference. The classic illustration of this is the so-called 'cocktail party effect,' in which one can concentrate on a single voice in a hubbub of voices and understand v/hat the individual is saying. Because the amount of redundancy in synthetic speech is inherently low, the listener must pay greater attention to the speech signal. Moreover, the lack of redundancy places a greater burden on short-term memory, and the intelligibility of the speech stream may decline after a person listens for long periods (p. 9).
From the above discussion, it would appear that
braille is a more interactive medium than voice and
therefore affords greater independence for the visually
handicapped reader. The use of the tactual modality is not
limited to braille, however. Besides other tactual
systems, such as Moon, which utilizes embossed symbols
resembling the alphabet (Lowenfeld, Abel and Hatlen, 1969,
p. 4), the Optacon offers the blind person means whereby
print can be read tactually. Ashcroft (1984) describes the
Optacon as a device which "presents, through vibrating
pins, a tactile counterpart of visual symbols detected by a
small hand-held camera" (p. 114). The Optacon, by virtue
of its use of the print medium, may appear to be the
appropriate replacement for braille. The Optacon seemingly
offers blind persons the advantage of interactive reading
in addition to avoidance of learning a special code. Major
disadvantages to using the Optacon are expense, speed, and
limited applicability (Rose and Rose, 1983, p. 372).
Reading rates for Optacon have been reported to vary
between 30 and 60 words per minute after two years of
experience (Goldish and Taylor, 1974).
Despite advantages v/hich do exist, the popularity of
braille is diminished by several disadvantages. For
pleasure reading or information gathering, most blind
adults rely upon means other than braille (Mack, 1984).
Clark (1979) attributes much of the decline in braille
readership to increased production costs, uncertain
markets, variations in the quantity and quality of braille
instruction, overconcentration on production of textbooks,
and the complex nature of braille. Birns (1976) suggests
that the bulkiness of braille books is an additional factor
related to the decreased popularity of braille.
Certain complexities of braille also present problems
for those v/ho use it, as well as to teachers of the
visually handicapped. According to Lowenfeld, Abel, and
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Hatlin (I969, pp. I6O-I71), braille suffers from problems
related to the number of dots used in a character, multiple
meanings for a character, the inability to perceive lines
of braille simultaneously, similarities between letters and
punctuation, the mechanics of reading, and scanning and
outlining limitations.
According to Foulke (1979),
slov/ readers retrace more often than good readers, and sometimes, in an effort to identify characters, they scrub them with their reading fingers. Consequently, the speed at which they cover a line of braille characters is slow and variable (p. 319).
Scrubbing behaviors and retracing or regression will be a
focal point for the current study. Hanninen (1979)
suggests that riibbing of braille characters may be "cause
and effect of poorer reading ability" (p. 75). A similar
statement could be made concerning regressions.
For the adventitiously blinded, three important
factors may affect success with braille: emotional,
perceptual, and academic readiness (Harley, Henderson and
Truan, 1979, p. 149). Feelings of negativity may interfere
with progress in making the transition from print to
braille. The strong association of braille with blindness
may serve as a deterrent for some late blinded individuals.
In a survey conducted by Mack (1984), 50 percent of
the blind persons questioned indicated that braille was a
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slow v/ay to read. The closest percentages v/ere 27 percent
who stated that braille materials require too much storage
space and that the quantity of material available v/as too
small. The slow speeds v/ith which braille is read has been
suggested as one of its major disadvantages (Lorimer and
Tobin, 1979), and may be considered the major reason
\/hy it is not more v;idely used (Graham, 1962, p. 104).
Williamson, Allen, and McDonald (1976) found first and
third grade braille readers to be less efficient than
sighted readers based upon an analysis of miscues. Reading
materials included a basal reading series and the Gray Oral
Reading Test Form A.
Low braille reading speeds for adults have been
reported as ranging from 90 to 110 words per minute
(Birns, 1976; Foulke, 1964; McBride, 1974; Olson, Harlow
and Williams, 1975). In a study of braille reading speed,
Crandell and Wallace (1974) reported pretest means of 56.55
v/ords per minute for males and 102.05 words per minute for
females. No reasons were given for the marked difference
between sexes. Lowenfeld, Abel, and Hatlen (I969, p. 89)
reported reading rates of II6 to 149 words per minute for
eighth grade students, although these speeds have been
disputed by Nolan and Kederis (1969, p. 9) based upon the
presumption that the test used was an inadequate measure of
reading speed. Nolan and Kederis (I969, p. 44) reported a
reading speed of 90 words per minute for high school
students.
By comparison, reading speeds for print readers are
faster than those reported for braille readers. Foulke
(1979) cites studies by Harris (19^7) and Taylor (1966)
which indicate reading speeds of 250 and 300 words per
minute for sighted high school students. Miller (1973,
p. 220) found reading speeds to be less than 350 words per
minute on easy reading material. She further suggests that
secondary students probably average 250 words per minute on
similar material. Miller (1973) also suggests that good
secondary school readers should be able to achieve 1000
words per minute skimming, 400 to 500 v;ords per minute with
an easy novel, 200 to 250 v/ords per minute with a social
studies text, and 75 to 150 words per minute \/ith a
mathematics verbal problem (p. 220). Wainwright (1977,
p. 2) states that speeds of 200 to 250 v;ords per minute are
typical for average readers reading a newspaper for general
understanding. In a study designed to measure the effects
of a tachistoscope v/ith sighted college students, Dumler
(1958) noted a beginning reading speed of 253, nine words
per minute for 50 subjects.
Silent reading rates of 157 to 246 words per minute on
college level material have been reported for subjects
17 years of age (National Assessment of Educational
Progress Report, 1970-71). The same study reported 145 to
10
236 words per minute for individuals aged 26 to 35. The
low figure represented the 25th percentile. The high
figure represented the 75th percentile. In her discussion
of a program designed to increase adult reading rate,
Collins (1979) states that most adults average between 175
and 250 words per minute. Subjects in her study exhibited
beginning reading speeds of 242 to 276 words per minute.
Ruppel (1979) reported a mean pretest reading speed of
183.70 words per minute for 204 undergraduate students.
Post test data indicated a raean of 231.11 words per minute
with a comprehension level of 64.24 percent. Grob (1970)
indicates averages of 200 to 350 words per minute on
fiction material for secondary students functioning above
grade level. He also reports a range from 100 to 600 words
per minute. In a study of reaction time, Jackson and
McClelland (1979) placed college students in groups based
upon speed and comprehension. The fast group averaged
396.4 words per minute for long passages and 290.4 words
per minute for paragraphs. The slow group averaged 216.1
words per minute for long passages and 169.3 words per
minute for paragraphs.
Clearly, a definite gap exists between reading speeds
for braille and print. Although this difference may be of
little importance when considering everyday activities or
pleasure reading, the massive amounts of reading required
for certain occupations or educational purposes require
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maximum utilization of time. Reading is a tool which, if
used efficiently, may serve as a means of achieving success
in school or the work place.
The difference between braille and print reading rate
could pose a problem for the braille reader faced with long
reading assignments. For students in public schools,
reading is certainly a necessity, and adaptive measures
alleviate many problems related to various handicapping
conditions. Once the student enters college, hov^ever,
adaptive and remedial classes are less common. To under
stand the problems faced by a visually handicapped student
in a university setting, one must consider the importance
of reading at the college level.
Significance of the Study
In view of the tremendous amount of reading required
at the college level, the slow reader may be at a disad
vantage (Miller, 1973). As Foulke (1970) points out, "the
student or the practitioner of a profession, who has an
enormous and continually growing body of current and
classic literature to encompass, simply does not have time
to read it at the rate of 104 words per minute" (p. 87).
Indeed, the importance of reading for success in college
has been noted in the literature (Pauk, 1974; Algier and
Algier, 1982, p. 91; Teegarden and Tarvin, 1982, pp. 73-74;
Sadler, 1984). The movement into an age of information has
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produced an increased need for the ability to extract the
maximum amount of information from a text in the minimum
amount of time (Ambardar, 1984). Noting a significant
decline in reading performance among college freshmen since
1928, Eurich and Kraetsch (1982) link success in college to
reading rate, comprehension, and vocabulary skills.
The presence of slow or inefficient readers at the
college level may seem to be a rather recent phenomenon;
hov;ever, Starkie (1982) indicates that reading programs at
the university level have been described in the literature
for 40 years. The purpose of tiiese programs have consis
tently been the remediation of reading problems, therefore
enabling students to achieve greater success in their
coursev7ork (Sadler, 1984). Despite t'ne enormous amount of
effort and funds invested in the development of reading
programs, students continue to enter universities with
deficient reading skills (Sadler, 1984).
Success in college may be affected by the speed with
v/hich students are able to read. Those unable to complete
reading assignments on time may face difficulty meeting
course requirements. Cohen (1984), in a discussion
concerning learning disabilities at the university level,
notes the effect that learning disability has on study
skills such as reading speed by stating that
reading slowly can be a significant constraint for students... who now find
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themselves in a high-powered and academically rigorous college, v/here there is more v/ork and less time to complete assignments (p. 24).
Reading skills continue to be a concern of college
administrators and faculty (Algier, 1982, p. 43). However,
students v/ith special learning problems often face reluc
tance on the part of their professors to make adjustments
in the curriculum or their teaching methods (Harrison,
1982). Tompkins (1982, p. 83) points out the need for
remediation programs in reading at the college level
because many high school students are not prepared for
undergraduate v/ork and many of the highest level college
students are not prepared for graduate school.
Cashen (1983) notes that collegiate skills programs
such as one developed at the University of Wisconsin-
Parkside Campus, require that a student prove proficiency
in reading and comprehending college level material or
enter a remedial program within the first 15 credits.
According to West (1978, p. 6), college texts are having to
be rewritten at lower reading levels to accommodate the
increasing number of poor readers entering college. The
issue of equal opportunity has raised the question of v/hat
standards should exist for evaluating student progress.
Carter (1978) suggests that for an equal opportunity
program to be of value, skills such as reading comprehen
sion should be measured periodically.
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Students who are underprepared for college often face
a difficult time trying to adapt to the rigors of a college
curriculum. Although a visual handicap does not neces
sarily connote unpreparedness for college, the fact that
reading speeds average almost half those of sighted
individuals indicates that even the brightest visually
handicapped students may have difficulty negotiating the
high ratio between work volume and time.
The need for college orientation programs that assist
visually handicapped students has been noted in the
literature (Smith, 1970; Rossi and Ragan, 1974; Jarmul,
1977; Eldridge, 1979). As more handicapped individuals
enter college, administrators will have to make greater
efforts to meet the needs of the handicapped student. This
effort should not be onesided, however, since handicapped
students have an obligation to operate within the sighted
v/orld as much as possible (National Federation for the
Blind, 1977, pp. 6-7).
Programs designed to prepare visually handicapped
students for college emphasize a broad range of activities,
including increasing braille proficiency. Rossi and Pagan
(1974) described a program offering courses in "mobility,
braille, English, typing, mathematics, activities of daily
living, physical education, supplemental instruction, and
counseling" (p. 45). Braille instruction centered on
Grade 3 braille and Nemeth Code. Nemeth Code of Braille
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Mathematics was developed for use in higher mathematics and
science as well as texts devoted primarily to mathematics
and science (Ashcroft and Henderson, I963, p. 262). Jarmul
(1977) described a program at Queensborough Community
College V7hich included making vocational decisions,
preparing for the academic demands of college, improving
mobility and skills of daily living, and participating in
social and recreational activities. The program at the
Rehabilitation Center for the Arkansas Enterprises for the
Blind »/as designed primarily to aid visually handicapped
students in preparing for a broad range of potential
problems they may encounter at college (Smith, 1970).
Preparing visually handicapped students for college is
a task which requires giving special attention to the
improvement of academic skills. The lack of study skills
could prove to be academically fatal. Eldridge (1979)
addresses academic unpreparedness through a discussion on
the increasing evidence of braille illiteracy among
visually handicapped students entering college. This
discussion emphasizes a need for improved braille skills in
the areas of note taking, research, studying, and review
ing. As Eldridge (1979) points out, "the goal is not to be
an average nor even a good student. He or she must be
outstanding...the primary tool is braille literacy"
(p. 12). Braille literacy implies the efficient use of
braille at whatever level the individual may be required to
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function. An efficient reader at the college level must
absorb large amounts of reading material in a brief amount
of time. Efforts to improve braille reading speed while
maintaining an adequate comprehension level \70uld appear to
be necessary.
In addition to increased efficiency in braille, the
presence of technological advances in the tactual display
of braille generates a need for training in media other
than paper braille. The development of electronic braille
reading machines has been referred to be Ashcroft (1979,
p. 4) as one of "the most significant contributions to the
education of the blind since the advent of the Perkins
brailler." These devices, of which the VersaBraille
(VSE Corporation, I98I) is but one example, offer a means
whereby braille users may utilize word processing pro
cedures and maximize storage capaoilities. The Versa
Braille is a microprocessor-based device which utilizes a
keyboard resembling the Perkins brailler (a braille v/riting
machine) to input the braille code to be stored in the
machine's memory. Once this is done, the braille can then
be stored on cassette or output to a 20 character display
composed of movable pins. The user may move forward or
backward through the recorded material by using various
controls (Ruconich, 1984).
Despite the tremendous possibilities offered by these
devices, questions at present concerning their value exist.
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One of the disadvantages that has been suggested for the
VersaBraille is the relationship between a shorter line
length and reduced rate of reading (Broward County Schools,
1982, p. 133). Bourgeois and Ashcroft (1979) noted reading
rates of 30 to 50 words per minute less with the Digi-
cassette when compared with conventional braille. The
Digicassette is a cassette braille device produced by the
Elinfa company in France. It is similar to the Versa
Braille in the braille is stored on audio cassettes and the
display is 20 characters in length (VSE Corporation, I98I).
Ashcroft (1979, p. 92) noted that children and adults read
at a 50 percent slower rate v ith the Digicassette than with
paper braille.
One of the questions for future research raised by
Ashcroft (1979, p. 93) is the issue of length of display.
Moore (1983), in a study of VersaBraille use by blind
secondary and college students, indicates that reading
speeds for paper braille may be slightly faster. Reading
speeds for VersaBraille ranged from 6.58 words per minute
to 124.44 words per minute with an average of 57.45 words
per minute. Speeds for paper braille ranged from 11.20 to
117.91 with an average of 59.812. It should be noted that
grade one braille was used in this study. Doorlag and
Doorlag (I983) found negligibly faster reading rates with
the VersaBraille compared to paper braille. This study was
limited to three students with one failing to complete the
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program. Although the gathering of data was systematic,
methods failed to conform to single subject designs
(Van Hasselt and Hersen, I98I). It appears that statis
tical data gathering techniques were used. However, no
specific data v/ere reported.
In a rather extensive study of the Digicassette and
VersaBraille, VSE Corporation (I98I, p. 1-3) found that
participants readily accepted the concept of cassette
braille; hov/ever, many reported a great amount of fatigue
with both raachines. In addition to this factor, partici
pants in the study also expressed concern about weight, the
indexing system, length of ,;ord display, portability,
operating procedures, and reliability. Reading speeds for
paper braille were reported at 39 'words per minute and
cassette braille at 67 words per minute. Average speed for
the Digicassette and VersaBraille were 65 and 91 v ords per
minute, respectively (VSE Corporation, 1981, pp. 2-10
-2-11). It was also noted that those participants using
the Digicassette who read at speeds above 86 words per
minute tended to read at a much slower rate because of
short lines and pauses between blocks of characters. Most
of the participants in this study were over 25 years of age
and had attended a minimum of one year of college.
The advent of cassette braille is definitely of value
for university students, particularly with such tasks as
word processing and note taking (Ashcroft, 1979, p. 2).
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Additionally, cassette braille may become widely available
for storing textbook material, resulting in a greater need
for training in the use of devices such as the VersaBraille
(Cox, 1984).
Such training should include a program to improve
reading speeds. Despite the technologically advanced
nature of both the Digicassette and VersaBraille, braille
users continue to function at greatly reduced levels when
compared to visual readers. Placing reading material on a
cassette braille device may solve storage problems but may
not have a significant effect on reading speed. Thus, the
problem of slower, more tedious reading rate which plagues
the user of paper braille continues to be a problem for the
user of cassette braille devices.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study v/as to examine the
effectiveness of using a computer generated self-paced
tachistoscope-like display of sentences and phrases to
increase braille reading speed. Although effect on
cassette braille reading rate was the focus of this study,
the logical extension is to examine possible changes in
paper braille reading speeds. Consideration v/as also given
to the effect such a program may have on habits which
contribute to inefficient braille reading.
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Reading rates for both paper and electronically
produced retrievable braille are low (Mack, 1984; VSE
Corporation, 198I), thus inhibiting the potential for
academic success and future employment possibilities.
Paced with the problem of lower reading speeds in adult
braille readers as compared to sighted readers, researchers
in the field of visual handicaps have examined several
methods designed to increase braille reading speed.
Tachistoscopic presentation of braille has been used in
studies of braille perception (Nolan and Kederis, 1969;
Kusajima, 1974). Olson (1976) suggests the use of a
braille tachistoscope as a means of practicing light
finger movement. The advent of the VersaBraille and the
Braille-edit program for use on an Apple II personal
computer (Holladay, 1982) offers a method of generating
such a device without resorting to equipment developed
specifically for tachistoscopic presentation (Nolan and
Kederis, 1969). Additionally, a more precisely controlled
presentation is possible compared to the homemade device
suggested by Olson (1976). Olson's description of a
braille tachistoscope involves pulling strips of braille
paper under a student's fingers at varying rates.
This study was concerned with the effects of a
tachistoscope-like intervention on behaviors such as
braille reading speed, regressions, and scrubbings.
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Because of the lack of research related to VersaBraille
reading speed, questions remain to be answered.
Research Questions
The questions addressed in this study were:
1. What effect does the use of a computer generated,
self-paced, tachistoscopic-like program have on Versa
Braille reading speed?
2. Will a change in reading speed on the VersaBraille
result in a similar change in paper braille reading speed?
3. Can behaviors detrimental to efficient braille
reading be reduced with the aid of a tachistoscopic-like
program?
Summary
Despite the independence it affords its users, braille
is subject to disadvantages, chief of which is slov/ness.
In general, braille readers are slower than print readers.
Research suggests that the average print reader reads more
than twice as fast as the average braille reader. For
blind university students facing the rigors of a demanding
curriculum, a slow reading rate can be extremely detri
mental. This problem is not ne\i and has been noted in the
literature for some time. The continuing presence of this
problem suggests that further research is needed. Various
22
s t r a t e g i e s h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d ; h o w e v e r , q u e s t i o n s s t i l l
e x i s t .
T e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s o f f e r t h e r e s e a r c h e r new
a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r s o l v i n g o l d p r o b l e m s . Dev ice s such as t h e
V e r s a B r a i l l e and m i c r o c o m p u t e r s may s e r v e as v e h i c l e s f o r
i m p r o v i n g s k i l l s such as r e a d i n g s p e e d .
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Well developed reading skills have been shown to be
vitally important for success at the college level (Pauk,
1974; Algier and Algier, 1982; Tompkins, 1982, p. 83). As
beneficial as an adequate rate of reading is to sighted
students, it is especially important to those visually
handicapped students unable to utilize print (Eldridge,
1979; Smith, 1979). With reading rates for braille readers
averaging less than half those for sighted individuals
(Harley, Henderson and Truan, 1979, p. 29), the need for
effective methods of braille reading rate improvement
appears to be evident.
Advances in technology offer possible solutions;
however, devices such as the VersaBraille have had little
effect on the speed v ith which braille is read (VSE
Corporation, I98I). The VersaBraille is an electronic
braille device capable of storing and retrieving braille
data on audio cassettes. A 20 character display of
movable pins is used to represent braille characters. A
seven key keyboard resembling braillewriters such as the
Perkins Braillers is used to enter data (Ruconich, 1984).
23
24
Also, research on the use of computers in braille reading
has not been widely reported in the literature.
Consideration of the use of cassette braille in
braille reading improvement programs involves av/areness
of differences v/hich exist between paper braille and
that provided by devices similar to the Versabraille.
Basically, the braille presented through the tv/o media is
the same with the exception of a fev/ computer braille
symbols. Major differences center on the physical composi
tion (i.e., plastic dots vs. paper dots) of the braille and
the length of each line of braille. Users of cassette
braille must also maintain an awareness of various controls
as v/ell as include the added movement of pressing a bar to
advance to the next line of braille. Due to the differ
ences v/hich exist between cassette and paper braille,
comparisons are difficult to make. Care should be taken to
note that improvements can only be accurately measured in
terms of the specific format. Although improvement in
reading via the VersaBraille may not directly affect paper
braille, generalizations are indicated because the braille
used in both cases is basically the same. Despite attempts
to compare reading rates for paper braille with Versa
Braille, very little research describing intervention
programs designed to increase braille reading speed on the
VersaBraille is evident in the literature.
25
Research focusing upon the development of effective
techniques for improving reading speed is important because
rates of reading for braille continue to be markedly slower
than rates for print (Olson, Harlow and Williams, 1975;
Foulke, 1964). There is also the need to expand the body
of knowledge relative to recent technological advances.
Relevant to this study is the need for research involving
the use of computers and cassette braille. It is neces
sary, therefore, to examine the literature which relates to
the improvement of reading rate. Of value also is research
involving the use of tachistoscopes to increase reading
rate, the improvement of braille reading rate, the use of
tachistoscopic-like devices, and the use of computer
technology to increase braille reading speed.
Improvement of Reading Rate
The necessity to develop efficient reading for
survival in the modern world is stressed by Ambardar
(1984), who defines reading efficiency as "the ability to
extract the maximum possible relevant information, in a
minimal time frame, from a given text" (p. 21). The
implication that efficient reading occurs at the more rapid
pace has been reflected in the literature for some time
(Judd, 1916; Gates, 1921; Dee-Lucas, 1979; Harris and
Sipay, 1980, p. 551; Martinez and Johnson, 1982; Bergquist,
26
1984; Berger, 1972). Controversy concerning the relation
ship betv/een reading speed and comprehension does exist,
however (Dechant, 1961, p. 219; Blommers and Lindquist,
1947; Harris and Sipay, 1980, p. 552). Despite research
supporting the claim that good readers are fast readers,
some evidence indicates that no connection exists between
reading speed and comprehension (Parr, I969, p. 46; Rankin,
1970, p. 287). Such a vie\/ suggests that programs designed
to improve reading speed and comprehension can be developed
independently of each other. Despite the possibility that
an individual's reading comprehension may be partly
independent of reading speed, high rates of reading speed
obtained at the expense of comprehension must be viev/ed
with caution (Miller, 1973, p. 221; Martin, Frataccia and
Brooks, I98I; Yarington, 1978, p. 125).
A review of the literature relating to improvement of
reading rate is helpful in contributing to the development
of a braille reading program despite the fact that print
reading and braille reading involve the use of different
sensory systems. Similarities in these systems suggest
that such common factors as information processing, pauses,
perception of several letters or v/ords, use of context
clues and shape characteristics, regularity of return
sv/eeps and movements between lines, and the use of an
alphabet are equally important in both systems (Hampshire,
1975; Kusajima, 1974, pp. 54-58; Hamp and Caton, 1984).
27
In order to understand more fully the issues in
reading rate and comprehension, familiarization with
various terms is necessary. The term "fixation" refers to
the pauses in eye movement which occur during the reading
process. It is only during periods of fixation that actual
reading takes place (Harris and Sipay, 1980, p. 559).
Harris and Sipay further describe regressions as "eye-
movement equivalents of repetitions in oral reading
(p. 571). One could substitute "finger-movement" for "eye-
movement" in reference to braille reading.
Subvocal reading refers to the unobserved behavior of
speaking v>rords without producing physical movement or sound
(Harris and Sipay, 1980, p. 568). Decoding is defined as
gathering meaning from the printed word. Several skills
may be used in this process (Harris and Sipay, 1980,
p. 367). Reading rate and reading speed may be used
interchangeably and refer to the number of words an
individual can read in one minute (Miller, 1973, p. 222).
Reading comprehension refers to the ability to get meaning
from what is being read (Fisher, I98I, p. 1).
In a study designed to test the hypothesis that gains
in reading speed may be a function of suggestion. Maxwell
and Mueller (I967) found that significant increases in
reading speed occurred with a group that was given informa
tion concerning rate improvement and asked to practice the
techniques at home. The findings in this study suggest
28
that individuals may improve reading speed v ithout the aid
of a systematic approach. Although the subjects were given
information concerning rapid reading techniques, practice
was implemented by the individual. The results of this
study suggest that improvement in reading speed does not
invariably necessitate a specialized program. Reading
speed may be more a function of internal motivation than
formal instruction. The quality and nature of previous
reading instruction must be considered before making a
judgment about the effectiveness of this concept.
Supporting the view that formal instruction in reading
rate improvement is needed, Bergquist (1984) posits that
rapid reading is a skill v>rhich should be taught as early as
the fourth grade. Several studies (Bergquist, 1975;
Carlson, 1949; Griffin, 1966; McCracken, 196O; Uicholaw,
1969; O'Brien, 1926; Schale, 1967; Schnicke, 1970; Swalm
and Kling, 1973; Teague, 1963; l/eathers, 1966) are cited by
Bergquist (1984) suggesting that children's reading rates
can be increased without harm to reading comprehension.
Elements which should be included in a rapid reading
program are encouragement of conscious effort, informing
students of the value of reducing the number of fixations,
reduction of regressions, and elimination of subvocaliza-
tion (Bergquist, 1984).
Further evidence that formal instruction in rapid
readin-- is beneficial is provided by Cranney and others
29
(1982). Attempting to ansv/er questions concerning the
validity of Evelyn Wood's Reading Dynamics Approach (Wood,
1966), Cranney and others found that subjects who had no
exposure to a particular subject area were able to read
"five or six times faster than both control groups" in
preferred rate conditions. Under speed conditions of 3000
words per minute, the uninformed Reading Dynamics subjects
scored "40 more percentage points of comprehension" over
the uninformed undergraduates compared to 20 more percen
tage points scored by the informed graduate students. The
authors conclude that the techniques taught in the Reading
Dynamics program appear to make a difference. Although
details of Reading Dynamics have not been made public,
Harris and Sipay (I98O) describe some of the techniques
used in the program (p. 578). Several timed practice reads
varying from 12 to 4 seconds per page are used. Each
practice read is followed by an exercise in v> hich v/ords and
ideas are written dovm (p. 578). Cranney and others (1982)
conclude that "ansv/ers to questions some of us have thought
settled for many years may need reconsideration."
A key factor in the current study v as the use of timed
readings. In addition to its use in Reading Dynamics,
timed readings were incorporated into a study conducted by
Berger (1972). He suggests that speed reading may be
equated with skimming, and reading rates of 250 words per
minute may be doubled without decreasing comprehension.
30
The technique described involves scanning pages of a
paperback book under time pressure. Students progress from
eight seconds per page to tv o seconds per page back to ten
seconds per page. This technique has proven successful
with high school, college, and adult students (Berger,
1972).
In addition to the development of scanning techniques,
other factors may contribute to reading rate improvement.
Rauch and V/einstein (I968) offer the following techniques
for increasing reading speed: stressing motivation to read
faster, reading easy and interesting material, practicing
techniques for an hour daily, increasing background
information, improving vocabulary, using mechanical aids,
keeping records of progress, establishing reading goals,
incorporating skimming practice, and reading often. Cole
(1968) suggested that the following reading skills be
promoted: "a reduction in the number of fixations and
regressions, accuracy in hitting a ne\-i line, rhythmic
movements, reduced vocalization, and an expanded reading
span." As Cole (I968) further indicates, "the good reader
has an efficient combination of muscular habits which
function automatically and rhythmically."
The correlation betvNfeen speed and comprehension is
addressed by Yarington (1978, p. 123), who criticizes speed
reading programs for failure to place appropriate emphasis
on reading comprehension. He states that, "there is more
31
to reading than just training the eyes to move faster
across the page" (p. 125). Harris and Sipay (I98O) cite
several studies v hich describe superior readers as having a
wider than normal perceptual span (p. 56O). Berger (1972)
suggests that reading speed can be increased by fixating on
two words instead of one. He also points out that purpose
and background are important. Background refers to one's
past experience.
The improvement of reading speed and comprehension
has also been shown to be related to subvocal speech
(Riley and Lowe, I98I). In an effort to determine the
effectiveness of biofeedback equipment on the reduction of
subvocal activity, Riley and Lowe found that subjects
attempting to reduce subvocalization increased their
reading speed without r-educing comprehension. In addition
to examining reduction of subvocal speech, they attempted
to improve reading comprehension through subvocal enhance
ment. Results of this segment of the study indicated that
the use of biofeedback equipment to improve reading
comprehension proved ineffective. Of interest is the fact
that subjects who were asked to reduce subvocalization
v/ithout biofeedback demonstrated significant gains in
reading speed.
Another factor related to reading speed is the
improvement of decoding skills. In a study of the effects
of decoding training on comprehension, Fleisher, Jenkins,
32
and Pany (1979) noted that decoding speed of single words
v>fas increased by focusing on both isolated words and
phrases. They found conflicting results regarding the
possibility that good readers benefitted more from context
clues than did poor readers. Fleisher, Jenkins, and Pany
recommend that if automaticity of decoding is one's goal,
practice v/ith words in context is preferred to isolated
words.
The possibility that some type of pre-reading exercise
or practice may have a positive effect on reading speed is
another factor relevant to the current study. Collins
(1979) utilized Speedway: Tlie Action Way to Speed Read
(Otto and Kamm, 1975) v/ith adult civil service employees
and junior and senior level college students. Speedway
incorporates warm-up exercises for the improvement of
peripheral vision and ocular movement, practice readings,
and practice with speed reading and reading flexibility
techniques. Two experimental and two control groups were
utilized. The first experimental group was provided with
30 hours of classroom instruction for a period of one week.
The second experimental group received l6 hours of class
room instruction and 14 hours of home study over a period
of one month. Results indicate increases of 302.45 words
per minute for individuals in the one week experimental
group and 245.34 words per minute for the one month
experimental group (Collins, 1979).
33
Harris and Sipay (1980) discuss several methods of
increasing reading speed through direct practice. Included
in their discussion are the use of tachistoscopes (pp. 572-
573), controlled reading devices (pp. 574-575), motivated
reading (pp. 576-578), Reading Dynamics (pp. 578-579), and
various other methods (pp. 579-580). Of the elements
included in motivated reading, two appear to be germane to
the present study. First, participants in motivated
reading programs must reduce certain habits vfhich interfere
with efficient reading (p. 576). According to Harris and
Sipay (1980), these habits are excessive viord analysis,
slov/ness in v/ord recognition, v> ord-by-word reading, limited
perceptual span, lip movements and subvocal reading, finger
pointing, difficulty with return sv/eeps, and regressions
(pp. 564-572). Second, motivated reading involves timed
silent reading exercises designed to "strengthen motivation
to keep the rate going up" (p. 576).
Glass (1967), in a correlational study of reading rate
among undergraduate students, found positive correlations
between several variables and reading rate. Although five
or six variables correlated positively with reading rate,
"none of the relationships is of such magnitude that v>rhen
one scores high in any of the variables he v/ill necessarily
score high or low in reading rate" (Glass, I967).
34
Tachistoscopes and Controlled Reading Devices
The use of tachistoscopic-like devices in braille
reading programs is virtually non-existent. Such devices
have, however, been used in studies designed to explore the
nature of the perception of braille (Nolan and Kederis,
1969; 'kusajima, 1974). Suggestions have been made to use
these devices to improve reading abilities of blind persons
(Olson, 1976). Because so little research exists, studies
concerning tachistoscopes and sighted individuals must be
examined to better understand possibilities v/hich may exist
in the development of programs for braille readers.
As defined by Smith (1978), a tachistoscope is a
"device that presents information to the eyes for very
brief periods of time...for studying hov/ much we can see at
any one time" (p. 30). Two factors contribute to an
understanding of the relationship of tachistoscopic
training to reading. First, an exposure of information for
50 milliseconds is all that the brain can handle in one
fixation (p. 30). Second, the ability to perceive what is
presented tachistoscopically depends upon v/hat is presented
and one's prior knowledge (p. 30). A greater number of
letters can be recalled when presented in the form of a
meaningful phrase than when presented in random patterns
(pp. 30-31).
35
Despite research indicating questionable results with
tachistoscopes and controlled reading devices, reports of
success do exist. Dumler (1958) attempted to produce gains
in reading rate among college students using a tachisto
scope and an SRA Reading Rate Accelerator. The Reading
Rate Accelerator is a device using an electronically
controlled shutter to cover a page a line at a time and is
produced by Science Research Associates, Inc. (Miller,
1973, pp. 229-230). Training periods were divided equally
between the two devices. Results of this study indicated
significant gains in reading rate with no loss in speed or
comprehension six months after the study was completed.
Dubois (1969) found that textbook comprehension and
general reading skills among college students were improved
through the use of subject-matter type materials as well as
general reading materials. A tachistoscope was used for
eye movement training. The author felt that the results
were not conclusive and that further studies needed to be
conducted.
Glass (1966) reported an increase in overall reading
rate of 83 percent among graduate students enrolled in a
reading improvement course. The course included v/ork with
a tachistoscope during the first three weeks for ten
minutes each session. Initially, single words were flashed
at various speeds. Eventually phrases vrere flashed until a
maximum speed of 1/lOOth of a second was reached.
36
In relation to research involving the use of several
methods of reading rate improvement, Berger (I969) indi
cated that no significant differences exist betv/een raethods
using tachistoscopes and controlled readers and those not
using them. Harris and Sipay (I98O, p. 574) describe
controlled readers as devices which project connected
material a few v/ords or a line at a time. Berger (1969)
does point out, hov/ever, that machines may be motivational
to some students and therefore should not be overlooked.
Berger cites several company manuals \7hich claim that use
of their device viill increase reading rate, comprehension,
or both (Educational Development Laboratories, 1963;
Learning Through Seeing, 1965; Erickson, 1954).
Rauch and \7einstein (I968) recommend the use of
mechanical aids such as the Controlled Reader, Reading Rate
Accelerator, Ratometer and reading films to motivate
readers to read faster. In a review of research, Karlin
(1958) discusses the use of mechanical devices at four
levels. Overall, Karlin reported that research indicates
gains in reading speed can be made through the use of
machines. Also reported, however, are results that
indicate equal outcomes for programs not using mechanical
devices (pp. 212-213). Karlin (1958) reviewed six studies
involving the use of mechanical devices with college
students. Increases in reading rate resulted from the use
of a pacing device were reported by Wedeen (1954). In
37
other studies reported by Xarlin (1958), performances with
mechanical devices did not exceed those with more tradi
tional approaches.
The correlation between increase in speed on tachis
toscopes and reading traditional material was discussed by
Harris and Sipay (I98O). They report that the use of
tachistoscopes to increase the speed with which words are
recognized have not been effective in ordinary reading
(p. 573). Speeded exposure time is viewed as irrelevant
primarily because "most of the fixation time is required
for the brain to process incoming information" (p. 573).
Harris and Sipay (I98O) question the value of tachisto
scopes as perception training devices and suggest that
their strength may lie in their motivational possibilities
(p. 574).
Witty (1969) suggests that perhaps excessive emphasis
has been placed on reading speed at the expense of other
subskills; hov/ever, he points out that programs designed
to improve reading speed are Important because of the
increasing volume of information resulting from develop
ments in science and other disciplines (p. I6I).
Several reports on the use of tachistoscopes v /ith
elementary students Indicated improvement in reading rate
(Adams, 1954), spelling (Benson, 1956), visual perception
(McCall, 1957), and general reading ability (Davis, 1953).
38
Improving Braille Reading Rate
Research indicates that approaches to the improvement
of reading speed are varied. Disagreement exists concern
ing the appropriateness of various techniques. Despite
mixed findings, low braille reading speeds have prompted
researchers to examine various techniques for improving
braille reading rate.
Several studies have approached the question of
improving braille reading speed through the examination of
the actual mechanics of braille reading. Mommers (198O)
attempted to replicate a study conducted by Hermelin and
O'Connor (1971) which found that students using the left
hand obtained faster reading speeds than those using the
right. This condition appeared to be true regardless of
the dominant hand. In Mommer's (1980) study, comparisons
vfere made betvieen right and left index finger, right and
left middle finger, index and middle finger, and two hands
and the index finger of one hand. Left hand use appeared
to be more efficient; hov^ever, this was not borne out
statistically.
Although factors such as hand and finger use are
obviously important, Wormsley (1981) suggests that braille
reading is a combination of motor and perceptual tasks. The
goal of this research was to examine the effects of hand
movement training on the independent use of hands and
reading variables such as speed. Results indicate that no
39
change in reading speed occurred based upon use of improved
hand movement skills.
A differing view emphasizes the importance of develop
ing such skills as finger dexterity, hand and finger
movement, page turning, and light finger touch at the
readiness level. Suggestions for developing light finger
movement include the use of a tachistoscope (Olson, 1976).
Skills such as those emphasized by Olson (1976) are
addressed in a rapid reading program developed by McBride
(1974). McBride reports an average braille reading speed
of 710 words per minute follov/ing a tv>ro v;eek workshop.
The highest score obtained vias l600 words per minute.
McBride's results, hov/ever, provide rather scanty informa
tion concerning comprehension. A key element in McBride's
program is timed practice encountering all of the v/ords on
one page. No attempt to understand words is made on the
first pass over the page. Students are not asked to try to
understand some of the words until the third day. From
this point, the student attempts to comprehend more words
and move even faster from page to page. By the end of the
workshop, students are asked to think in terms of more
detailed comprehension. Olson, Harlow, and Williams (1975)
obtained significant increases in reading speed by utiliz
ing this program. Techniques employed in this program
include reduced subvocalization, faster return sweeps, and
use of tv>/o hands and more fingers. These factors are
40
equally important for efficient print reading (Harris and
Sipay, 1980, pp. 566-570). The use of two hands and more
fingers may be seen as an attempt to expand the perceptual
span which Harris and Sipay also note as necessary for
efficient print reading (p. 566). A key factor in the
ilcBride system is motivation (Olson, Harlow and V/illiams,
1975).
Addressing the issue of multiple hand and finger use,
Lov/enfeld and Abel (I967) examined various aspects of hand
usage in the reading process. Generally, tViose students
using both hands tend to be faster readers than students
using one hand (p. 75). Students v/ho read ahead with the
left hand v/hile the right hand finishes a line are also
faster readers (p. 77). Students using only one finger
were noted as having slov/er speeds than those using several
fingers (p. 78). The use of an even flow v;hen reading and
decrease in scrubbing of letters may also be associated
with reading speed (pp. 8O-8I). Scrubbing is a repeated
vertical movement over a braille character with no linear
movement. Scrubbing of braille characters VNfhile reading
has been characterized as a trait detrimental to efficient
braille reading (Foulke, 1979; Mangold, 1978).
Another effort to improve braille reading was an
attempt by Crandell and Wallace (1974) to increase braille
reading speed among adults through the presentation of six
rapid reading lessons and Umsted's Braille Code Exercises
41
(Umsted, 1970). The Braille Code Recognition materials are
based upon practice with single cells, whether whole word
of part word or single letter. The rapid reading lessons
included practice for speed only, tips on improving
comprehension, methods of improving hand movements, and
home practice. After six one-hour sessions, mean rate
gains were recorded at 61.642 \/ords per minute for the
rapid reading group and 28.350 words per minute for the
rapid reading with recognition group. The maximum speed
reported was 225 words per minute.
The importance of rapid movement training in the
teaching of braille is also emphasized by Craig (1975), who
describes rapid movement as "the most obvious physical
factor in rapid braille reading" (p. 11). Craig (1975)
also discusses the value of drill, particularly v/ith whole
words, phrases, and sentences. Practice v/ith single
characters is viewed as less valuable.
Additional support for braille efficiency training is
provided by Mangold (1978) in a study of the effectiveness
of using the Mangold Development Program of Tactile
Perception and Braille Recognition to decrease scrubbing,
backtracking, and braille recognition errors. Results of
this study indicate that such training is effective in
reducing errors which contribute to inefficient braille
reading. Much of this program includes tracking exercises
and symbol discrimination.
42
Olson's (1977) analysis of braille reading speed of
primary students, suggests several factors which may
contribute to improved rate of reading. Hand movement
which is rapid, coordinated, and nonregressive was
stressed. Comments concerning the use of a braille
tachistoscope to expand the tactual perceptual window
indicate that practice ,7ith sight words is an important
part of increasing usable vocabulary (Olson, 1977).
Perception
In addition to relating to basic reading sub-skills,
rapid braille reading is also a function of the manner in
which braille characters are perceived. Indeed, Hampshire
(1975) describes the tactile sense as a "complex and
elaborate system" linked to the brain and consisting of
sophisticated analyzation processes. Studies have centered
on the manner in v/hich braille is perceived as v/ell as ways
in which the braille cell can be altered. A discussion of
tactual perception and its relationship to braille reading
is in order to aid in gaining an understanding of how
braille is read.
Although a certain amount of agreement exists concern
ing the basic mechanics of braille reading, controversy
surrounds the issue of perception and its relationship to
braille reading speed. Foulke (1979) suggests expanding
braille cells as a means of providing braille readers with
43
more information. This suggestion hinges on Foulke's
conclusion that braille readers read a character at a time.
Graham (1962) discusses the differences in perceptual span
between sighted and braille readers, noting that because of
the reduced perceptual span, braille characters must be
read more slowly (pp. 105-106). Graham (1962) also notes
the need for research to determine if the perceptual span
for braille readers can be lengthened (p. 106).
Those who assume that braille reading consists
primarily of the perception of single characters suggest
that braille readers may improve their skills by practicing
the recognition of single braille cells. Hamp and Caton
(1984) define the braille cell as follov/s: "an abstract
space twice as high as it is wide, in which there are six
positions arranged in three rov\[s and two columns, in which
dots may appear." Brothers (1974) was able to demonstrate
significant gains in reading speed through the use of the
Braille Code Recognition materials developed by Umsted
(1970). Nolan and Kederis (1969) suggested that the single
braille cell is the perceptual unit utilized by blind
persons in reading braille. This assumption was demon
strated in a study utilizing training in character recog
nition. Nolan and Kederis (1969) provided support for
their single character approach by finding that the sum of
the times required to recognize individual characters was
lower than those required to recognize whole words composed
' 44
of the same letters. This would appear to suggest a
character-by-character recognition pattern (Foulke, 1979).
An opposing viewpoint advocates the use of whole words
in teaching braille (Maxfield, 1928). Maxfield's book on
the teaching of braille was the sole source on this topic
until 1969 (Spungin, 1977). The method preferred by most
teachers is the whole word approach (Harley, Henderson and
Truan, 1979). Kusajima (1974) suggests that good braille
readers perceive groups of words or sentences. Hampshire
(1975) discusses several studies which seem to indicate
that perception of braille is as much a part of cognition
as it is a process of the tactual sense. The use of two
hands or additional fingers serves much the same function
as the peripheral retina in print reading.
A compromise betv/een the single character and whole
word approaches is submitted by Krueger and \/ard (1983).
According to their findings, contextual clues aid in letter
search, thus enhancing reading ability. Despite the fact
that physical contact is made with only one letter at a
time, blind readers are able to take in more than one
letter at a time (Krueger and Ward, 1983). Because letter
search is associated with good braille reading and because
attention spans several letters, braille reading appears to
be a function of both. Consequently, methods designed to
improve braille reading should consider both factors.
45
Tachistoscopes and Braille
The use of tachistoscopes and controlled reading
devices for the improvement of print reading skills has
been addressed in the literature for some time (Speer,
1951; Manolakes, 1952; Bond and Tinker, 1967; Dumler,
1958; Berger, 1969; Harris and Sipay, 1980, pp. 572-575;
Kleinberg, 1970). The use of these devices v /ith sighted
individuals has been questioned due to the lack of evidence
concerning their effectiveness as compared to those methods
which do not rely on mechanical devices. Most evidence
suggests that the use of tachistoscopes produce results
similar to those achieved through standard methods (Karlin,
1958). Despite such evidence, the issue of using mechani
cal devices with braille readers has been addressed infre
quently in the literature (Graham, 1962; Olson, 1977).
Graham (I962) suggests that the use of autoinstructional
devices should be studied to determine if lack of intensive
braille training is a contributing factor to the discre
pancy which exists between braille readers and sighted
readers (p. Ill).
Two studies involving the use of a tachistoscopic-like
device were conducted by Kederis and others (1964). A
36 cell display was obtained by placing sheets of braille
on a metal plate and electromagnetically raising the plate
so that the braille was pressed through a brass screen. A
timing device was used to control the length of display
tO
(p. 2). During the first study, subjects read words,
phrases, and sentences which v/ere displayed at increasing
speeds. Once a practice line was correctly read, the
exposure time v/as reduced. After 26 sessions, students in
the control group demonstrated greater improvement in
reading speed overall than students in the group using the
tachistotactometer. Fast readers in the experimental group
did demonstrate a greater reduction in reading time than
their counterparts in the control group (p. 4).
The second study conducted by Kederis and others
(1964) utilized an IBM Braille Reading Machine to control
the rate v/ith which braille characters v/ere displayed at
variables of 50 to 250 words per minute. Punched paper
tape v/as used to control the nature of the display. A
variable speed motor regulated the movement of the line of
braille. Subjects for this study included students in
grades five through eleven at the Kentucky School for the
Blind. After 20 half-hour sessions of paced reading
practice, no significant increase in speed occurred (p. 9).
The authors indicate that motivation did play a significant
role in reducing reading times in the experimental and
control groups. Reductions in time required to read
passages averaged 22 to 26 percent (p. 9).
Mechanical devices were also the subject of a study
conducted by Heber, Long, and Flanigan (1967). They
developed two devices designed to improve reading skills:
47
the Braille Tachistotact and the Moving Tape Braille
Reader. The Braille Tachistotact presents one character at
a time in the form of metal pins. The subject responds by
pressing six keys near the display. The Moving Tape
Braille Reader involves the movement of a tape containing
braille from right to left across a v/indov/ seven inches by
three-fourths of a inch. The subjects' fingers remain
stationary (p. 25). The tape is varied between 0 and 500
v/ords per minute. This study included adults and children
v/ho were exposed to three levels of training. First,
students were involved in tactual discrimination exercises
and braille character recognition. Second, subjects v/ere
trained with the Braille Tachistotact to increase accuracy
and speed of recognition. Third, subjects useci the tape
reader to read a story. The speed v/as either subject or
instructor controlled. Results indicate no significant
difference betvN/een the two groups; however, the experi
mental group experienced greater gains. The authors also
found significant reductions in vertical movements and
retracings.
Grunwald (1966) suggests that braille readers "per
ceive patterns in time rather than in space...he is
concerned with rhythm rather than geometry." Grunwald
refers to this as a dynamic process (p. l6). This conclu
sion resulted from a study in which a Braille Reading
Machine was developed. This machine incorporates movement
48
of sheets of braille over a platen, both continuously and
at timed intervals. Findings indicate that improvements in
reading speed occurred "when the sweep is taken over by our
test device" (p. 17). This study may have had implications
related to the current study in that lines of braille were
displayed at a controlled pace. Part of the process of
moving to the next line is taken over by the machine.
Foulke (1979) discusses various approaches to the
study of braille reading which involve the use of con
trolled display devices. Foulke (1979)' points out that
those devices v/hich do not permit lateral finger movement
fail to consider the importance of the movement and that
experiments utilizing the tachistotactometer may be
inappropriate due to the lack of similarity betv/een the
stimulation provided by the tachistotactometer and that
provided by regular braille reading (p. 303). These
findings suggest a need for differentiating between paper
braille reading skills and those required for machines.
Improvements gained as a result of using a particular
device may not generalize readily to paper braille. Devices
which allow movement of fingers may, however, come close to
simulating standard braille reading.
Several studies conducted by Nolan and Kederis (1969)
utilize a tachistotactometer to study the braille reading
process. Although these studies emphasize questions
concerning tactual perception, braille reading rate is also
49
considered. Nolan and Kederis (I969) conclude that the
braille character is the perceptual unit in braille reading
(p. 47). They also found that use of the tachistotac
tometer for training in character recognition resulted in
significant increases in oral reading rate and nonsignifi
cant increases in silent reading rate (p. 33). The
tachistotactometer used in this study incorporated a
36 character display of plasticized braille characters
(p. 58). The authors also suggest that "the speed with
which characters are recognized and words are recognized is
directly related to mental ability" (p. 48).
In another study involving the use of controlled
display devices, Kusajima (1974) utilized a rotating drum
to expose single characters at varying speeds to two
stationary fingers (p. 8). Several experiments were
conducted to gain information about the braille reading
process. Results indicate that as the drum was rotated
faster, legibility decreased (p. 10). Kusajima concluded
that among good braille readers letters are perceived as
words and sentences. For the poor reader, braille is
perceived a character at a time (p. 56). Kusajima suggests
that for good braille readers, sentences are "a time-
dependent Gestalt" (p. 56). One must question measurement
of reading skills with a device which does not allov for
finger movement. Although valuable data are gathered, the
50
simulation of the braille reading experience is lacking.
Braille involves movement of the hands and not movement of
the characters.
Computers and Braille Reading Speed
Although the use of computer technology in educational
programming for the visually handicapped is v/ell tiocumented
(Nicholos, 1970; Sokoloff, 1985; Glaser, 1979-1980;
Williams, 1985; Evans and Simpkins, 1972; Hallenbeck, 1973;
Kessler, 1984; Morrison and Lunney, 1984; Farrera and
Murray, 1984; Brunken, 1984; Sanford, 1984), little
evidence of its use in the improvement of braille reading
rate may be found. In a software review of The Audio
Tutorial Braille Game, developed by Pete Rossi, Davis
(1985) indicates that the focus is primarily on practice
with elements of braille such as short-form words and lower
whole-word signs. The author further states that needed
drill in the full spelling of contracted v/ords is provided
by this program.
Several studies designed to determine reading speeds
on the VersaBraille and similar devices have been conducted
(Bourgeois and Ashcroft, 1979; Moore, 1983; Doorlag and
Doorlag, 1983; VSE Corporation, I98I). However, research
related to improvement of reading rate on this device has
not been reported in the literature.
51
Exploration of the value of using a VersaBraille to
improve paper braille skills has also been neglected in the
literature. In an early evaluation of the Portable Braille
Recorder, Gore and Ashcroft (1978) forsee a future in which
increasing amounts of braille materials will be placed on
cassettes for distribution to individuals with devices
similar to the VersaBraille. Of interest is the suggestion
that development of self-instructional materials using the
audio and braille modes is possible (Gore and Ashcroft,
1978). Efforts are being made to increase the number of
textbooks prepared on the VersaBraille and to facilitate
dov/nloading of existing APH texts (Telesensory Systems,
1984). The possibility that greater quantities of text
books and general reading material may be readily available
for VersaBraille users suggests a need for upgrading of
braille skills on the VersaBraille.
In a demonstration project designed to instruct blind
secondary and college students in the use of the Versa
Braille, Moore (1985) attempted to gather a wide variety of
facts concerning VersaBraille use. She reported that the
subjects in this study made a wide variety of uses of the
VersaBraille and improved their study skills and academic
work. Examples of academic work included note taking,
class assignments, and communication with computers.
52
Single Subject and the Visually Handicapped
Lagrow and Prochnov>r-Lagrow (1983) report that studies
utilizing single subject designs are well suited for
research with visually handicapped populations. Kazdin
(1982, p. 4) states that single subject designs "are
important methodological tools that can be used to evaluate
a number of research questions with individuals or groups."
Kazdin (p. 14) further states that "investigation of groups
and conclusions about average patient performance may
distort the primary phenomenon of interest, viz., the
effects of treatments on individuals." Hersen and Barlow
(1983, p. 1) suggest that single case designs fill the gap
created by the lack of "an adequate methodology for
studying behavior change in individuals." They also
discuss several disadvantages for using group comparison
designs (p. 14). These disadvantages include the ethical
questions involving withholding of treatment, practical
problems such as the difficulty in finding large numbers of
homogeneous subjects, the tendency of averaging to obscure
individual outcomes, the generality of findings, and the
loss of information concerning the "clinical course of a
specific patient during treatment."
Single subject or single case designs have been
described by Kazdin (1982), Kazdin and Tuma (1982), Hersen
and Barlow (1983), and Tawney and Gast (1984). For the
53
purposes of this study, a multiple baseline design across
subjects was used. As noted by Gast, Skouge, and Tawney
(1984, p. 227), multiple baseline designs were introduced
by Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968). Hersen and Barlow (1983,
p. 225) suggest that the development of this particular
design was in response to the inappropriateness of reversal
and withdrawal designs in some settings.
Multiple baseline designs across subjects incorporate
a sequential application of treatment across three or more
subjects exhibiting the same target behavior (Gast,
Skouge and Tawney, 1984, p. 255). After baselines are
established for each subject, the treatment is introduced
sequentially to each subject. Once a predetermined
criterion is reached by the first subject, treatment is
then introduced to the second subject. This procedure
continues across all subjects (Van Hasselt and Hersen,
1981). Effects of the treatment are evaluated by a visual
inspection.
Multiple baseline designs have been noted as having
several advantages over other single case designs. Kazdin
(1982, p. 149) indicates that multiple baseline designs are
not dependent upon v/ithdrawal as a means of establishing a
relationship between treatment and target behavior. Gast,
Skouge, and Tawney (1984, p. 258) suggest that a multiple
baseline design across subjects:
targets a common skill across several learners; it staggers instruction to allow for rate differences; and it permits teachers to validate program effectiveness across several of their students, thereby enhancing the generality of the findings.
Kazdin (1984, p. l49) notes the practicality of the
"gradual application" of treatment across the different
baselines. Multiple baseline designs may also be more
appropriate than designs requiring a reversal to baseline
when "instructional or cognitive components" are involved
(Van Hasselt and Hersen, 1981).
Hypotheses
The issues related to the improvement of braille
reading skills, in particular braille reading speed, have
provided the incentive for developing a study to explore
methods v/hich might benefit braille readers. The following
hypotheses v/ere formulated to investigate questions raised
by this study (Baseline is condition A):
Hypothesis 1. A 25 percent increase in VersaBraille
reading speed v/ill occur following exposure to a computer
generated tachistoscopic-like program (Condition B).
Hypothesis 2. A reduction in the frequency of
regressions during testing will occur following initiation
of condition B.
Hypothesis 3. A reduction in the number of scrubbing
behaviors will occur following onset of treatment.
55
Hypothesis 4. Paper brail le reading speed will
increase by 25 percent follov/ing ini t ia t ion of condition
B.
Hypothesis 5. Reading comprehension will remain
constant v /ithin ten percentage points. A decrease of more
than ten percent is unacceptable. Increases of more than
ten percent v /ill be acceptable.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Evidence that braille reading speeds are far below
those for print reading suggests that continued efforts are
needed if improvements are to be made. This situation is
especially critical for blind university students v/ho are
faced v/ith lengthy reading assignments and limited time
frames. It is the purpose of this study to examine the
effect of an intervention technique on the braille reading
speed of blind university students. Additional concerns
include reading comprehension and behaviors related to
reading speed such as scrubbing and regressions.
Attempts to improve braille reading speed have
involved a variety of methods including the use of mechani
cal devices simulating tachistoscopic-like presentations.
Braille tachistoscopic devices have rarely been used in
programs designed to improve reading speed. These devices
have been used primarily to analyze the nature of braille
reading. Computer technology enables the researcher to
generate a tachistoscopic-like intervention program
utilizing microcomputers such as the Apple 11+ and cassette
braille devices such as the VersaBraille. Because of the
increased presence of microcomputers in many settings and
56
57
the versatility of cassette braille devices, an alternative
to specialized mechanical devices exists.
The purpose of this study v/as to examine the effec
tiveness of a computer generated tachistoscope-like program
on the braille reading speed of blind university students.
Factors such as comprehension, regressions, and scrubbing
behaviors were studied. Subjects were graduate and
undergraduate university students who are totally blind
(light perception or less) and braille readers. The
Association of Visually Handicapped students at a major
university in Texas was contacted for the purpose of
obtaining subjects for this study. Selection of subjects
was based upon evidence of the students' enrollment in the
university, verification of their visual handicap (light
perception or less), and ability to read and •v/rii:e Grade 2
braille. Those students not having experience on the
VersaBraille were given an orientation session to ensure
their ability to move forward and backv/ard through text as
needed. All subjects have limited access (only one is
available) to a VersaBraille located at the Center for the
Visually Handicapped in the main library. It should be
noted that proficiency in the use of the VersaBraille was
not a requirement for participation in this study. Subjects
were required only to be familiar with the braille keyboard
(similar to a Perkins Brailler), the advance bar, the
backup bar, and the page bar. Although the braille is
58
composed of plastic pins, dot configuration is the same as
that for paper braille. Each subject demonstrated his
ability to read braille prior to the beginning of the
study. A consent form was signed by the subjects (Appendix
A).
Subjects
Initially, four visually handicapped adults were
selected as subjects for this study. Due to conflicts with
work schedule, one subject was forced to withdraw from the
study. The remaining subjects were currently enrolled in a
major university in Texas. Demographic information /as
obtained via student interview. A functional vision
assessment was conducted to determine if any usable vision
was present. Subjects able to use print did not partici
pate in the study. Where necessary, subject permission v/as
obtained to gain access to student records.
The first subject, "\/," is a black male aged 22 years,
5 months. He is classified as a senior and is majoring in
secondary education (broadfield social studies). Loss of
vision is attributed to macular degeneration. An informal
functional vision assessment indicated that light percep
tion v/as present in each eye. The student v>ras unable to
track a light source and could not distinguish differences
in contrasting light. "W" stated that he was able to make
59
use of large print until age 14, at v rhich time he lost all
useful vision.
"W" attended a public school full time from grades one
through four, and half time from grades ten through twelve.
He was served by a full time teacher of the visually
handicapped during his public school experience. "W"
attended a residential school for the blind from grades
five through nine. During his secondary education, he was
not involved in extracurricular activities. He was
introduced to braille during the first grade, but did not
become a full time braille user until he was 14 years old.
"V/" prefers braille for pleasure and study; however, he
relies upon readers and recorded books due to the short
supply of braille materials. He estimates that approxi
mately 40 percent of all reading is braille.
"W" v>ras introduced to the VersaBraille in January of
1982. During his freshman year, he used the VersaBraille
to write papers. He does not have access to his own
VersaBraille. "W" favors increasing the amount of reading
material available on the VersaBraille.
The second subject, "J," is currently enrolled as a
special graduate student in special education. His present
goal is completion of requirements for a deficient vision
endorsement on his generic special education certification.
"J" is a white male aged 33 years, 5 months, v/ho has been
totally blind since birth. His blindness is a result of
60
retinal scarring. Results of the functional vision
assessment indicate light perception in each eye. No
useful vision is present.
The only experience with public school was in kinder
garten. "J" attended school at a residential school for
the blind from first through tv/elfth grades. He began
learning braille in the Tirst grade. Most (estimated
75 percent) of his pleasure reading is in braille. He
relies upon readers for all course related reading. "J"
prefers braille for all reading but must rely on other
media due to lack of availability. "J" estimates that
25 percent of all reading is in braille.
"J" was introduced to the VersaBraille prior to the
beginning of the study. He spent tv/o hours reading
passages and practicing the use of the advance bar, backup
bar, and page advance. His orientation was complete when
he v>/as able to read a passage v/ithout assistance.
"J" holds B.A. and M.S. degrees in education with an
emphasis in special education. He taught severely/
profoundly retarded students for six years. He was a Peace
Corps volunteer in Ecuador for two years. During tnis
experience he taught braille.
The third subject, "S," is a Music Education major.
His current goals include pursuing a graduate degree. "S"
is a 22 year old black male viho has been blind since birth.
61
Cause of blindness was unclear. A functional vision
assessment revealed no useful vision.
"S" attended public school and a residential school
for the blind. In high school, "S" was involved in choir,
band, journalism, student government, and athletics. "S"
had no prior experience with the VersaBraille. A two hour
practice session was conducted to familiarize him with the
VersaBraille. Following this training session, "S" was
able to operate the VersaBraille adequately. It should be
noted that "S" prefers braille for recreational reading,
but relies on reader services for most of the reading
required in his courses. He stated that braille consti
tutes approximately 25 percent of his total reading.
Environment
This study was carried out in a room located in the
Education Building of the university. The room measures
8 feet by 15 feet and is used as a preview room for
audiovisual materials. It was completely free of dis
turbances or outside interference. Equipment in the room
included a chair and a desk measuring 2-1/2 feet by 5 feet.
Additional equipment, not part of the room, included an
Apple 11+ personal computer, a VersaBraille/Apple null
modem cable from Raised Dot Computing (408 South Baldwin
Street, Madison, WI 55703), and an Apple Super Serial Card.
62
A Realistic Beta Video Cassette Recorder Model 20, video-
camera, and tripod were used to videotape eacii session of
the baseline condition and the test portion of each session
of the treatment condition. A Timex Sportswatch stopwatch
was used to time subjects during baseline and treatment
conditions. A list of equipment is provided in the
training protocol (Appendix C).
Materials
Materials used during baseline and treatment condi
tions include brailled selections from The Origins of
Totalitarianism (Arendt, 1973). These selections were
presented via VersaBraille display and 11-1/2 inch by
11 inch braille paper. The rationale for selecting the
reading material to be used in this study v/as based on its
rather high readability level and the fact that it has been
used as an outside reading by some professors in the past.
The reading level of the text was determined to be grade
level 14 by using the Fry Readability Formula (Fry, 1968).
Fry states that his formula is fast, simple, and correlates
well with other v/ell knov/n readability formulas. To aid in
determining readability, a computer program. School
Utilities Volume 2 Readability (MECC, 1984), was used. It
should be noted that the decision to use an expository text
for reading material was based on the recognition that much
63
of v/hat one encounters at the university level is exposi
tory reading. The use of such material thus precludes
making assumptions concerning narrative text. The book is
not currently being used in any of the political science
courses and has not been read by any of the subjects. All
materials used in the study are described in the equipment
and materials list (Appendix C).
Two computer programs were used in this study. The
first, Braille-Edit, was developed by David Holladay and
may be purchased from Raised Dot Computing in Madison,
\/isconsin. Use of tiiis program in the study v/as part
of a broader range of activities within the Teacher
Preparation/Visually Ii.ipaired program at Texas Tech
University. Initial conceptualization of the project was
the responsibility of the author. Suggestions were given
to Rick Houston, the author and principal programmer of
BTACH. Collaborating with Mr. Houston v/as Jim Gatteys, a
graduate student in the teacher education program. After
many months of development, a workable version of BTACH
emerged. The author and Mr. Houston proceeded to test the
program to eliminate any problems. Despite the collabora
tive effort on the part of the author, Mr. Houston and
Mr. Gatteys, ownership of BTACH belongs to Mr. Houston.
All inquiries concerning the purchase and/or use of BTACH
should be addressed to Rick Houston at Texas Tech Uni
versity. BTACH is a program designed to generate a
64
tachistoscopic-like presentation of braille phrases on
a VersaBraille display. Text files created via the
Braille-Edit program are stored on a diskette labeled BTACH
Data and are sent to the VersaBraille ./hen called for by
the subject.
Variables
The purpose of this st'idy \/as to examine the effect
of the independent variable, use of a computerized
tachistoscopic-like training program, on the dependent
variables of VersaBraille and paper braille reading speed.
Additional dependent variables v/ere regressions and
scrubbing behaviors. Although improvement of comprehension
v/as not a goal of the treatment program, comprehension v/as
monitored to ensure maintenance of pre-treatment levels.
Because of the critical role of comprehension in reading,
any increase in reading speed at the expense of comprehen
sion was considered cause for concern (Miller, 1973,
p. 221; Yarington, 1978, p. 125).
Experimental Design
This study used a multiple baseline design across
subjects (see Figure 1). This form of single subject
design is noted by Hersen and Barlow (1984, p. 209) as
being more appropriate in some settings than reversal or
withdrawal techniques.
o u u o
c o
SI
82
S3
50-f 40-30-ZOIC" 0
50-| 40-30-20-10-0-.
50-1 40-30-20-10-oL
65
B
•—t—•—•—•-
-•—•—•—•
^
T—r 5
T — r T — I — I — r
10 I ( I / ; I
15
Days
Figure 1. Example of multiple baseline design across subjects.
66
Selection of a multiple baseline design across
subjects for this study v/as based primarily on the assump
tion that once a skill (braille reading speed) has been
improved, it is unlikely that it will disappear upon
removal of the treatment. This issue has been addressed by
Van Hasselt and Hersen (I98I) who suggest that reversal
designs may not be appropriate "v/hen treatments consist of
irreversible instructional or cogitive components."
Experimental control in multiple baseline designs is
based upon tv/o assumptions made before the initiation of
research. The first assumption is that subjects will be
functionally independent. This is to ensure the stability
of the dependent variable until the treatment is introduced
(Gast, Skouge and Tawney, 1984, p. 227). The second
assumption is that each subject will be functionally
similar and therefore respond to the same treatment
(p. 228).
The possibility that baselines may be interdependent
was addressed by asking each subject to refrain from
discussing aspects of the study with anyone until the
completion of data collection. In addition to this
measure, each subject was scheduled for a different time
(Gast, Skouge and Tawney, 1984, p. 258). Kazdin (1982,
p. 142) states that interdependence of baselines has not
been a widespread problem. Kazdin further suggests that
doubts concerning interdependence of baselines may be
67
erased by the fact that the intervention produces dramatic
changes for some of the baselines.
Treatment
The treatment condition included daily presentation of
braille phrases at rates of speed controlled by the success
with which the subjects were able to recognize the dis
played material. One treatment condition was introduced
during this study. The number of sessions required
depended upon the speed with which predetermined criterion
levels were reached. Treatment was introduced sequentially
across subjects (see Figure 1) with the introduction of
treatment to subject two occurring when subject one had
reached criterion. This procedure was atilized with the
other subjects as v/ell. Because the treatment was based
upon the concept of drill and practice, changes v/ere
expected to occur at a more gradual pace than that v/hich
might result from learning a nev/ skill or gaining sudden
insight into the solution of a problem.
Treatment consisted of 30 minute sessions presented on
a daily basis. Each session consisted of two 15 minute
segments. During the first segment, phrases of no more
than 40 braille characters in length were displayed. The
second segment consisted of practice with phrases of 41 to
60 braille characters. Subjects responded to each display
by using the VersaBraille to transcribe v hat was read. If
68
80 percent or more of the response corresponded to the
stimulus, the word "correct" appeared. The speed of the
next display v/as also indicated. If the response was less
than 80 percent correct, the word "incorrect" was dis
played. A correct response decreased tlie length of the
next display by one-tenth of a second. An incorrect
response increased the length of the display by one-tenth
of a second.
A graduate student in the Teacher Preparation/Visually
Handicapped Program of the university served as researcher
for this study. The student has advanced academic training
beyond a Master's degree and has five years' experience as
a speech therapist in the public schools. The researcher
was provided a training protocol, which includes training
in the use of the Apple 11+ personal computer and Versa
Braille, procedures for completion of the treatment phase,
and measurement procedures for baseline and treatment
phases (see Appendix D).
Once daily orientation to the equipment was completed,
the computer essentially assumed the role of trainer. The
researcher used a data collection form (see Appendix E) to
record the speed v>/ith which selections were read during the
testing segments. A stopv atch was used to measure the time
needed to read the passage. The number of words in the
passage and the time required to read it were recorded on
the observation form. Reading speed was then determined by
69
dividing the number of words by the number of minutes. Two
measures of reading comprehension were taken. Subjects
were first asked to indicate the percentage of the selec
tion they think they recalled. Second, subjects indicated,
by writing yes or no, which of ten sentence halves came
from the selection. Both of these techniques have been
used in studies of rauding conducted by Carver (1982, 1984,
1985).
During each segment of treatment, the computer
provided a stimulus after which it waited for a brailled
response from the subject. During both 15 minute segments,
the researcher v/as to provide assistance only in the event
of a problem with the equipment.
Maintenance
To determine if the treatment had a lasting effect, a
maintenance phase was incorporated into this study.
Maintenance consisted of withdrawal of the treatment and
return to the baseline condition. Subjects were tested
every day during the first five meeting days following the
treatment phase. Data collection was then reduced to twice
weekly. The primary purpose of this phase was to determine
if any positive change in reading behavior was a result of
practice.
70
Procedures
During the baseline condition, no treatment was
administered. Subjects were asked to read two brailled
passages presented in different formats. The first format
involved the use of a VersaBraille Model P2C. The second
format involved the use of braille paper. A subject
activated stopwatch mounted betv /een two pieces of wood was
used to record the time required to read the passages.
Following each passage, subjects were asked to read ten
sentence halves. After each sentence half, subjects
indicated if it could be found in the passage by verbally
responding yes or no. Prior to reading the sentence
halves, subjects were asked to indicate the percentage of
the selection they thought they were able to recall. This
procedure continued until baseline conditions were estab
lished across all subjects. Treatment v/as then introduced
to the first subject v/hile the baseline phase v/as continued
v/ith the other subjects.
Treatment consisted of daily 30 minute sessions
divided into tv\/o 15 minute segments involving the use of
tachistoscopically presented phrases selected from The
Origins of Totalitarianism (Arendt, 1973). Each subject
was given the opportunity to reproduce each phrase by
brailling it on the VersaBraille. After brailling each
phrase, subjects were informed whether a response was
correct or incorrect followed by the speed v/ith which the
71
next phrase was to be displayed. This information was
provided in the form of a computer generated message
displayed on the VersaBraille. No additional statements
were provided.
A researcher was present to introduce the subjects to
the equipment and provide assistance in the event of any
problems with the operation of the computer program. The
researcher also operated videotape equipment during the
testing phase of treatment and during baseline. The
videocamera was focused on the braille reading surface and
the subject's hands. It should be noted that, due to the
lack of contrast on the paper braille page, black lines
v/ere drav/n between each line of braille to assist the
observers in recognizing the difference betv/een regressions
and return sv eeps to the next line of braille. Also, the
recording volume v/as set loud enough to pick up the sound
of the advance bar on the VersaBraille being pressed. This
was critical in order to distinguish betv>/een a regression
and return sv/eep on the VersaBraille. Two observers viev/ed
videotapes of baseline and test phases at another time. A
stopwatch was used to determine the speed with which each
test selection was read. Each subject was to press a
button to start the timer when they began reading and to
stop it when finished. The researcher was required to code
reading speeds on the data collection instrument. The data
collection instrument (Appendix E) was provided to enable
72
the researcher to record speed and responses to the
comprehension questions and for the observers to record the
number of regressions and number of scrubbing motions.
Instrumentation and Data Collection
During baseline condition and assessment segments of
the treatment condition, an interval recording procedure
v/as used for observations of regressions and scrubbing
behaviors. The observation instrument (Appendix E) is an
adaptation of a scale developed and field tested by Jones
and Hales (1984) in an unpublished study. It is designed
to indicate reading speed, comprehension, and intervals
during v/hich scrubbing and regression behaviors occurred.
Space is also provided for pertinent comments.
Observations v/ere conducted on a daily basis during
baseline and treatment conditions. Each subject was
observed for ten second intervals. Intervals consisted of
five seconds of observation and five seconds to record
observations. Taped prompts were used to aid observers in
recording data. Each observer recorded observations
independently. Observers participated in practice sessions
to ensure that they recognized the target behaviors and
were comfortable with the procedures. A videotape showing
the target behaviors was used for training the observers.
Narration was provided on the videotape. Practice sessions
continued until an interobserver agreement ratio of 0.80
73
was achieved. Observers were also provided v/ith descrip
tions of behaviors to be observed and instructions for
completing the observation instrument (Appendix F).
The importance of interobserver agreement in single
case designs has been demonstrated by Lagrov/ and Prochnov-/-
Lagrow (1983). A point-by-point agreement ratio method
follov/ed by an occurrence or nonoccurrence agreement method
was used to determine interobserver agreement (Gast and
Tawney, 1984, p. I4l). For occurrences of scrubbings and
regressions, agreement v/as represented by those intervals
during v/hich regressions and scrubbings are recorded by
each observer. Using the point-by-point method, agreement
was calculated by dividing the number of occurrence
agreements plus nonoccurrence agreements by the total
number of intervals and multiplying by 100. This procedure
may be represented by the following formula: (0+N)/TX100 =
Percentage (Gast and Tawney, 1984, p. I4l).
The decision to use an occurrence or nonoccurrence
method depends upon the number of intervals in which a
behavior is observed. If the target behavior occurs in
less than 75 percent of the intervals, an occurrence
reliability coefficient is calculated. The formula for
this procedure is: Agreements (occurrence)/Agreements +
Disagreements x 100 = Percentage (Gast and Tawney, 1984,
p. 141). If the target behavior occurs in more than 75
74
percent of the intervals, a nonoccurrence coefficient
should be calculated. The formula for this procedure is:
Agreements (nonoccurrence)/Agreements + Disagreements x
100 = Percentage (Gast and Tawney, 1984, p. I4l). Relia
bility checks were conducted randomly twice a v/eek.
Recording of data consisted of the following pro
cedures :
1. Each observer was instructed to place a slash
tlirough the "r" during each interval that a regression
occurred and through the "s" when a scrubbing behavior
occurred.
2. Observers v/ere prompted to observe and record by
means of tape recorded cues.
3. Observers recorded data follov/ing the pressing of
a button by tlie student to start a timer and stopped
recording data upon hearing the v/ord "stop" on the tape.
Baseline and the assessment portion of treatment
consisted of two segments: a VersaBraille segment and a
segment utilizing paper braille. The amount of time
required for each segment depended upon the speed v/ith
which each subject completed the passages. Passages were
approximately 500 v>/ords in length. A period of thirty
minutes was allocated for each baseline and assessment
condition.
