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TheEconomicsofInnovation:MountaineeringandtheAmerican

SpaceProgram

HowardE.McCurdy

May,2013

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“TheEconomicsofInnovation:MountaineeringandtheAmericanSpaceProgram,”aresearchreportsubmittedbyHowardE.McCurdy,Ph.D.,SchoolofPublicAffairs,AmericanUniversity,4400MassachusettsAve.N.W.,Washington,D.C.,20016,infulfillmentofNASAcontractNNX12AQ63G,11March2013;revisedandresubmitted,18May2013.Followingpage:Anexpedition8crewmemberontheInternationalSpaceStationtookthisphotographofMt.Everestin2004.Mt.Everestis29,035feethigh.PassengersinacommercialjetlinerflyingoverEverestatanaltitudeof35,000feetwouldbetooclosetothemountaintoexperiencethisview.Thephotographistakenfromthenorth.IntheforegroundappearstheTibetanplateau.Tothesouth,cloudscovermuchofNepal.Everestisthedarkermountainpeaktocenterrightwiththeperennialcloudplume.ThefirstexpeditionsattemptingtoclimbthemountainapproachedfromTibet,travelinguptheRongbukglacier,turningeast,thenmovingbacktowardtheV­shapedspotbelowandtotheleftofthesummit.ThatistheNorthCol,alowpointbetweenEverestandChangtse.FromtheNorthCol,climbersproceedupthenorthridgetoitsjunctionwiththewind­sweptnortheastridgeandfromtheretowardthesummit.MostcommercialoutfittersapproachtheEverestfromNepalonthemountain’ssouthernside.ThisroutefollowstheWesternCwm,visibleasthedeepcutstretchingouttotherightofthemountain.UponreachingtheSouthCol(behindEverestinthisphotograph),climbersturnnorthandheaddirectlytowardthespacestation.TheauthorwishestoexpresshisappreciationtoMatthewVanderschuere,adoctoralstudentatAmericanUniversity,forhisassistanceincollectinginformationontheclimbs,andMoniqueLaney,aprofessoriallectureratAmericanUniversity,fortranslationservices.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Mt.EverestasSeenFromtheInternationalSpaceStation 3ExecutiveSummaryandFindings 5TheEconomicsofInnovation:Introduction 6FallingCost 9OrganizinganExpedition 11FinancingtheExpeditions 17Transition 22Innovation 25Summary 36Tables:

AmericanExpeditiontoMt.Everest:1963(ActualCosts)SummaryofExpeditionsExaminedasaBasisforthisStudyCostofExpeditionsandPrimeSourcesofFundingApproximateCostofExpeditionsin2012U.S.DollarsCommercialTripstoMt.Everest:PriceperClimberAmericanExpeditiontoMt.Everest:1963(SourcesofFunding)

References 51Notes 53

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ExecutiveSummaryandFindings

MountainclimbingintheHimalayasisariskyandexpensiveactivity.Likespaceexploration,itbeganwithlargeexpeditionsinwhichclimbersassembledpyramidsofpeopleandmaterialthatallowedafewskilledindividualstoreachthetopoftheworld. Inroughlyseventy‐fiveyears,mountainclimbingintheHimalayasmovedfromaphasecharacterizedbylargeexpeditionstoacommercialenterprisewhereinwell‐preparedpeoplepaidtogo.Anactivityoncethoughtavailableonlytoselectpartiesabletoraisevastsumsofmoneybecameacommercialendeavor. ThisreportexaminesthehistoryofmountainclimbingonMt.Everestinsearchoflessonstheactivitymightcontainfortheprocessofspaceexploration.Thestudyisbasedonreportsfromtwenty‐fiveexpeditionsorganizedbytwelvedifferentnations.ItidentifiestheforcesofinnovationthatallowedEverestclimbstomovefromcostlyexpeditionsthroughatransitionalstagetothelessexpensivecommercialera.Thereportfocusesonthemeansbywhicheachsetoftripswerefinancedandorganized. Advancesintransportation,climbingtechnology,equipment,communication,knowledgeoftheterrain,andweatherforecastingencouragedthetransitionfrombigexpeditionstoself‐financedcommercialclimbs.Sodidtheemergenceofalightweight“alpineapproach”tomountainclimbingandchangesinthemannerbywhichlocalgovernmentsregulatedtheactivity. Asinnovationoccurred,thecostofconductinganexpeditionfell.Whilecostfellsubstantially,thepriceorchargetoindividualcustomersfellmodestly.Thegapbetweensubstantialcostreductionandmodestpricereductionhelpedtocreateacommercialmarketfortheactivity.Thepresenceofamarketencouragedcompetitionwhichledtofurtherreductionsincost,price,andrisk. Asinspaceexploration,earlyadvocatesofclimbingorganizedthemselvesintoclubs.Spaceadvocatesformedrocketsocieties,mountaineersformedclimbingclubs.Bothgroupstriedtoraisemoneyfromavarietyofsources.Mountaineersweresuccessful;therocketclubslessso.Governmentagenciescametodominatetheprovisionofspacepolicy;mountainclimbersmaintainedamixedfundingstrategy.Asaresult,climbingadvocateswereabletomaintainmoredirectcontrolovertheactivitytowhichtheyweresostronglycommittedandmakethetransitiontocommercializationmoreeasilythanadvocatesofspaceflight.

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TheEconomicsofInnovation:MountaineeringandtheAmericanSpaceProgram

HowardE.McCurdy

Manyofthepeoplewhoenvisionedtheunfoldingofspaceexploration

anticipatedthatitwouldevolveinamannerakintosimilarterrestrialactivities.Visionariesoftenrecalledthehistoryofaviationwhenseekinganalogiestoexplainspaceexploration.Justasadvancesinaeronauticsmadeatmosphericflightcheaper,safer,andmoreaccessibletoordinarypeople,sowouldadvancesinastronautics.CommentingonthefutureoftheNASAspaceshuttle,oneNASAplannerannouncedthat“by1990peoplewillbegoingontheshuttleroutinely—asonanairplane.”1

Advocatesofferedthehistoryofothertransportationtechnologiesasjustificationforinvestmentsinspace.AfterwelcomingthecrewofthespaceshuttleColumbiabacktoEarth,PresidentRonaldReaganlikenedthecompletionofthespaceshuttletestprogramtothedrivingofthegoldenspikethatmarkedthecompletionofthetranscontinentalrailroad.Railroadsopenednewterritoriestohumansettlementandincreasednationalwealth.Sowouldspacetravel.DuringtheApolloera,NASAofficialsencouragedhistorianstostudythetranscontinentalrailroadasananalogtospaceexploration.2

Advocatesofspaceexplorationpresentedthehistoryofterrestrialexplorationasjustificationformissionsbeyond.Terrestrialexplorationhadfueledhumancreativityandenlargednationalpower.Inasimilarway,advocatesinsisted,spaceexplorationwoulddothesame.AnnouncinghissupportfortheconstructionofalargeEarth‐orbitingspacestation,NASAAdministratorJamesBeggsrecalledthevoyagesofMeriwetherLewis,WilliamClark,RobertPeary,RichardByrd,andCharlesLindbergh.TheachievementsofChristopherColumbusfigureprominentlyinspacerhetoric.WhenPresidentRonaldReagan’sbudgetdirectorobjectedtothecostoftheproposedspacestation,AttorneyGeneralWilliamFrenchSmithremarkedthatQueenIsabellamusthaveheardthesameargumentfromheradvisors.3 Basedontheconceptscontainedintheseanalogies,thepeoplepromotingspaceexplorationsuggestedthatitwouldoccurinphases.Intheearliestphase,achievementswouldrequirevastassembliesofpeopleandmaterial.Tobuildthefirstlargespacestation,tovisittheMoon,tosendthefirsthumanstoMars—theseactivitieswouldrequirehumanstomarshalresourcesonaheroicscale.Theexpendituresrequiredwouldfarexceedthecapacityoftheindividualsinvolved.Thousandsofpeoplewouldworksothat

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afewexplorerscouldreachtheirdestinations.Theresultingenterpriseswouldresemblevastpyramidsofmoney,people,andmaterialandbewagedinthestyleofmilitarycampaigns. Inthesecondphase,technologyandknowledgewouldimprove.Advanceswouldoccurinareassuchastransport,personalequipment,communication,meteorologicalforecasting,biomedicalknowledge,andunderstandingoftheterrain.Mostimportant,costswouldbegintofall.Advancingtechnologyandeconomiesofscalewouldallowpeopletodomorewithless,therebypermittingmorefrequentvisitationandalargerhumanpresenceindistantplaces. Inthethirdphase,costandtechnologywouldimprovetothepointwhereordinarypeoplecouldparticipate.Thiswasthemessagecontainedinthehistoryofaviation,anticipatedandrealizedforatmosphericflightandthereafterpromisedforspace.Thepromiseappearsinawidenumberofsources,fromofficialgovernmentdocumentstothespacecolonizationmovementandmorerecentlytheefforttocommercializespace.4

Togaininsightintotheprocessbywhichsuchinnovativetransitionsoccur,thisreportexaminestheevolutionofaterrestrialactivitythoughttocontainanalogiestospaceexploration.Theactivityinthiscaseismountainclimbing—andmorespecificallytheeffortstoascendthehighestpointonthesurfaceoftheEarth,Mt.Everest.Thereportinvestigateswhetherwecanlearnsomethingaboutspaceexplorationandtheeconomicsofinnovationfromthehistoryofmountaineering–whetheritscostanddifficultydidindeedfallandifsowhatlessonsthathistorymightcontainforspacetravel. TheperiodscharacterizingclimbingonEverestareanalogoustotheonesanticipatedforspaceexploration.ThefirstexpeditionstoMt.Everestrequiredsubstantialpyramidsofpeopleandmaterial.Thecostwashigh.Theexpeditionaryperiodbeganin1921asadvocatesoftheventureorganizedlarge,military‐stylecampaignsofconquest.Afterahalfcentury,theexpeditionarymodelfellintodisfavorandatransitionalperiodbegan.Inthetransitionalphase,technologiesimproved.Costsfell.Newmethodsappeared.Ascostsanddifficultyfell,entrepreneursappeared.Inthethirdstage,theactivitybecamecommercial.Ordinarypeople(inexcellentphysicalcondition)paidcommercialoutfitterstoleadthemtothetopofMt.Everest.By1995,thecommercialerawasinfullbloom.5

In1953,twopeoplereachedthesummit—partoftheonlyexpeditionallowedonthemountainthatyear.In2011,fivehundredandthirty‐sevenclimbersstoodontop,afewofthemmorethanonce.6

Thisreportisbasedonaninvestigationoftwenty‐fiveexpeditionstoMt.Everestundertakenbetween1921and2013forwhichthebestfinancialandorganizationalinformationisavailable.Alistoftheclimbsappearsintable2.Theexpeditionsrepresentacrosssectionofclimbsundertakenby

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twelvedifferentnations.MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthechallengeofEverestfromatechnical,rock‐and‐icepointofview.Thisreportfocusesonfinanceandtheprocessofinnovation. Thereportreliesuponprimarysources—books,articles,andexpeditionsummariesthatpresentinformationontheorganizationandfinancingofeachtrip.Climbersthemselvesorsupportstaffwrotethesematerials. Thefindingsofthisstudyareasfollows.ThecostofclimbingMt.Everestfelldramaticallyduringtheninetyyearperiodfromthefirstexpeditionstothemodernera.Thecostfellbythemuch‐toutedobjectiveforspace—afactoroften.Costreductionoccurredbecauseofchangesinclimbing‐relatedtechnologiesandknowledgeoftheterrain.Ofequalsignificance,reductionsoccurredbecauseofalterationsinapproach,changesingovernmentpolicy,andthepossibilityofcommercialization. Whilethecostofconductinganexpeditionfelldramatically,thepricefellmodestly.Thisisanunexpectedfinding.Pricereferstotheabilityorwillingnessofclimberstopay.Theper‐membershareofexpeditionaryexpensesexceededthepersonalresourcesavailabletoearlyclimbers.Mostcouldnotaffordtogo.Themostdevotedadvocatesofmountainclimbingarenotpoor,butneitheraretheyonthewholeawealthylot.Theyoftenengageincareersthatpromisetimetoclimbratherthangreatwealth.Lackingextensivepersonalresources,earlyclimberssoughtoutsidefundingfortheirmostambitioustrips.Theysoughtitfromanypersonororganizationthatwouldprovideit:philanthropists,geographicsocieties,scientificfoundations,governmentagencies,industrialists,mediaoutlets,andsmall‐cashdonors.Unlikespaceexploration,whereadvocatesofextraterrestrialadventurescametorelyupongovernmenthelp,nosinglesourceoffundingdominatedthehighaltitudemountaineeringfrontier.Conditionsattachedbyoutsidesourcesasarequirementoftheirparticipationfrequentlycausedtheoverallexpenseofexpeditionstorise.ThecostofclimbingMt.Everestincreasedastheexpeditionaryperiodmatured,especiallyasdifferentcountriescompetedtoplacetheirclimbersonthemountaintop. Afterahalf‐centuryofclimbing,theattractionoftheBigExpeditionwaned.Fund‐raisingbecameharder.Innovatorsexperimentedwithalternativeclimbingapproachesandafewexpeditionleaderscuttheircostsbelowthoseoftheearliestexpeditions.Asthepriceofclimbingfell,atransitionalperiodbegan.Thepriceofclimbingdidnotneedtofallbymuchtoattractasteadyclientelewillingtopay.Itfellbylessthanafactoroftwo.Thegapbetweenrapidlyfallingcostandmodestlyfallingpricecreatedtheprospectofhealthyprofits.Thatattractednewsuppliers,whichencouragedcompetition,whichinturncausedpricestofallfurther.Thetransitional

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periodgavewaytoaneraofcommercialization.Seventy‐fiveyearsafterthefirstattemptstoscaleEverest,thecommercialperiodwasfullyunderway.

Throughallofthis,themostdevotedadvocatesofmountainclimbingprospered.Intheexpeditionaryera,outsidegroupscontributedfunds.Inthecommercialera,clientspaidthestrongestclimberstoguidetheway.Themostskilledclimbersdidnotneedtopaymuchfortheirownclimbingatanytime.Inthebeginningtheyfoundsponsors,latertheyfoundcustomers.Theinnovationsthatmadethispossible,moreover,improvedaccessandreducedcost.Intheend,farmorepeoplefoundthemeanstoclimbMt.Everestandthatcreatedasteadymarketfortheactivity.FallingCost In1963anexpeditionfromtheUnitedStatessoughttoplacethefirstAmericansonthesummitofMt.Everest.ThiswastheeighteenthofficialexpeditiontothemountainsincethefirstBritishreconnaissanceeffortin1921,notcountingfourclandestineattemptstosneakin.Tenyearsearlier,aBritish‐ledteamhadplacedSirEdmundHillaryandTenzingNorgayonthesummit.

TheAmericanteamkeptdetailedrecordsoftheirexpenses,anobligationimposedbythefundingbodies.CharlesB.Huestis,partofthesupportstafffortheexpedition,summarizedtheresults.Accordingtohisrecords,theexpeditionrecordedtotalcostsof$405,263throughtheendofNovember,1963.Thatwouldamounttoslightlymorethan$3millionin2012dollars.7 Thebudgetsupportedanexpeditionteamoftwentyclimbers,plusSherpapeopleaddedtotheteaminNepal.On1May,1963,AmericanJamesW.WhittakerandSherpaNawamgGombureachedthesummit.WhitakerbecamethefirstAmericantostandonthetopoftheworld.BeforetheendofMay,AmericansBarryBishop,LutherJerstad,ThomasHornbein,andWilliamUnsoeldfollowed.Fortheequivalentof$3million,fivemembersofaclimbingteamoftwentyindividualsplusoneSherpareachedthesummitofMt.Everest.

Theexpeditionwasnotwithoutperil.Ontheirreturnfromthesummit,thelatterfourclimbersenduredanovernight,open‐airbivouacabove28,000feetwithouttentsorsleepingbags.Darknessfellbeforetheycouldreturntothesafetyoftheirhighaltitudecampat27,450feet.Mt.Everestismorethan29,000feethigh—themostaccuratesurveyplacesit29,035feetabovesealevel.Allfourclimberssurviveddespitetheirovernightexposure.Onememberofthetwenty‐personteam,JohnBreitenbach,wasnotsofortunate.HediedwhenasectionoftheKhumbuicefield“aboutthesizeoftworailroadcars”collapsedonaportionoftheclimbingpartyduringtheearlystagesoftheclimb.8

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Nearlyfiftyyearslater,in2012,DanielMazurledaclimbingteamoffourteenclientsandfourclimbingSherpastoMt.Everest,approachingthemountainfromtheTibetanplateauonthenorthside.Thiswasacommercialoperation.Fourmembersoftheclimbingteampaidfortheopportunitytoattemptthesummit.Threesucceeded,includinga68‐yearoldAustralian,JaniceSmith.Shebecameoneoftheoldestindividualstoaccomplishwhathadseemednearlyinsurmountableahalf‐centuryearlier.ThefourclimbingSherpasreachedthesummitwiththethreemountaineers.Mazurdirectedtheclimbfromacampjustbelowthesummit.

Intheaggregate,the2012teampaidroughly$165,000toMazur’scommercialfirm.Mazurconductedtheclimbforafractionoftheinflation‐adjustedcostofthe1963expedition.In2012U.S.dollars,the1963expeditioncostabout$3million.CountingbothclientsandSherpas,MazurplacedsevenmembersofhispartyonthetopofMt.Everest.Usingthesamecountingmethod,the1963Americanexpeditionplacedsix.

Earlyexpeditionscostagreatdealofmoney.Onerecordmayhavebeensetbya1970Japaneseexpedition,whichexhausted¥100milliontoplacethreemembersofitspartyandoneSherpaonthesummit.TheCanadianexpeditionof1982spent$3millionintheirowncurrencytosummittwoclimbersandfourSherpas.(SeeTable4)Thosesumsarestatedincurrentyearvalue,notadjustedforinflation. MazurdirectstheU.S.armofacommercialfor‐profitorganizationcalledSummitClimbandSummitTrek.TheorganizationoperatesfromBristol,England,andWashingtonState.Itisoneofthemostsuccessfulandcost‐effectiveclimbingoperationsinthecommercialfield.ItoffersexpeditionstopayingcustomerswishingtoclimbmountainsinNepal,Tibet,China,Africa,andSouthAmericanandengageinback‐countrytreks.Mt.Everestistheoperation’spinnacleclimb.Itspriceforanorthsideclimbis$27,450.Themostexpensivecommercialclimbingorganizationscharge$65,000.(SeeTable5) Asthecostofconductingclimbsfell,sodidtherisk.Everestisadangerous,evendeadlymountain.TheBritishreconnaissanceeffortof1922lostsevenSherpasinanavalancheneartheNorthCol.The1924BritishexpeditionlostGeorgeMallory,AndrewIrvine,andtwomembersofitssupportstaff.SevenSherpasandoneclimberdiedduringasaresultofthetwoJapaneseexpeditionsonthemountainin1970.Riskinmountainclimbingiscommonlymeasuredintheproportionofpeoplewhodieonclimbsrelativetothenumberofindividualswhoreachthesummit.Inspiteofsomeparticularlydeadlyyears,theriskhassteadilydeclined. Duringtheexpeditionaryperiod(1922–1969),eightparticipantsdiedforeverytenpersonswhoreachedthesummit.Theproportionfelltohalfthatlevelduringtheearlytransitionalphase(1970–1979):roughlyfour

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deathsforeverytensummits.Itfellagainduringthelatertransitionalphase(1980–1995):onefatalityforeveryeightsummits.Bythecommercialera(1996–2010),itwasdowntooneforthirty‐three.Viewedanotherway,thechancesofanaverageclimberdyingoncethatpersontravelsaboveanEverestbasecampisabout1percent.Thatstatisticincorporatesallclimbers:prepared,unprepared,guided,andindependent.9 Whentheyoccur,fatalitiesoncommercialclimbsreceiveagreatdealofpublicity.ThelossoftwotripleadersandthreeclientsduringtheSpring,1996,climbingseasonpromptednumerousbooks,films,articles,anddocumentaries,includingJonKrakauer’sclassicIntoThinAir.Statisticallyspeaking,however,aclientclimbingwithabigcommercialoutfitterisprettysafe.MostofthemodernEverestclimberswhodiedosowhileonnon‐conventionalroutesorindependentclimbs.Oftheninety‐fiveindividualswhodiedonEverestfrom1966through2012,onlysevenwereclientsbeingguidedbylargecommercialoutfitters. Concurrently,thetimerequiredtoclimbEveresthasdeclined.Earlyexpeditionsspentmorethanthreemonthsapproachingandclimbingthemountain.Commercialoperatorstypicallytakeabitmorethantwo.Thedifferencearisesfromimprovementsintransportationthatsignificantlyreducethetimenecessarytoreachbasecamp.

Commercialoperatorsandmodernclimbersmadesimultaneousimprovementsincost,riskandtime.Theydidnotneedtotraderiskforcostorcostfortime.Thisiscontrarytoexpectationsinspaceexploration,whereastronauticengineerswithgovernmentfundingcommonlyinsistthatcost,performance,andschedulerequiretrades.Commercialoperatorsformountainclimbs,likemanyotherbusinessmanagers,donotembracethatexpectation.OrganizinganExpedition

Inthebeginning,effortstoclimbMt.Everestresembledmilitary‐styleexpeditionsofconquest.Expeditionleaderssentoutreconnaissanceteamstosurveythechallenge.Keymembersoftheteamassembledsufficientsuppliestosupportaforceinthefieldforthedurationofthecampaign.Gatherthesuppliesatabaseofoperations.Sendanexpeditionaryforceintohostileterritory.Establishamilitary‐likelogisticschain.Createanadvancedbasecamp,thenaseriesofsmallercamps,eachofdiminishingsize,endingatacampcloseenoughtotheobjectivethatafewmembersoftheteamactingfrom“thepointofthespear”couldreachthedestination.OnEverest,thecampstypicallyresembledapyramid,risinginaltitudeabovethebase.Amemberofthe1952Swissexpeditionconfessedtheinevitabilityofthisapproachforearlyteams.

I,whohadalwayssmiledatthismilitarylanguagewhenIfounditinstoriesoftheHimalaya,wasusingittoo!WhetherIwished

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itornot,theconceptofacampaignwasforceduponmemorestronglyeveryday….Thedistancesaretoogreat,thedefencestoopowerful.Itisnecessarytooccupytheconqueredterrain,thateachcampestablishedshallbesufficientlyprovidedwithequipmentandfoodtobecomeinsomedegreeanotherbasecamp.Thisinvolves,forallthelowercamps,problemsoftransportwhichcanonlybesolvedbynumerouspartiesthepersonalneedsofwhichconsiderablyincreasethedifficultytheyhavetoovercome,thatofweight.Toputapartyoffourmeninfightingconditionabove26,000feetrequiresthreehundredmenatthestartinKatmandu.Moreorlesstheproportionsofwar.10Theearliestexpeditionsassembledthemselvesandtheirsuppliesin

Darjeeling,totheeastofMt.EverestinIndia.Nepalwasthenclosedtoforeigntravel.TheexpeditionsmarchedoutofIndiaandacrossTibet,some300miles,settingupabasecamponthenorthsideofMt.Everest.The1924Britishexpeditionthatfailedinitsobjectivefollowedthisroute.Thetrekfromassemblypointtobasecamptookmorethanamonth,from25Marchto28April1924.11

TheBritishexpeditionof1953employedthemoreconventionalroute,theoneeventuallychosenbymostcommercialfirms.Mid‐waythroughthetwentiethcentury,Nepalopeneditsborders,whiletheChineseclosedtheirsfollowingtheCommunistadvanceintoTibet.The1953BritishexpeditionthatplacedthefirstclimbersonMt.EverestassembledinKathmandu.ThedistancefromKathmandutoMt.Everestbyairis100miles,twicethatbyland.TheBritishexpeditionwalkedfromKathmandutothemountain.

Recordsfromthe1963Americanclimbtenyearslaterallowadetailedreconstructionoftheundertakinganditsscale.TheAmericanteammovedroughlytwenty‐seventonsofequipmentfromSeattle,Washington,toKathmandu.Packedin900cartons,eachfilledcontainerweighedaboutsixty‐fivepounds.Thecartonscontainedfood,medicine,tents,cookingequipment,oxygencanisters,foldingaluminumchairs,umbrellas,brooms,hotwaterbottles,andothermaterial.TheGeorgia‐PacificPlywoodandLumberCompanymanufacturedthecontainers.Thecompanyusedreinforcedcardboard.JimWhitaker,whooversawwhattheteamcalledtheLaborofHercules,explainedthat“thecardboardwasprocessedtowithstandthemonsoonrainsandroughhandlingandcarries,anditheldupbetterthanwoodundertheshocksofdroppingandjarring.”WorkingwithfellowexpeditionmemberDanDoody,Whitakerandateamofprofessionalpackersstenciledeachboxwithanumberindicatingtheelevationatwhichtheteamneededtoopenthecontainer.12

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ThecontainerstraveledtoCalcuttabysea.FromCalcutta,thecontainersmovedtoPatnabytruck.Patnaisamedium‐sizeIndiancityalongtheGangesRiverneartheborderwithNepal.FromPatnathecartonsmovedtoKathmandubyairtransport,exceptforinflammableitemssuchasbutane,gasoline,kerosene,andoxygenthatcouldnotbesentbyairandhadtocompletethejourneyintrucks.

Truckscarriedthecontainers,plusanadditionalamountofmaterialpurchasedinKathmandu,fromKathmandutothevillageofBanepa,fifteenmileseastoftheNepalesecapital.Atthetimeofthe1963expedition,Banepawastheendofthedrivableroad.InafieldoutsideBanepa,theteamassembled.TeammemberJamesUllmandescribedthescene.

Therewereourselves.TherewereourSherpaandbaggage.Therewasagreatcrowdofseer‐offers,mostofthemfromKathmandu’sAmericancommunity,allofthemladenwithcamerasandgoodwishes.Mostessentiallyforthejobathand,therewasourhordeoflow‐levelportersnowjoiningusforthefirsttime—hillmenandvalleymen,maleandfemale,children,oldstersandin‐betweeners—andthroughthewholeofthemorningtheyfiledpastinjostling,jabberingprocesswhiletheirloadsandidentificationtagswereassignedtothem….Andnow,slowlybutsurely,allthosetonsbegantomove.Insinglefile,bentundertheirburdensandheadstraps,ourarmlessarmymovedoutofthefieldatBanepaontothetrailbeyond,inafilesolongthatittooktwohourstopassagivenpoint.13

LeadersoftheAmericanexpeditionhired909porterstocarrywhatnowamountedtonearlytwenty‐ninetonsofmaterial.Eachportercarriedaboutsixty‐fivepounds,pluspersonalitems.Theentouragewassolarge,theSherpasjoked,thattheSahibsrequiredahalf‐dozenportersjusttocarrytheboxesofmoneyneededtopaythebearers.14Thestoryhasatruthfulorigin,thoughnotwiththeAmericanexpedition.1

JamesRoberts,aretiredBritisharmyLt.Colonelandexpeditionmember,describedtheorganizationofthe1963march.

Forcontrol,wedividedtheportercorpsintoninelegionsof100,eachunderanaiki(headsman),SherpaorTamang,assistedbyoneofourown“climbing”Sherpa.Thenaikisbroughtuptherear,whileaSherpawentaheadandcheckedtheloadsastheyarrivedincamp.Incampeachporterpartyhaditsownseparatedump,andthusthestackingofloadsintheeveningsand

1Theactualincidentapparentlyaroseastheresultofamisunderstandingonthe1953Britishexpedition.SomeonetoldthetreasureroftheexpeditionthatportersrecruitedfromtheNepalicountrysidewouldnotacceptpapercurrency.Thetreasurerconvertedhalfofthefundsforlocalexpendituresintocoin,whichrequiredtwelveporterstocarry.

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distributioninthemorningswassimplified.Eachporterhadatag,numberedfrom1to909,andthetagnumberwasnotedagainsttheloadnumberinamuch‐thumbedbook.15Inanoddway,theprocessionresembledarocketlaunchsending

peopleorsatellitesintospace.Justasarocketburnsfuelasitascends,therebylosingmass,themountainprocessionsconsumedstoresastheyadvanced.TheAmericansateaboutthirtypoundsoffoodaday,ahalfcontainer.Sherpasandportersconsumedmore.Astheloadlightened,theexpeditionshedporters.Thereductioninmassallowedexpeditionleaderstodismissaboutfifteenporters“everyfewdays,”explainedRoberts.16

TheprocessionleftBanepaon20February1963andarrivedatNamcheBazaron7March,aspanoffifteendays.NamcheBazarisasmallvillagethatservesastheadministrativecenterfortheEverestarea,abouttwenty‐eightmiles(47km)fromMt.Everestbasecamp.Toaccountforthelossoflow‐altitudeporterswhohaddroppedawayastheprocessiongainedaltitude,expeditionleadershired300newbearersmoreaccustomedtohigheraltitudesbeyondNamcheBazar.17TheaverageelevationofKathmanduis4,430feet(1,350meters).NamcheBazarsitsatanaltitudeof11,300feet(3,440meters)fromwhichthetrailrisesmorethan6,000feettothesiteofEverestbasecampat17,600feet(5,364meters).

TheprocessionmoveduptheKhumbuvalleytoTengboche,atwhichpointthecharacteroftheprocessionchanged.Mid‐Marchproducedwinteryweatherinthemountaincountry.BeyondTengboche,theAmericanexpeditionteamsetupaseriesofrelaycampsandorganizedbrigadesthatpassedsuppliesfromcamptocamp.ThirtydaysafterleavingBanepa,on21March1963,theexpeditionestablisheditsbasecampalongtheKhumbuglacieratthefootofthemountainthegrouphopedtoclimb.

ContrastthisventuretotheMazur2011SummitClimbtoMt.Everestalongthesameroute.In2011,Mazurledacommercialclimbfromthesouth.ClimbersandtrekkersassembledinKathmanduon29March,morethanonemonthlaterthanthe1963AmericanteamhadleftBanepa.MazurandhisclientsflewintoKathmandu.TwodaysafterassemblinginKathmandu,theyflewtoLukla,asmalltownaboutninemiles(14.5km)southofNamcheBazar.A40‐minuteride,theflightendswithanattention‐grippinglandingata500meterrunwayperchedonthesideofahill.Theairstrip,calledTenzing‐HillaryAirport,isconsideredoneofthemostdangerousintheworld.

Asteephillrisesabruptlyatthefarendoftheairfield,soanairplaneoncecommittedtolandingmusttouchdown.Likewise,adepartingaircraftmustliftoffsincethehillatthelipoftherunwaydropssteeplyintotherivervalleybelow.Workontheairfieldbeganin1964.

ThedayfollowingtheirlandingatLukla,theMazurteamtrekkedtoNamcheBazar.Thegrouprestedoneday,acclimatingtothealtitude,and

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thentrekkedtoTengbocheon3April.Thatnight,itsnowed.Yakshelpedcarrytheloads.Aftermoreacclimationandsightseeing,thepartymovedtoEverestbasecampon9April,ninedaysafterdepartingKathmandu.18

Mt.EvereststandsontheboundarybetweenTibetandNepal.Fallingoffonesideofthemountain,aclimbertumblesintoNepal.Fallingintheotherdirection,theclimbercomestorestinChina/Tibet.Themountainistriangularinshape,withfacesthatpointtotheeast,southwest,andnorthwest.ClimbersfromNepaltypicallycrossamassiveicefallontheKhumbuglacierandascendthroughtheWesternCwmtoasteepsectionthatleadstowardthemountain’ssoutheastridge.FromapassontheridgenamedtheSouthCol,theyadvancetowardthesummit.

ClimbersontheTibetanplateausetupcampalongtheRongbukGlacier,ascendtotheNorthCol,andmaketheirfinalpushtowardthesummitalongthenortheastridge.ThiswastheapproachusedbytheBritishinthe1924expeditionthatlostMalloryandIrvine.

Havingarrivedatbasecamp,Everestclimbersestablishapyramidofcampsleadingtowardthesummit.Theclimbersonthe1963Americanteamestablishedatotalofsix,oneapproximatelyevery1,600verticalfeet.Camp1satat20,200feetatthetopoftheKhumbuIcefall.Althoughnotagreatdistancebeyondthe17,800footbasecamp,theroutetoCamp1wasoneofthemostdangerouspartsofthetrip.TheKhumbuglacierdropslikeawaterfalloverthatdistance,creatingcrevasses,icetowers,andbuilding‐sizewalls.Theicemoves.On23March1963threeoftheclimbersfromtheAmericanteamplustwoSherpassoughtaroutearounda30‐foottallicewall.“Justthentherewasanoise,andeverythingunder,aroundandaboveusstartedmoving.”Partoftheicewall“aboutthesizeoftworailroadcarsoneontopoftheother”brokeloose.Debrisburiedthreeoftheteammembers.Theremainingmembersdugouttwo;theropeattachedtoJakeBreitenbachshowedthatherested“twentytothirtyfeetdown”underthemassivecollapse,wheretheteamsorrowfullylefthim.19

Assistedbytheirhigh‐altitudeSherpas,theclimberscrossedtheKhumbuIcefallwiththeuseofropes,logs,andsix‐footlongaluminumladders.Laddersareanimportanttoolforbridgingtheicefall,andthe1963teambroughtsixallthewayfromSeattle.AboveCampIatthetopoftheicefall,thefirstcontingentoftheAmericanteamestablishedtwomorecampsalongtheWesternCwm.TheWesternCwmisabroadglacialbasinthatendsaround22,300feetattheLhotseface.Lhotseisanearly28,000foothighcompaniontoMt.Everest.Atthatpoint,climbersmustascendasteep3,700footwallofglacialicebrokenbytheYellowBandandtheGenevaSpurtoreachtheSouthCol.TheAmericanteamestablishedafourthcampat25,000feetandafifthattheSouthCol.WithhelpfromtheirSherpas,theclimbers

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stockedthecampswithsuppliesinanup‐and‐downcarryingprocessthatalsohelpedtheclimbersbecomeacclimatedtothehighaltitude.

Atroughly26,000feet,theSouthColtraditionallymarksthebeginningofthe“deathzone,”thealtitudeatwhichthehumanbodybeginstoconsumeitselfasasourceofenergy.Digestivesystemsbegintoshutdown;climbersexperiencedifficultyeatingandsleeping.Sinceitactsasahighaltitudepassbetweentheeasternandsouthwesternsidesofthemountain,theSouthColcangenerateexceptionallystrongwinds.Twenty‐threeSherpasworkedatorabovetheSouthColforthe1963expedition—morethanthefullcontingentofAmericanclimbersontheteam.20

IfthetrektoEverestbasecampcouldbeseenasconsistingofthefoundationofthepyramid,thenadvancecampscouldbeviewedasmorelayersascendingtothepeak.Thenumberandplacementofcampsvarieswithdifferentexpeditions.

TheAmericanexpeditionof1963establishedonemorecamptocompletethepyramidofsupply.TeammemberslocatedCampVIat27,450feet,some1,300feetaboveCampVattheSouthColand1,600feetbelowthesummit.Ofthetwenty‐ninetonsofsuppliesthathadleftBanepainlateFebruary,theteamplannedtoplacethirtyloadsofapproximatelyfiftypoundseachattheSouthCol,atotalof1,500pounds.AtCampVI,theteamplannedtoleavetwotentsandanadequatesupplyofoxygencylinders.Fourcylindersofoxygentotaledfifty‐twopounds,asingleload.21

Therewasnosuchthingasalevelplaceontheridge,andittooktenmentwohourstocarveoutaplatformandpitchtwo2‐mantentssidebyside.Onewasonsnow,oneonrock,andbothwereanchoredassecurelyaspossiblebyropes,pitons,andsuchheavyobjectsaswereavailable.Everyoneworkedwithoutoxygen.The[oxygen]cylinderswerestackednearbyinthesnow.22CampVIservedastheshelterwithinwhichfourclimberswould

attempttosleepon31Aprilandtheprotectiontowhichtheywouldreturnon1Mayafterattemptingtoreachthesummit.Atthataltitude,“eventheslightesteffortcausedagaspingforbreath.”23Althoughthesummitisonlyashortdistanceaway,ittookJimWhitakerandMawangGombunearlytwelvehourstoreachitandreturn.WhitakerandGombureachedthesummit;NormanDyhrenfurthandAngDawaturnedback.WhenWhitakerandGombureturnedtoCampVIat5:45PM,theyfoundtheothertwoclimberspreparinghotfoodanddrink.WhitakerandGombumade“asoundlesssignofvictory.‘AllIcoulddo,’saidNorman,‘wascroakmycongratulations.’”24

ThesecondcontingentoftheAmericanteamattemptedEverestbyclimbingthetreacherouswestridge.Thisisnotapreferredroute.ThecontingentdepartedtheusualpathwayatthebaseoftheWesternCwmand

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establishedalternativecampsat24,000,25,000,and27,000feet.Viathewestridge,ThomasHornbeinandWilliamUnsoeldreachedthesummitat6:30PMon22May.Forthedescent,theyjoinedBarryBishopandLutherJerstad,whohadarrivedatthesummitthreehoursearlierusingtheSouthColroute.Thefourclimbersspentthenightunprotectedat28,000feet,thencontinuedtheirdescenttobasecampviathelessdemandingSouthColandWesternCwm.25

Likeastronautsreturningfromadistanceorb,expeditionmembersnowhadtoretracetheirstepstoKathmandu.MountaineersreceivecreditforclimbingMt.Everestonlyiftheyreturnsafely.Membersofthe1963Americanexpeditionpackedtheirequipmentandscientificinstruments,recruitedporters,andabandonedtheirbasecampon25May.Astheydescendedintoearlysummermonsoons,theclimbersshedtheclothingthathadkeptthemwarmabove,givingmostofittotheirNepalesecompanions.TheAmericansfoundausefortheumbrellasbroughtfromSeattle.“Themonsoonrainsnowbeatdown,drummingatnightonthenylonofthetents,drummingbydayonthemudofthetrail.”26ThetrekbacktoKathmandufromNamcheBazartookthirteendays.The1963expeditionmembersleftthevillagefieldoutsideKathmanduon20Februaryandreturnedtothecityon9June,havingplacedfiveclimbersandoneSherpaonthesummitoveraperiodexceedingthreemonths.

The2011Mazurgroup,followingroughlythesamerouteforty‐eightyearslater,departedKathmanduon31Marchandreturnedon5June.Sixmembersofthepartyreachedthesummit.27FinancingtheExpeditions WhentheleadersoftheGermanRocketSociety(VereinfürRaumschiffahrt)undertooktheirfirststepstowardspacetravel,theyadoptedastrategysimilartotheoneutilizedbyEuropeanmountaineers.Therocketpioneerssoughtfinancialsupportfromawiderangeofsources.Theysolicitedfundsfromnewmembers,wealthypatrons,andindustrialists.Theyofferedlectures.Theyproducedrocketshows,documentaries,andfilms.In1930,theysetupalaunchsiteorRaketenflugplatzonanabandonedarmygarrisonoutsideBerlin.TheGermanarmyallowedclubmemberstoleasethegarrisonforasmallsum.TheclubreceivedtaxsubsidiesfromtheBerlintaxofficeandwagesubsidiesfromtheGermanequivalentoftheU.S.WorksProgressAdministration.Anoceanaway,leadersoftheAmericanRocketSociety(foundedastheAmericanInterplanetarySociety)soughtfinancialsupportfortheirNewJerseyprovinggroundexperimentsfromindustrialists,theGuggenheimSchoolforAeronautics,theSmithsonianInstitution,theU.S.WeatherBureau,andtheirownmembers.TheAmericangroupwonthe1935REP‐HirschPrizefromtheFrenchAstronomicalSociety,whichcarriedasmallcashaward.

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Inspiteoftheenthusiasmofclubmembers,themoneydrivesundertakenbyrocketclubsproveddisappointing.InAmerica,localindustrialistsprovidedrocketpartsandclubmemberscontributedtime,butthebigdonorsdeclinedtoparticipate.RobertGoddardreceivedfinancialsupportfromamixedgroupofsources,includingtheSmithsonianInstitutionandtheGuggenheimfamily,butheworkedessentiallyalone.WhiletheGermanclub’s1927charterunabashedlyidentifiedthesocietyasamoney‐raisingenterprise,thefinancialstatusofthesocietywasneversecureanditwasforcedtodisbandin1934.28

Onlyinfictiondidtheentrepreneurialstrategyseemtoprevail.Intheclassic1950sciencefictionfilmDestinationMoon,spacetravelerswinfinancialsupportfromindustrialistsaftergovernmentofficialscancelsupportforwhattheyviewasanexcessivelyriskyproject.EvilbusinessexecutivesbullytheirwayintoaGermanMoonexpeditioninthe1929silentfilmFrauimMond.29Outsideoffiction,thepracticeofbuildingpartnershipsforspacetravelworkedlessperfectly.Thesumsweretoogreat;theongoingdepressiontoosevere.Theindividualsmostsuccessfulatbuildingrocketscapableofreachingspacealliedthemselveswithgovernmentalsourcesoncewardepartmentsbegantoshowinterestinthemilitaryapplicationsoflargerockets.Topromotetheirinterestinspacetravel,bothWernhervonBraunandSergeiKorolevandtheteamstheyleddependedupongovernmentalsponsorship.Attentionshiftedtothesesources.SaidvonBraun,“theissueinthesediscussionswasmerelyhowthegoldencowcouldbemilkedmostsuccessfully.”30

EarlyadvocatesofmountainclimbingfacedasimilarconundrumwithrespecttoMt.Everest.Theclimberswantedtogo,butlackedthefinancialresourcestofundtheirownexpeditions.Likeearlyadvocatesofspaceexploration,theysoughtoutsidecontributions.Unlikethespaceenthusiasts,themountaineersweresuccessful.Perhapsthesumswerelessforbidding;perhapstheirtimingwasmoreconducive.Forwhateverreasons,mountaineersreceivedfundingfromavarietyofsources,includinggovernments.Significantly,thisallowedmembersofthemountaineeringcommunitytoretaincontrolovertheexpeditionstheypromoted.(SeeTable3)

TheBritishexpeditionsof1921,1922,and1924relieduponfundssuppliedbygeographicsocieties,thenewsmedia,governmentsubsidies,speakingtours,andprivatedonations.TheSwissexpeditionsof1952and1956relieduponaphilanthropist,afoundation,privatedonations,businessfirms,andtheCantonofGeneva.ThegovernmentofIndiasuppliedmostofthematerialsusedduringthatcountry’s1965ascent.TheJapaneseMinistryofEducationandthecountry’snewsmediasupportedthatcountry’sexpeditionof1970.TheCanadianexpeditionof1982receivedmajorfunding

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fromAirCanada.Anon‐profitfoundationprovidedfundsfortheEverestInternationalPeaceClimbof1990.Organizedtocelebratethe20thanniversaryofEarthDay,thefoundationinturnreceivedamajorgrantfromtheL.L.BeanCompany.Climberstypicallyreceivedclothingandequipmentfrommanufacturersthatinturnpublicizedtheirparticipation.Expeditionleaderscommonlysoldmediarightstonewspapers,broadcasters,magazines,andbookpublishers.

Basically,expeditionleadersacceptedsupportfromanyonethatwouldprovideit.Itwasnotuncommonforasingleexpeditiontobundlecontributionsfromawiderangeofsourcesrepresentingtheprivate,non‐profit,andpublicsectors.

Theexperienceofthe1963Americanexpeditionisagaininstructive.TheexpeditionwasorganizedbyNormanDyhrenfurth,aPolish‐born(thenpartofGermany)mountaineerandfilm‐makerwhohadbeenraisedinSwitzerlandandmovedtosouthernCaliforniatoteachatUCLAandfurtherafilm‐makingcareer.Accordingtothetreasurerfortheexpedition,Dyhrenfurth“notonlyinvestedallofhisownpersonalresourcesintheenterprisebutcompletelydivorcedhimselffromallincomeopportunitiesforaperiodofalmosttwoyears.”31Oneoftheexpeditionmembersdescribedthedifficultyofraisingmoneyfortheundertaking.

InthegreatandwealthyUnitedStatesitishardertoraisemoneyformountaineeringpurposesthaninanyothermajor,orevenminor,countryonearth.InWesternEurope,withtheAlpsasitsfulcrum,theclimbingofmountainshaslongbeenahighlypopularandorganizedactivity,withfundsforexpeditionsavailablefromgovernments,foundations,AlpineClubs,andvariousothersources.Sincethebeginningoflarge‐scaleHimalayanclimbingearlyinthis[thetwentieth]century,nationslikeBritain,France,GermanyandSwitzerlandhavesentoutexpeditionuponexpeditiontotheRoofoftheWorld.EveninclassicallypoorcountrieslikeItalyandAustria,mountaineershavefoundlittletroubleraisingthefundstogetthemtotheirobjectivesandback.Innationsofthenon‐Westernworld,suchasRussia,India,andevenChina,interestinmountaineering,thoughnew,hasrecentlybecomeintense,andheretheexpensesofexpeditionshavebeenborneentirelybygovernments.32

TheAmericanexpeditionaryteamdidnotwanttorelyprimarilyupontheU.S.governmentforitsprimarysourceoffunding.“Anexpeditionfinancedbyagovernment—whetherdemocratic,communist,orindeterminate—iscertain,toadegree,toberunbythatgovernment,withalloftheinevitableconcomitantsofbureaucracy,redtape,regimentationand‘official’status.”Instead,teamleaderssoughtfundingfromarangeof

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sources.(SeeTable6)Theprocess,wrotethemember,“provedonlyslightlylessdifficultthan,say,solicitingfundsforastatueofKarlMarxontheWhiteHouselawn.”33

TheNationalGeographicSocietyprovidedthelargestblocoffunding—$114,719ornearly30percentoftheexpendedfunds.TheNationalGeographicSocietyisanon‐profitscientificandeducationalinstitutionwithheadquartersinWashington,D.C.Formedin1888,itseekstoincreasegeographicknowledgeandconserveworldresources.Ithadsupportedearlierexpeditionstothepoles,publishingresultsinitswidely‐distributedNationalGeographicmagazine,andsawtheEverestexpeditionasanextensionofthiswork.AtthepointwhentheGeographicSocietymadeitscommitment,thecontributionmadeupmorethanhalfofthebudgettargetoriginallysetfortheexpedition.

Inspiteoftheirmisgivingsaboutredtape,expeditionmembersalsoapproachedgovernmentalofficialsforfinancialhelp.SenatorsWarrenMagnusonandClairEngle,alongwithInteriorSecretaryStuartE.Udall,“helpedclearthewaytofederalagenciesthatmighthelpus.”34MagnusonrepresentedWashingtonState,thehomeofJimWhittaker,whowouldbethefirstAmericantoreachthetopofMt.Everest.EnglerepresentedCalifornia,Dyhrenfurth’splaceofresidence.Theexpeditionreceivedsignificantgrantsfrommilitarydepartments,theNationalScienceFoundation,andtheU.S.StateDepartment.ThetotalsumofgovernmentalgrantsandcontractseventuallyexceededtheGeographicSocietycontributionandinpartaccountedforasubstantialexpansionoftheexpedition’sbudgetandactivities.Themoremoneytheexpeditionreceived,themoreworkitsmembershadtodo.Intheseventeenmonthsbetweenthesummerof1961andtheendof1962,theexpedition’splannedbudgetgrewfrom$186,524to$403,307.35

Aswithotherexpeditions,theAmericanteamhappilyaccepteddonationsinkind—food,supplies,andserviceswhosevaluetheteam’streasurerestimatedtoexceed$73,000.TheAlfaCandyCorporationofNewYorkcontributedJelBars,whiletheCollinsRadioCompanyofCedarRapids,Iowa,providedaKWM‐2Transceiver.Wilson&CompanyofChicago,Illinois,providedfreeze‐driedporkchops,whiletheAcmeIronWorksofSeattle,Washington,suppliedsixaluminumladders.Whittaker,whohadhelpedlaunchtheRecreationalEquipmentCompany(REI)ofSeattle,Washington—hewassalesmanageratthetime—gotthatsuppliertoprovideclimbingequipment,cookinggear,packbags,andclothing.Thelistofin‐kindcontributorsfillseightandone‐halfpagesoftheexpedition’sreport.36

TheBritishfollowedasomewhatsimilarprocessinorganizingtheir1921,1922,and1924expeditions.MemberstheAlpineClubproposedtheexpeditions.MountainclimbersfromGreatBritainactiveinclimbingthe

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EuropeanAlpshadformedtheassociationin1857.(Itisreputedtobetheoldestmountaineeringclubintheworld.)TheClubcouldraiseonlyaboutone‐thirdofthe£10,000thoughtnecessarytostarttheventure.Foradditionalsupport,theyapproachedtheRoyalGeographicalSociety.Formedin1830,membersoftheGeographicalSocietyviewedthemselvesasascientificorganizationdevotedtogeographicalresearch.

MembersoftheAlpineClubviewedmountaineeringasanactivityworthyofpursuitforitsownvalue.GeorgeMalloryfamouslycapturedthisimpulsebyexplainingthathewishedtoclimbEverest“becauseitisthere.”37ToenlistsupportfromtheGeographicalSociety,leadersoftheAlpineClubhadtobroadentheirappeal,creatingacoalitionofinterestsanalogoustothejoiningofscientificandhumanflightadvocatesthathelpedtomotivateearlyspaceflight.

IntheGeographicalSocietytherestilllingeredthenotionthatclimbingMountEverestwassensationalbutnot“scientific.”Ifitwereamatterofmakingamapoftheregion,thentheprojectshouldbeencouraged.Ifitwereaquestionofmerelyclimbingthemountain,thenitshouldbelefttomountaineersandnotabsorbtheattentionofascientificbodyliketheRoyalGeographicalSociety.38

MembersoftheGeographicalSocietyjoinedtheventureandeventuallycontributedabout£3,000.ThetwosocietiesformedajointcommitteecalledtheMountEverestCommitteethatoversawtheexpeditions.Tofilloutthefundingnecessarytostartthefirstexpedition,areconnaissanceofroutes,thecommitteearrangedforthesaleofinformationabouttheventure.TheTimesandthePhiladelphiaLedgerreceivedtherighttopublishtheexpedition’stelegrams,whiletheGraphicwontherighttopublishphotographs.“SoeventuallythefinancialpositionoftheExpeditionwasassured.”39 NosinglefinancialapproachcharacterizedthelargeEverestexpeditionsorganizedalongtraditionallines.Someoftheorganizinggroupssoughtsupportfromscientificandgeographicsocieties;othersturnedtophilanthropistsandnon‐profitorganizations.Somereliedongovernmentalfinancing.Manysoldrightstothemedia.Commercialinvolvementoccurred.Businessfirmsofferedfoodandequipment.Onewearyexpeditionleaderlikenedtheprocesstostandingoutsideasportinggoodsstore“withatincup.”40

Asawhole,contributorsweremotivatedbymostofthesamereasonsthatgovernmentalofficialssupportedspaceexploration:science,commerce,nationalprestige,andapersonaldesiretoexplore.Yetinseekingsponsorsfortheirambitions,mountaineerswiththedesiretoscalethehighestpointontheEarthadoptedadifferentstrategy.Themajorfindingsfromtheexaminationoffinancialsourcesfollow.

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• ThepeoplewhopossessedthehighestmotivationandskilltoclimbMt.Everestinvariablylackedtheresourcestodoit.Theyneededoutsidesupport.

• Expeditionleadersobtainedfundingfromwealthyindividuals,societies,foundations,commercialfirms,thenewsmedia,andgovernmentagencies.Groupsoftenmixedsourcesincreativeways.Thepreferredmethodoffinancing,especiallyforearlyandtransitionalexpeditions,wastosolicitfundsfromalloftheabove.

• InEuropeandAmerica,governmentagenciesrarelyprovidedthesolesupportforanexpedition,evenwithinnationsforwhichmountaineeringwasasourceofgreatnationalpride.

• Theentitiesthatfinancedexpeditionswereinvariableseparatedfromtheentitiesthatcarriedouttheexpeditions.

TheprocessforfinancingEverestexpeditionsdifferedfromtheprocessforspaceexploration.Inthelatter,explorationadvocateseventuallyturnedtogovernmentsforsolesupportandthenpermittedthefundingagenciestoorganizeandleadtheprojects.Transition

TheexpeditionaryapproachtoclimbingMt.Everesteventuallybecameimpractical.Theapproachprovedincreasinglycostlyandcumbersome.Thetechnologyofmountainclimbingchanged.Expeditionsbecamehardertofinance.

The1971InternationalExpeditionwasadisaster.ItbeganasatriptoAntarctica,withrepresentativesfromNorway,GreatBritain,theUnitedStates,andArgentinainvolved.Duetodifficultiesingainingsupportforthatdestination,thegroupchangeditsobjectivetoEverestandnotjustanormalroutebuttheterrifyingsouthwestface.Toorganizetheexpeditionandsecureitsfinancing,theteamenlistedNormanDyhrenfurth,whohadledthe1963Americanexpedition.DyhrenfurthexpandedinternationalparticipationtoincludeclimbersfromAustria,WestGermany,Italy,France,India,Japan,andSwitzerland.Ratherthanappealtothenationalisticprideofasinglenation,hesoughttodemonstratetheadvantagesofinternationalcooperation“underconditionsofextremehardship.”41Byexpandingthenumberofnations,Dyhrenfurththought,hewouldexpandthedonorbaseandmaketheexpeditionfinanciallyfeasible.

Thestrategyfailed.Nationalinstitutionsthatmighthavebeeninspiredtobackanationalexpeditionrefusedtosupportaninternationalone.Dyhrenfurthapproachedanumberofnationalorganizationswithoutsuccess,includingtheU.S.NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration.DyhrenfurthhopedthatNASAmightcontribute$30,000towardhisworkonoxygensupply.NASAofficialsrefusedonthegroundsthattheexpeditionwasnotanationalone.42

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TheexpeditiongainedtractionwhentheBritishBroadcastingCorporationagreedtocontributetheequivalentof$110,000.Asarequirement,however,theB.B.C.insistedonaddingsevenclimberstotheexpedition.“Bythetimeitwasinthefieldtherewerethirty‐threemembersfromthirteendifferentcountries,includingthemediamen—someofwhomweregoodclimbersintheirownright.Itwasnot,however,ateam,”wroteoneobserver.“Fewofthemhadclimbedtogetherandthosewhohadtendedtocleavetogetherasanaturaldefence[sic]againsttheambitionsoftherest….Dyhrenfurthwaslikeaphilatelistgarneringthecreamoftheworld’srarestamps–onlytodiscoverthattheydidn’tmakematchedsetsandsomeofthespecimenswerenolongerinmintcondition.”43

Theexpeditiongatheredthirty‐fivetonsofequipment,450porters,andfifty‐fiveSherpas.AircraftflewhalfoftheequipmenttothenewairstripatLukla;porterscarriedtherest.ThecramponscontributedbyAustriadidnotfitthebootsmadeinGermany.Thestandard‐issueOrientaloxygenmasksmanufacturedtoU.S.AirForcespecificationsdidnotfitthehigh‐altitudeSherpas.Themasks,expeditionmemberslearned,weredesignedtofitVietnamesefacialcharacteristics,notpeoplefromTibetorNepal.Oneofthekeymembersoftheclimbinggroupwithdrew.Thegroup,hefeared,wastoolarge,inadequatelyfinanced,andlackingincohesion.(HewithdrewbeforethegroupreachedNepal.)44TheIcefallwasunstable.Theweatherwentbad.WhilecompletingatraverseabovetheIcefall,apopularIndianmemberoftheexpeditionslippedandfell.Therescueteamlackedtheequipmenttolowerhimsafely,leavingtheclimbertodieattheendofhisrescueline.Twomoremembersoftheclimbinggroupresigned.Thegroupcouldnotdecidewhethertoattempttheoriginalobjectiveofclimbingthesouthwestfaceormakeaconventionalclimb.Intheend,notasinglememberofthegroupreachedthesummit. The1971expeditionrepeatedconditionsthathadafflictedtheJapaneseexpeditiononeyearearlier.TheJapaneseexpeditionof1970wasamassiveaffair,organizedbytheJapaneseAlpineClubandfinancedbytheMinistryofEducation,theJapaneseBroadcastingCorporation,andtheMainichiNewspapers.Theundertakingcost100millionYen,whichincludedthemainexpeditionaswellastworeconnaissancetripsin1969tohelplocatetheclimbingroute.45In1970,theexchangeratefortheYeninU.S.dollarswas360toone,makingtheexpeditiontheequivalentofa$2.8millionaffairinthecurrencyofthetime.Thiswasahugeexpenditurebymountaineeringstandards. Theexpeditionenlistedthirty‐nineclimbers,includingninereporters.LiketheInternationalExpeditionthefollowingyear,theJapaneseplannedtoattacktheforbiddingsouthwestface.TheyalsoplannedtoplaceateamontheSouthColforamoretraditionalsummitattempt.Concurrently,they

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sharedthemountainwithaseparateJapaneseteamofthirty‐fourindividuals.ThesecondteamwasonthemountaintoattemptandfilmaskitripdownthesteepslopebelowtheSouthCol.Theskier,YuichiroMiura,usedasmallparachutetoslowhisdescent.Afterskiingtentativelydownmostoftheslope,Yuichiroslippedonanicypatchandskiddedmorethan1,000feettothelipofacrevasse.Theresultingdocumentary,TheManWhoSkiedDownEverest,wonanAcademyAward.46

Includingthehigh‐altitudeSherpasassistingthem,theJapaneseplacedanestimated150peopleonvariousspotsofthemountain.Thefirstexpeditionbroughtthirtytonsofmaterial,halfofittransportedbyairandhalfbyportercaravan.Withsomanypeopleatbasecampandabove,movingnumeroustimesthroughtheicefall,theriskofanaccidentrose.AcollapsekilledsixSherpas,thenonemore.AyoungmemberoftheJapaneseexpeditiondiedofaheartattack.LooserockontheSouthwestfaceforcedthatcontingenttoretreat.ThreeJapaneseclimbersandoneSherpareachedthesummitfromtheSouthCol.

Attitudeswithinthemountaineeringcommunitybegantoturnawayfromtheconceptofthelargeexpedition.Asthetechnologyofmountainclimbingimproved,morepeopleclimbed.AsmorepeopleclimbedEverest,theprocessoffindinganovelapproachthatmightattractoutsidefundingbecamemorechallenging.GeneralpublicinterestinEverestclimbswanedaftertheinitialsummitswereachieved.Themountainhadbeenclimbedandnowpeopleweretryingtoraisemoremoneyforbigexpeditionsbypromisingnewroutesandsillystunts.Wasanoverly‐dramaticdocumentaryfilmandfourmoreclimbersonthesummitreallyworththedeathofeightpeopleandthefinancialcostsinvolved?Commentingonthe1971Internationalexpedition,WaltUnsworth,aBritishclimberandpremierhistorianofEverestclimbs,summedupthegeneralfeelingwithinthecommunityofmountaineersatthattime.

Morecogent…wasthegrowingmoodofrevulsionthattheclimbingworldwasbeginningtofeeltowardsthewholeconceptofthehugesuper‐marathonexpedition….Therewashostilitytowardsthewheeler‐dealertacticsnecessarytoraisethehugesumsinvolved,theshow‐bizattitudeofthemedia,theprima‐donnaattitudeoftheclimbers.Ifthisisexpeditionclimbing,themoodran,thenwewantnopartofit.Indifferenceturnedtopositiveantagonism,anditisfairtosaythatalargesectionoftheclimbingpublicwerelookingforwardtothefailureofDyhenfurth’sexpeditionwithmaliciousglee.47ThemethodologyforconductingEverestclimbsbegantochange.

Concurrently,theinterestinclimbingrevived.Changesinmethodology

allowedmorepeopletojointheventureandastheydid,thecostofconductingclimbsstartedtodecline. Towardtheendofthe1980s,apairofclimbingenthusiastsattemptedtoorganizeanEverestexpeditioninthetraditionalway.WalterMcConnellwasaNewJerseyphysicianandRobertReynoldsascientistworkingattheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)researchcenterinBeltsville,Maryland.Bothwerehighlymotivated,butnotfamiliarwiththeEverestterrain.TheyrecruitedScottFischer,anexperiencedclimbingleader,byofferingtopayhisexpensesbutnotasalary.Fischeragreedtoguidetheclimb.Sixmembersoftheparty,assistedbyfourhighaltitudeSherpas,attemptedtoreachthesummit.Threesucceeded:twoSherpasandRicardoTorresNava,acitizenofMexico.OneoftheSherpasdiedonthedescent.AsTorreswasthefirstMexicancitizentoascendMt.Everest,theteamformallyrecordeditselfastheAmerican‐MexicanExpedition.Informally,peoplecalledittheNutritionExpedition.48 McConnellandReynoldsreceivedendorsementfortheirventurefromtheUSDA.ThedepartmentagreedtoprovidestafftimeandpayfortheexperimentstheteamproposedtoconductonEverest,butnotfundtheexpedition.Theexperimentsmeasuredthebody’sabilitytoabsorbnutrientsatdifferentaltitudes,fromwhichtenscholarlypapersappeared.Theevidencefortheresearchconsistedofbrownplasticbagsintowhichtheclimberswereobligedtourinateandrecordtheirnames.Sherpasrefusedtocarrythefrozenspecimens. Inadditiontotheexperiments,oneofthemoreastoundingfeaturesoftheexpeditionwasitslowcost.McConnellandReynoldsraisedsufficientfundstocoverthebasicexpensesoftheexpedition.TheyreceivedagenerousgrantfromMalaysianAirlines,whichagreedtocovertheirtransportationandmajorshippingcosts.Theyreceiveddonationsfromtheusualcollectionofbusinessfirms.Becauseofchangesinclimbingapproachesandtechnology,theyneededtoshiponlytwotonsoffood,equipment,andsuppliesfromtheUnitedStatestoNepal.The1963Americanexpedition,bycomparison,shippedtwenty‐seventons.ThebasiccostofwhatbecameknownastheNutritionExpeditionwas$205,000.Evenadjustingfordifferencesinaccounting,thatwassignificantlylessthantheamountspentbythe1963expedition.49Innovation Practitionersofmountaineeringachievedcostreductionsduringthelatetwentiethcenturythatsomehoweludedadvocatesofhumanspaceflight.Spaceadvocateshopedtocuttheexpenseofhumanspacetravelbya“factoroften.”TheoriginofthislegendaryobjectivecanbetracedbacktotheearlydebateoverthevalueofbuildingaNASAspaceshuttle.Intheearly1970s,peopleseekingtoplacepayloadsinlow‐Earthorbitpaidabout$1,000per

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poundfordelivery.ATitanIIIC,forexample,delivereda23,000poundpayloadata1972costofabout$24million.NASAengineersestimatedthattheycoulddelivera55,000poundpayloadonareusablespaceshuttlefrequentlyflownbyhumanpilotsforaslittleas$5.5million(1972dollars).WhenPresidentRichardNixonapprovedtheefforttobuildthespaceshuttle,heembracedtheobjectivebyannouncingthatthespaceshuttle“maybringoperatingcostsdownaslowasone‐tenth.”Inthepressconferencethatfollowed,NASAAdministratorJamesFletcherstatedthe“factoroften”commitmentmoredirectly.50 Althoughthespaceshuttledidnotachievethisobjective,thephraseattainedanimmortalstatus,thereafterusedbyspaceadvocatesasaprimarytestofsuccessatinnovation.WhenRobertZubrinfirstproposedaplanforsimplifyingahumanmissiontoMars,thepressreportedthatitwouldcost“one‐tenthofpreviousestimates.”ZubrinestablishedtheMarsSocietytopromotetheinitiativeanddoubleddownonhisestimate.Ifprivateindividualsinsteadofthegovernmentdidthework(Zubrinproposedawardingacashprize),theout‐of‐pocketexpenseswouldfallbyanotherfactoroften.51 Innovationsinmountainclimbingallowedsignificantreductionsincost.Toplaceafewclimbersonthesummit,leadersofearlyexpeditionscouldeasilyspendtheequivalentoftwomillionU.S.dollars(2012value).Moderncommercialoutfittersachievethesameresultforroughlyone‐tenththecost.Aswithspace,supportinginnovationsoccurredinbothmissionarchitecture(theapproachtakentoclimbing)andsupportingtechnology. Comparativeanalysisofoverallmissioncostmasksacuriousfeatureoftheeconomicgains.Thepriceperclimberdidnotfallasrapidlyasthecostperexpedition.2

Earlyexpeditionleaderssoughtoutsidesourcesoffundingbecauseexpeditionmemberstypicallycouldnotaffordtopaytheirownshares.Thechargewouldhavebeentoohigh.Yetintheprocessofsecuringoutsidesponsors,expeditioncostsgrew.The1963Americanexpeditioncostmorethanasimplesummitexpeditionbecauseofgovernmentgrants.“Theoriginalbudgethadincludednocostsforscientificprogramswhoseperformancedependedonreceiptoffunding.”Thosegrantscausedtheexpeditionteamtogrowfromfifteentotwentyclimbersandincreasedtheplannedbudgettwo‐fold.52

2Costperexpeditionrepresentsthetotalsumofexpensesnecessarytoconducttheventure(costofproduction).Sharesrefertothecostoftheexpeditiondividedbythenumberofclimbersontheexpeditionteam(notincludinghighaltitudeSherpas).Pricereferstothewillingnessofindividualstopayfortheexperienceofattemptingtoreachthesummit.Priceisafunctionofsupplyanddemand,whilecostisafunctionoftechnologyandfactorsofproduction.

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SimilartendenciesaffectedtheInternationalExpeditionof1971andtheJapaneseexpeditionof1970.TheInternationalExpeditionaddedsevenclimberstoanalreadylargegroupasaconditionofamediagrant.TheJapaneseexpedition,whichhadaccesstogovernmentfunds,assembledthirty‐nineclimbersandspentfivetimesasmuchastheAmericanexpeditionsevenyearsearlier.InanextensionofParkinson’slaw,spendingexpandedtofillthefundsavailabletotheexpedition.53 Hadthe1963Americanexpeditionkepttoitsoriginalplan($187,000forfifteenclimbers),thechargeperclimberwouldhavebeenabout$12,500.Thatistheequivalentofabout$94,000in2012dollars.Experiencesuggeststhatactualchargesperclimberwouldhavebeenmore.Nevertheless,whenconfrontedwiththeestimatedpricetheclimbersconcludedthatthesumlaybeyondtheirpersonalcapacitytopay.Thereforetheclimberssoughtoutsidefunding.Thisprecipitatedanincreaseinactivities.Theexpeditioncostgrewfrom$187,000to$405,000.Thenumberofclimbersrosefromfifteentotwenty.Thechargeperclimberroseto$20,000ortheequivalentof$150,000in2012currency.Whileexpeditionmemberscouldnotaffordtogofor$94,000(2012dollars)usingtheirownfunds,theyweredelightedtoundertaketheventurefor$150,000usingsomeoneelse’smoney. Thethresholdforattractingpeoplewhocouldpaytheirownwayatthestartofthecommercialerawasnowhereneartheone‐tenthgoal.Topoutfitterscalculatedthatpeoplewouldpayasmuchas$65,000perpersonforthechancetoclimbMt.Everest.(SeeTable5)AdventureConsultantsbeganitsbusinessin1992witha$35,000charge.Sensingthedemand,theirpricequicklyroseto$65,000perclientfortheinfamous1996climb.54Thatistheequivalentof$95,000in2012dollars—essentiallythesameasthefirstpredictedcostofthe1963Americanexpedition. Underthepressureofcompetitionandthecommencementofaneconomicdownturn,pricesfell.RainierMountaineeringlistedits2013Everestsummitat$59,000,whileHimalayanExperiencefoundtwenty‐threeclientswillingtospend$57,000forthechancetosummitMt.Everestin2012.Thesearethemostexpensiveoperators.SummitClimb’sstandardrateforanascentfromtheTibet/Chinasideis$27,450. Analysissuggestsanumberofforcesatworkconcurrently.First,innovationallowedexpeditioncosttofalldramatically.Itfellfromahighof100millionYenforthe1970Japaneseexpeditionto$50,000forReinholdMessner’s1980climb.Messnerclimbedthemountainwithlittlemorethanafewtents,helpfromhisgirlfriend,threeyaks,apairoflorrydriverswhodrovethecoupletotheirstartingpoint,andagovernmentclimbingpermit.55

CommercialoperationswouldnotsubjecttheirclientstotheconditionsthatMessnerfaced.Messnernearlyfrozeonthedescent.Hehadnomarginforerror.Hecouldhavedied.Hefoundthebottomofthecost

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curve,butmostpeoplewouldnotwanttojoinhimthere.Nevertheless,costsfelldramaticallyastheapproachtoclimbingchangedandtechnologyimproved. Second,fallingcostsinthepresenceofaviablemarketencouragedcommercialfirmstoenterthefield.CommercialoperatorscouldmakeaprofitattractingclientstoMt.Everest(andotherdestinations).Therevenuesalsoprovidedanewsourceofrevenuefortheexpertclimberswhowantedsomeonetopaythemtoclimbmountains.Thebestclimbersbecameorganizersandguides.Profitsattractedmoreoutfitters,whichincreasedthesupplyofguideservices.IntheSpringof2012,ontheNepalsidealone,twenty‐eightteamswith290high‐altitudeSherpasled247climberstowardthetopofMt.Everest.56 Third,inaclassicdemonstrationofcompetitiontheory,theappearanceofnewoutfitterscausedpricestostabilizeandfall.In2012,AdventureConsultantscharged$65,000foranEverestclimb—thesameamounttheyhadchargedin1996andaneffectivedeclineofnearlyone‐thirdinconstantpurchasingpower.RMIExpeditionsdroppedtheirpricefrom$74,000to$59,000. Fourth,asinnovationoccurredandpricesfell,theactivitybecamemoreaffordabletopotentialclimbers.Thepriceperclimberdidnotneedtofalltoofartocreateacommercialmarket.Itdidnotneedtofallbyafactoroften.Thecasespresentedheresuggestthatthepriceneededtofallbyaslittleas33percentforcommercializationtobegin.Oncecompetitionbegan,competitiondrovethepricelower. Theemergenceofamarketforhigh‐endadventuretravelassistedtheprocess.Disposablepersonalincomeamongthepeoplewhomakeuptheadventure‐travelmarketgrewsignificantlyduringthelasthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Thetimerequiredforsuchpeopletoearnthefundsnecessarytobuyaplaceonanexpeditiondeclined.AnaveragewageearnerwishingtojointheexpeditionthatputthefirstAmericansonthetopoftheworldin1963wouldhaveneededtoworknearlytwoandone‐halfyearstopaythe$12,500chargeperclimberbasedontheoriginalcostestimate.Nonevolunteered.Tocovera$57,000chargewithHimalayanExperiencein2012,anaverageU.S.wageearnerwouldhaveneededtoworkoneandtwo‐thirdsyears.ForpeopleintheU.S.high‐endadventuretravelmarket(top5percentofearners),thedeclinewasevenmoredramatic—fromroughlyninemonthsofworkinthe1960stolessthanfourmonthsin2012.Atthelowerequivalent,sixAmericanssignedontothe2012HimalayanExperienceparty,alongwithclimbersfromGreatBritain,Russia,NewZealand,France,Australia,Latvia,Norway,Mexico,andSouthAfrica. Asthepriceofaplaceonanexpeditionfell(afunctionofsupply,demand,availableincome,andwillingnesstopay),thecostofconductingthe

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climbfellfaster.Innovationsinmountaineeringallowedtheaveragecostofproductiontofallsteeply.Themarginalcostofaddingadditionalclientsfellaswell.TheBritishexpeditionthatachievedthefirstascentconsistedoffourteenclimbersandtwenty‐eighthigh‐altitudeSherpas.57Theyweretheonlygrouponthemountainin1953.Theexpeditioncosttheequivalentofroughly$480,000in2012U.S.dollars.By2012,sixty‐oneyearsafterHillary’sfirstascent,climbingEveresthadgrownintoamulti‐milliondollarenterpriseinvolvingclimbers,trekkers,climbingguides,Sherpas,andsupportstaffonthemountainthatyear.Thatistheprocessbywhichinnovationoccurs. InnovationonEverestbenefitedfromimprovementsintechnology.WhenHillaryandNorgayreachedthesummitofEvereston29May1953,thenewswascarriedbyTheTimescorrespondentJamesMorriswhorandownthemountainfromCampIV.Atbasecamp,MorrishandedthewrittenmessagetoarunnerwhospedittoNamcheBazar.AradiooperatorinNamchetransmittedthemessagetotheBritishEmbassyinKathmandu,whichrelayedittothegovernmentinLondon,whichalertededitorsatTheTimes.Topreventinterception,Morriswrotethemessageincode.“Snowconditionsbadstopadvancedbaseabandonedyesterdaystopawaitingimprovement.”ThemessagefamouslyreachedtheBritishpubliconthedayoftheQueen’scoronation,2June1953.Decoded,itread:“SummitofEverestreachedon29MaybyHillaryandTenzing.”58

TheAmericanexpeditionof1963tookaneighteen‐poundCollinsKWM‐2transceiverpoweredbygasoline‐fuelgeneratorsandnickel‐cadmiumbatteries.Tonotifytheoutsideworldoftheirsuccess,themountainteamlocatedahamradiooperatorinCeylon,whotransmittedamessagetoarearguardgroupinKathmandu.LiketheBritishcommuniquétenyearsearlier,theachievementwastransmittedincode.“Twomailrunnersleftat1300hoursMayone.”59 Modernclimbingteamscommunicatewiththeoutsideworldthroughsatellitetelephonesandinternetconnections.Outsidepartiesinterestedintheclimbreceivedailyreportsviatheinternet.CellularserviceisavailablethroughoutthesouthsideandfromthesummitofEverest.Aspartoftheapplicationprocess,clientsareaskedwhethertheyplantobringtheirowncomputers. Thequalityofclimbingequipmenthasimprovedenormously.Photographsfromthe1953expeditionshowHillaryandNorgaydressedinbaggycotton‐blendclothing,climbingasteepslopewithwooden‐handlediceaxesandforty‐fourpoundclimbingpacks.Modernclimberscarryshorteraluminumiceaxes,wearstreamlinedmountaineeringsuits,andcarryclimbingpacksthatusuallyweighhalfasmuch.Theycarrylightweighttelephones,cameras,iPads,tents,andenergygelfood.Sleepingbagsweighone‐thirdasmuchandarecomfortabletominus20degrees.60

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Advancesinsatellitetechnologyallowpin‐pointweatherforecasting.Foraveryshortperiodjustbeforethesummermonsoonsbegin,thepersistentEverestwindsdiminish,theskyclears,andtheweatherwarms.This“SpringWindow,”asitistypicallycalled,usuallyoccursforafewdaysinlateMayorearlyJune.Theabilityofoutfitterstoaccuratelypredictthetiminganddurationofthisclimbingwindowallowsthemtopositiontheirclientsinhighaltitudecampsreadytomovetowardthesummitwhentheweatherallows. Transportationtoandfromthemountainhasadvancedimmeasurably.Thesecondgroupofclimberstoreachthesummitonthe1963Americanexpeditionsufferedseverefrostbite.Twoofthem,WilliamUnsoeldandBarryBishop,neededimmediatemedicalattention.Theirtoes,observedoneexpeditionmember,“weredeadwhite,hardasiron,andicytothetouch.”ExpeditionmembersradioedthesituationtoKathmanduanddescendedfromthemountaintoNamcheBazarwiththeinjuredmen.Ahelicopterappearedearlythefollowingmorningapproachinga12,300‐foothighlandingspotabovethevillage.Totheclimberswhohadbeenonthemountainforthreemonths,itseemedlike“avisitationfromanotherworld—analmostforgottenworld.”61HelperscarriedUnsoeldandBishoptothehelicopter;byninea.m.theywereattheUnitedMissionHospitalinKathmandu,anAmerican‐runfacility.Therestoftheexpeditionteam,theirportersandremainingequipment,marchedbacktoKathmandu,athirteen‐daytrek. Today,aircraftroutinelylandandtakeoffusingtheairstripatLukla(9,383feet).Duringtheclimbingseasons,high‐altitudehelicopterslanddailyattwospecialhelipadsatEverestbasecamponthesouthsideofthemountain(17,600feet).Itisrisky,buthelicopterscanrescueclimbersfromashighas23,900feet.ThatrecordwassetonAnnapurna,an8,091meterpeakinnorthcentralNepal,in2010.In2005,thepilotofaspecially‐modifiedhelicopteractuallytouchedthesummitofEverestwithhismachineandlivedtotellhisstory.62 Routesandterrainaremuchmorefamiliarthantheywereninetyyearsago.TheRoyalGeographicSocietyagreedtosupportBritishAlpineClubforitsexpeditionsinthe1920sbecausenodecentmapsexistedforthearea.Map‐makingactivitiesinpartmotivatedtheHimalayanexpeditionsoftheSwissFoundationforAlpineResearchinthemid‐twentiethcentury.Someofthemapsarestillusedtoday.SirEdmundHillary,alongwithTenzingNorgay,scoutedthewayupthenearlyverticalrockfacethatbearshisname.Theforty‐foothighHillaryStepblockstheroutetothetopofMt.Everestjustafewhundredverticalfeetbelowthesummitonthesoutheastridge.TheBritishclimbingteamhadseenthefacewithbinocularsandfounditformidable.SaidHillary:“Therockitself,smoothandalmostholdless,mighthavebeenaninterestingSundayafternoonproblemtoagroupofexpertrock

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climbersintheLakeDistrict,buthereitwasabarrierbeyondourfeeblestrengthtoovercome.”63Hillaryfoundarouteupanarrowcrack.ModernclimberswaittheirturntoascendanddescendtheHillaryStepusingropesfixedfortheseasonbySherpasalongapathwaynowwellknown.

ScottFisherexpressedhisoptimismregardingprogressonMt.EverestclimbstowriterJonKrakauerinthefollowingway.“We’vegotthebigEfiguredout,we’vegotittotallywired.Thesedays,I’mtellingyou,we’vebuiltayellowbrickroadtothesummit.”64Fisher,theSeattle‐basedmountaineerwhofoundedthewell‐respectedMountainMadnessclimbingfirm,diedina1996climb. Fisher’sassessmentoftheremainingrisksnotwithstanding,hisstatementdrewonanacuteunderstandingofthetransformationsunderway.Notonlyhadthetechnologyofhighaltitudemountainclimbingchanged,butsohadtheapproachestodoingit. Mostsignificantamongthesechangeswasthegrowinginterestinthealpineapproachtoclimbing.PromotedbyReinholdMessnerandothers,thealpinestyledepreciatedtheexpeditionmodelfoundedonitsmassivepyramidsofpeopleandmaterial.Toadvocatesofthealpineapproach,theexpeditionstylewasnotonlyinefficient,itwassomehowunpure.Advocatesofthealpinestylebelievedinclimbingmountainsquickly,usinglightweightequipmentandaminimalsupportstaff.ThemovementgainedattentionintheEuropeanAlps,whereMessnerandfellowclimberPeterHabelerdemonstratedthetechniquebyascendingthenorthfaceoftheEigerinlessthantwelvehours.In1975,MessnerandHabelerclimbedGasherbrumIintheHimalayasinjustthreedays.GasherbrumIisa26,500(8,080meter)companiontoK‐2inthewesternHimalayas.Noonehadclimbedan8,000meterpeakusingthealpineapproachpriortotheirascent.Thepairclimbedthemountainwithasingledepotaboveaminimalbasecamp.In1978,linkingthemselvestoanAustrianteamthathadapermittoclimb,MessnerandHabelerclimbedMt.Everestwithoutsupplementaryoxygen.Physicianswhohadstudiedhighaltitudeclimbingintheso‐called“deathzone”didnotbelievethatthiscouldbedone.In1980,MessnercompletedhissoloascentofEverest,withoutoxygenandwithoutanyassistanceabove6,500meters(21,300feet).65 Thealpinestyleisnowwidelyacceptedinmountaineeringcircles.Toprovethatitcouldbeappliedtootherrealms,MessnerpulledasledacrossAntarctica.Inspaceexploration,thealpinestyleistheequivalentoflightweight,simplespacecraftdevelopedrapidlyandinexpensivelybyrelativelysmallteams.ThetechniquehasbeenappliedtoDiscovery‐classspacecraftmissions.Sofar,ithasnotbeenusedforhumanmissionsalthoughithasbeenproposedforspaceflightmissionsascomplicatedashumanjourneystoMars.66

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ThecommercializationofEverestclimbsbenefitedfromeconomiesofscale.AsingleexpeditionaloneonEveresthadtosetitsownropes,logcrossings,andladders.Ithadtobringitsownequipmentanditsownphysician.Attheconclusionofthethree‐monthlongassault,inprincipleatleast,theteamhadtoremoveallofthismaterial.

Oncesetandmaintainedforaclimbingseason,ropesandladderscouldbeusedbyotherteams.Themarginalcostofallowingasecondorthirdteamtouseanestablishedroutewassmall.Thisrealizationledtotheestablishmentof“icedoctors”—Sherpateamsthatsetandmaintainedaidstoclimbingandchargedafeefortheirwork.TheworkoficedoctorsismostobviousintheKhumbaIcefall,althoughtheconceptispracticedonothersectionsofthemountainaswell.OneclimberbloggingfromEverestbasecamppraisedtheworkoftheicedoctorsinthefollowingway.

Onourlasttripdownwesawfiveofthemincludingtheheadoftheteam.Fourofthemhadfiveorsixfootladdersstrappedhorizontallyacrosstheirbackswhichtheyweresteadilytakinguptheicefall.Wewillseewherethey’vebeenusedtomorrow.Alongsidealltheladdercrossingsaretwofixedropeseithersideoftheladder.Theseareusedforclippingintotoprotectyoushouldyoufallofftheladderandalsotoactashandrails.Theideaisthatyou’lljustdangleafewfeetintothecrevasseratherthantumblingtothebottomnevertobeseenagain.Thetroublewithusingthemashandrailsisthatyouhavetoputsometensioninto[the]ropes.PersonallyIthink[they]aremoreforconfidenceratherthanaidingbalance.Theladdersrangefrombeinghorizontaltoverticaldependingupontheobstacle.Astheglaciermovesabout8cmaday,a)thereislessoftheladderrestingontheiceeithersideofthecrevasseandb)thehandrailropesgetcloserandclosertothegroundmeaningyouhavetostoopdownwhencrossingtheladders.Sofartheladdershaverangedfromsingletodoublesstrippedtogetherattheirmidpoint.Iunderstandthatonpreviousyearstherehavebeenasmanyasfiveladdersstrappedtogethertospanaparticularlywidecrevasse.Sotheicedoctorsareconstantlyhavingtoadjusttheexistingladdersaswellasforgeanewroutewhenanavalancheoccurs.67Theadvantagetoclimbingteamsissubstantial.Teamsdonotneedto

bringinalltheheavyequipmentneededfordifficultpartsoftheclimb.Theydonotneedtospendtimesettingropesandladders.Byminimizingthetimespentontreacheroussectionsliketheicefall,teammembersreducetheoddsofabadoutcome.Theprocessworkslikeatollroad,benefitingbothclimbersandSherpas.EveresthistorianWaltUnsworthreportsthatthepractice

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beganaround1992whenexpeditionleadersmet,distributedtheresponsibilityforfixingropesandladders,andchargedeachteamfortheirshareofthecost.68Everyoneissupposedtopay,althoughcash‐poorgroupsoccasionallytrytoavoidthetoll.

EverestbasecampontheNepalside—avirtualvillageattheheightoftheSpringclimbingseason—hasitsownemergencymedicalfacilityinadditiontotheheliportandicedoctorsteam.Allofthesecommonfacilitiesbenefitfromthelargenumberofclimbersandtrekkerscampingatthesite.

Inanotherapplicationoftheprincipalofeconomiesofscale,mountainoutfitterscommonlybundletheirtrips.Havingestablishedtheirfoodtents,communicationcenters,andadvancecamps,theoutfittersallowadditionalclientstoexperiencetheadventurewithouthavingtotryforthetop.Someclientsonlygoasfarasbasecamp—atrekratherthanaclimb—andpaymuchlessfortheprivilege.ThelargeSpring2012contingentfromHimalayanExperienceconsistednotjustofthetwenty‐threeclimberswhopaidfortheattempttoclimbEverest,butsixadditionalclimbersseekingtoascendLhotse,eightheadingforLobuche,threeaimingforNuptse,andtwenty‐fivebasecamptrekkers—atotalofsixty‐fiveclients.3Theyweresupportedbyninemountainguides,threetrekleaders,thirty‐onehighaltitudeclimbingSherpas,andnineteenpersonstocook,staffthecamps,andsupportthetrekkers.Thecontingenttotaled127individuals:alogisticalnightmarebutprofitableforthefirm.69Thepracticeincreasesoutfitterrevenuewithasmalloutlayofadditionalequipmentandfood. Concurrentwiththesechanges,governmentalregulationofEverestclimbschanged.Inthebeginning,governmentalauthoritiesstrictlyregulatedaccesstothemountain.BeforetheBritishexpeditionaryforceof1921couldsetouttoscoutthemountainslopes,theyneededpermissionfromtheSecretaryofStateforIndiaandeitherthegovernmentofTibetorNepal,thecountriesfromwhichtheexpeditionwouldapproachthesummit.“Thefirstbarrierswerehuman,”thechairmanoftheMountEverestCommitteeobserved.Localofficials“heldtheviewthattravelerscausedtroubleandshouldbediscouraged.”70TheKingdomofNepal,anindependentnation,barredforeignexpeditionsseekingtoapproachEverestfromthesouth.TheDalaiLama,whohadrecentlydeclaredTibettobeanindependentstate,waslikewiseanxiousaboutoutsidepowersapproachingfromthenorth.SolongasBritainruledIndia,theleadersofthesetwocountriesresentedtheprospectofmilitary‐styleexpeditionsmarchingacrosstheirterritories.RepresentativesfromtheRoyalGeographicSocietyandtheBritishAlpineClubwonsupportfromtheSecretaryforIndia,theBritishViceroy,theBritish3Lhotseisan8,500meterpeakthatsharestheSouthColwithEverest,Nuptseisa7,860metermulti‐peakedthatrisesaboveEverest’sWesternCwm,andLobucheisa6,100meterpeaksouthwestofEverestbasecamp.

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armycommanderforIndia,andthelocalagentforTibet.ThelatterdelicatelyinfluencedhisfriendsintheTibetangovernmenttoapprovethe1921expedition. Thereafterthelocalgovernments,whentheyhadnotentirelyclosedtheirborderstoclimbingparties,generallyallowedonlyoneexpeditionperyear.TheKingdomofNepalbeganacceptingapplicationsin1949,twoyearsafterIndia’sindependencerelievedlocalfearsofaBritishpresence.71TheBritishandAmericanssentajointreconnaissancepartyin1950,followedbyaBritishteamin1951.TheSwisswonapprovalfortwoattemptsin1952—oneintheSpringclimbingseason,theothertofollowafterthesummermonsoon.TheBritishteam,withNewZealanderEdmundHillaryastheirleadclimber,wasnextinlinewithapermitfor1953.Thepracticeofallowingonlyoneortwopartiesonthemountainperclimbingseasoncontinueduntil1980.Nepalbrieflycloseditsmountainfrontiertoforeignclimbersforfouryearsinthelate1960sand—exceptforafewclandestineattempts—TibetwasclosedtomostclimbersfornearlythirtyyearsfollowingtheChinesetakeoverin1950. Theone‐at‐a‐timepermitsystemdisappearedasdemandforaccesstothemountaingrewandofficialsinthetwocountriesbecamelesssuspiciousofbackcountrytravel.In1979,thegovernmentsofNepalandChina/Tibetseparatelyallowedonlythreeexpeditionsonthemountain.Nepalstaggeredthetwopermitsitissuedsoastoallowonlyoneteamonthemountainatatime.Thefollowingyear,thetwogovernmentsdispensedtenpermits,includingonetoahugeseventy‐threepersonSino‐Japaneseteam.By1991,thenumberofpermitshadgrowntothirty‐two.GovernmentofficialsinTibetandNepaldiscoveredthatforeignerswerewillingtopaylargesumsofmoney—inhardcurrency—fortheopportunitytoclimb.UnsworthreportsthattheNepalesegovernmentchargedeachclimbingparty$2,300U.S.in1991.“Cashbecamethechiefcriterionforobtainingapermit,andthedemandsoftheauthoritiesincreasedexponentially.”Asinterestinclimbingrose,sodidthefee.Bytheendofthe1990s,Nepalwascharging$70,000forteamsusingthepopularSoutheastRidgeroute,withasurchargeforpartieslargerthansevenclimbers.72 ThegovernmentofNepalthroughitsMinistryofCulture,Tourism,andCivilAviationcurrentlymaintainsavariablefeestructure.ForthemostpopularrouteintheSpringpre‐monsoonseason,thebasicfeeis$25,000foronepersonclimbingalone.Thechargeincreasesincrementallyto$70,000forasevenpersonteam,then$10,000perpersonthereafter.Partieswillingtoclimbinthelesspopularpost‐monsoonAutumnclimbingseasonreceivea50percentdiscount,whilethoseheartyenoughtoattemptanoff‐seasonwinterorsummerclimbreceivea75percentreduction.Lesspopularroutesandlessermountainsrequiresmalleramounts.Toclimban8,000meter

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mountainlikeLhotse,forexample,thefeeforasevenpersonteamgoingoutintheSpringdeclinesto$10,000.Nuptse,whichtopsoutat7,860meters,costsjust$4,000forasevenpersonteam.Nuptseis5,000feethigherthatMountMcKinleyinAlaska,butNepalhasnoshortageof7,000meterpeaks. Withintheseparameters,DanMazursetouttoconductacommercialclimbintheSpringseasonof2012withinthe$165,000contributedbyhisclients.Tocutcosts,hechoseacommerciallylesspopularroutetothesummit,onethattookhisclimbingpartyintoChina/Tibet.ClimbingfeesonthenorthsideofEverestthatyearwerelessthanonthemorepopularsoutheastroute.Moreover,thenorthernroutewaslesscrowdedthanthemobsceneaboveNamcheBazar.MazurchosetheapproachdiscoveredbyGeorgeMalloryin1921andusedbyJimWhittaker’sInternationalPeaceClimbexpeditionin1990. Next,Mazurbundledhisclientgroup.HisEverestteamconsistedoffourclimbersattemptingEverest,fiveclimbersengagedinatrainingclimb(theywouldgohighonthemountainbutnotallthewaytothesummit),andfiveindividualstrekkingtoadvancebasecamponthenorthside.Addinghimself,thatmadeanicesizedgroupoffifteenandspreadthecostsoftheventuremorebroadly. ThegroupgatheredinKathmanduinearlyApril.ParticipantstravelednorthfromKathmandutoKodari,amountaintownontheChinesebordertothewestofMt.Everest.LeavingthegreeneryofKodari,theycrossedontothebrownTibetanplateau.ThegrouppausedovernightinNyalamandTingritohelpclientsacclimatetothealtitudeandproceededtotheirbasecamp“comfortablyseatedinnicevehiclesonbumpyroads.”73Theentirejourney,travelingfromKathmanduat1,400feettobasecampat17,000feettookfourdays. Loadingtheirsuppliesonrentedyaks,theexpeditionmovedtoaninterimcampalongtheRongbukglacierandfromtheretoanadvancebasecampat6,400meters.TheexpeditionpartyatthispointconsistedofMazur,hisfourteenclients,anexpeditionmanagerandcookfromTibet,fiveTibetanassistants,andfourhighaltitudeSherpasfromNepalhiredtoguidetheEverestclientstothetop.Thiswasarelativelysmallgroupbyexpeditionstandards.

Bychoosingthenortheasternroute,Mazur’spartyavoidedthedreadedKhumbaicefall.“Itwasalongandbeautifulwalkonthemiraclehighwaysurroundedbytoweringicedpilgrims,”reportedonegroupmember.74Thefifteen‐miletrailfrombasetoadvancebasecampfollowstheRongbukglacierpastalargemorainelake,thenontoathinstripofrockinthemiddleoftheEastRongbukglacieronwhichpeopleandyakscancomfortablywalk.Climberscallthenaturalrockstripthemiraclehighway.Thegrouptooksevendaystotrektoadvancebasecamp,leavingtimeforacclimationandan

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interimcampinthemiddle.Northsideclimberssettingtheirtentsatadvancedbasecamp(6,400meters)areatroughlythesamealtitudeasclimbersonthesoutheastroutewhohavecrossedtheKhumbuicefallandascendedtheWesternCwm.Atthenorthsideadvancebasecamp,Mazur’sfivetrekkersachievedtheirdestination,returnedtobasecamp,andtookajeepbacktoKathmandu.

FromadvancebasecamptheremainingparticipantspracticedclimbingsteepslopestotheNorthCol,usingfixedropesandladderslocallyprovidedforpartiesonthemountainthatyear.Atslightlymorethan7,000meters,theNorthColinanaturalpassbetweentwoforksoftheRongbukglacier.Itmarksthebeginningofthefinal1,800meters(5,900feet)neededtoreachthesummit.

InearlyMay,thetraininggroupdeparted,leavingthefourEverestclimbers,Mazur,thefiveclimbingSherpas,andtheirTibetancampstaffonthemountain.TheremainingmembersoftheteamworkedtoestablishtwocampsabovetheNorthCol.Whentheweatherperiodicallyworsened,theclimbersretreated,sometimesasfarasbasecamp.Bymid‐May,thegrouphadestablishedaseriesofdepots:basecamp(5,200meters),interimcamp(5,800meters),advancedbasecamp(6,400meters),camp1attheNorthCol(7,045meters),camp2(7,500meters),andcamp3(8,300meters)slightlybelowthesummit(8,848meters).

OnMay20,workingwithhisradiofromadvancedbasecamp,Mazurreceivedwordthatawindowofrelativelycalm,sunnyweathermightopeninfourdays.Mostoftheteamretreatedfromthewindsblastingthehighercamps,butclientJacquesPuyoandSherpaJangbupushedaheadandreachedthetop.OnMay26,duringtheweatherwindow,BeowLimwithSherpaPasangNurbufollowed.AustralianJaniceSmithreachedthesummitthefollowingdaywithTenjiSherpaandGyaljeSherpa.Smithsteppedontothesummitat6:30AMonthemorningofhersixty‐eighthbirthday.ThetrioradioedthenewstoMazuratcamp3tenminutesaftertheyarrived.Theclimbersreturnedtocamp3,wheretheyspentthenight.Smithquicklyfellasleep.Overthenextfewdays,Mazurdirectedaslowbutsafedescenttoadvancebasecamp.ThegroupwasbackinKathmandubyJune5.

Workingtogether,thesefactorsmadeobsoletethetraditionalstyleexpedition.Commercialfirmscouldplaceahigherproportionoftheirclimbersonthesummitatlesscost,lessrisk,andmoreprofit.Summary Exhaustedbytheordealofmakingthefirstascent,EdmundHillaryreportedthatheandTenzingNorgaydoubtedwhetheranyonewouldeverwanttorepeattheact.“Wecouldn’thavebeenmorewrong,”Hillaryobserved.75

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Yetinmanywaysthegroupsthatfolloweddidnotrepeatthatfirstachievement.TheBritishexpeditionof1953madea200miletrekwith350porterscarryingthirteentonsofequipmentjusttoreachthebaseofthemountain.Thirty‐nineSherpashelpedthefourteen‐memberexpeditionteamestablishabasecampandfromthereaseriesofglacialcrossingsandeightmorecampsupthemountaintowhatwaseventuallyunfamiliarterrain.76Ontopofthismassivepyramidofpeopleandequipment,oneSherpaandonememberfromthe1953expeditionpartyreachedthetop. ModernclimbersflytoLuklaordrivetotheirnorthsidebasecamp.Theybringlightweightequipmentandclimbusingladdersandropesfixedbyotherpeople.Theyemployguideswhoknowthemostfrequentlyusedroutes.Partiescarrymoderncommunicationequipmentandhaveaccesstodetailedmeteorologicalforecasts.Individualclimberspurchaseinsuranceandcanbeflownoutbyhelicoptersifnecessary. IfmodernclimbershadtoenduretheordealthatHillaryandTenzingfaced,fewerwouldgo.Morethanonehalf‐centuryofinnovationhasmadetheprocesssafer,cheaper,faster,andsoaccessiblethatacommercialindustryhasgrownuparoundtheactivity. Theactivityisanalogoustospaceexplorationinmanyways.Themostdevotedadvocatesformedclubstopromotetheactivity.Clubmemberscouldnotaffordtodoitalone.Initially,theysoughtfinancialcontributionsfromavarietyofsources.Theadvocatessawtheactivityasworthyofpursuitforitsownsake(“becauseitisthere”).Theyenlistedthesupportofotherpartiesthat,whilenotalwayssharinginthemetaphysicalvisionsmotivatingtheoriginaladvocates,foundreasonstosupporttheendeavor.Thoseothergroupsweremotivatedbyscience,thedesirefornationalprestige,andcommercialgainincludingthesaleofnewspapers,books,films,andseatsinvariouslecturehalls. Theoriginaladvocateslearnedthattheinvolvementofoutsidegroupscarriedaprice.Outsidegroups(especiallygovernmentagenciesandthenewsmedia)contributedresources,buttheymadedemandsontheexpeditionsthatcausedthemtobelargerthantheyneededtobeforthehumanexperiencealone.Inaneerierepetitionofthespacefaringexperience,thecostofexpeditionsgrewasexperienceaccumulated.4Inconstantdollars,laterexpeditionslikethe1963Americanand1970JapaneseventurescostmorethantheearliestBritishandSwissclimbs.

Puristsgrewdisgustedwiththebigexpeditionmodel.Thebigclimbscosttoomuch;theyrequiredfund‐raiserstoinventevermorechallenging

4Althoughpost‐Apolloactivitieslikethespaceshuttlewereundertakentoreducethecostofspaceflight,totalspendingoftenexceededthecostofthesystemstheyweredesignedtoreplace.Ininflation‐adjusteddollars,thetotalcostofthespaceshuttleprogramexceededthemoneyspenttosendAmericanstotheMoon.

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objectivesorsillystuntstoelicitfundsfromapublicgrownaccustomedtoconventionallyrepetitiveclimbs.Puristsexperimentedwithalternativeapproaches:quick,high‐risk“alpine”sprintsandeffortsatcommercialization. Underthepressureofthesefactors,innovationoccurred.Thecostofconductingabasicexpeditionfell.Fallingcostsinthepresenceofanemergingmarketplacedthepriceofatripwithinthereachofindividualcustomers.Prospectiveprofits—andtherealizationthatclientswouldcoverthecoststhatallowedthemostdevotedmountaineerstoclimb—attractedcommercialproviders.Moreproviders(andtightereconomicconditions)encouragedfurtherinnovationalongwithcostandpricereduction.Technologyimproved:communication,climbingequipment,weatherforecasting,transportation,mapsandknowledgeofroutes. Theactivitybenefitedfromeconomiesofscaleandchangesingovernmentregulation.Manypeoplefollowedpathsestablishedbyafewpeoplesettingropesandladders,theroute‐keepersreimbursedbytheclimbersfortheeffortinvolved.Commercialfirmsbundledtheirservices,offeringlessambitious(andlessexpensive)adventuresinconjunctionwiththeBigClimb.Insteadofrestrictingaccesstothemountain,governmentsencourageditanddrewprofitsfromtheirchangeinpolicy. Withtimeandexperience,theactivitybecamelessrisky.Theriskdidnotdisappear.ClimbingMt.Everestisadangerousactivity.Itcanbefatalfortheunluckyandunprepared.Inspiteofsomehighlypublicizeddisasters,theriskofbeingonthemountaindeclinedduringthecommercialera.

Inotherways,themountaineeringexperienceonEverestdifferedfromspaceexploration.Mostobvious,itcostless,beingmoreaccessibletoindividualclientsasaresult.Partlyasaconsequenceofthatfactor,mountainclimbingadvocatesmaintainedamixedfundingstrategy.Theyneverwentthroughaperiodwheretheyhadtorelyprimarilyupongovernmentagenciestoraisethefundsanddothework.Mountaineerscobbledtogetherfundsfromavarietyofsources,includinggovernments.Spaceadvocatesdependedmuchmoreupontax‐financedgovernmentbureaustoconducttheirexpeditions.

Withamixedfundingstrategy,climbingadvocateswereabletomaintainbettercontrolovertheiractivitiesthanifasingleoutsidesourceprovidedthefundsandorganizedtheclimbs.EspeciallyinEuropeandAmerican,privategroupsneverlostcontroloftheactivity.EveninIndia,wherepublicofficialsfundedEverestascents,thegovernmentmaintainedthetraditionofallowingprivateorganizerstoconducttheclimbs. Privatecontrolinthiscasecreatedapowerfulincentivetoinnovateandkeepexpenseslow.Privatecontrolproducedmultipleproviders.Multipleprovidersproducedcompetition.Competitionforcedcommercialoperatorstowatchtheircompetitors,innovate,andkeepcostslow.Low

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costsmeantmoreclimbs.Allofthesefactorskepttheactivityinthehandsofpeoplemostdevotedtotheoriginalcause. Commercialprovisioncameeasilytomountaineersalreadyaccustomedtofund‐raisingthroughprivatefundingpartnerships.Inspaceexploration,theprocesswaslessfamiliar.Thoughspacepolicyismovinginthatdirection,especiallythroughtheprovisionofcommerciallaunchservices,thetransitionfromlargeaerospacecontractstopublic‐privatepartnershipsischallengingforpeopleinvolved. Inmountainclimbing,public‐privatepartnershipsledtoinnovation,costreduction,andcommercialprovision.Throughthisprocess,hundredsofpeople—payingcustomers—cametoexperiencelifeontheroofoftheworld.AnactivitythatHillaryandTenzingNorgaythoughtnearlyimpossiblecamewithinthereachofwellpreparedindividualsonascaleunimaginableatthebeginningoftheventure.

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Table1

AmericanExpeditiontoMt.Everest:1963ActualcostsrecordedthroughNovember30,1963

U.S.dollars(1963)Equipmentandclothing 92,850Oxygenequipment 22,203Food 20,532Travelandaccommodations 45,872Freightandhandling 37,745Wages 36,189Medical 3,595Contingencyandmiscellaneous 3,427 Subtotal 262,413Documentaryfilm 37,237Stillphotography 4,047Scientificprograms—directcosts 32,920SherpaTourofUnitedStates 13,104 Subtotal 87,308Overhead:organization&administration 52,283Mt.Rainiercamp 3,259 Subtotal 55,542 Total 405,263Source:CharlesB.Huestis,“Finance,”inAmericansonEverest:TheofficialaccountoftheascentledbyNormanG.Dyhrenfurth,byJamesRamseyUllman(Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott,1964),321.OneU.S.dollarin1963hadthesamepurchasingpoweras$7.52in2012.Source:U.S.BureauofLaborStatisticsconsumerpriceindex.

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Table2SummaryofExpeditionsExaminedasaBasisforthisStudy

TraditionalExpeditionsBritishexpeditionsof1921,1922,and1924:Thefirstrecordedattemptstosurveyaroutetothesummitandclimbit,thethirdexpeditionresultedinthelossofGeorgeMalloryandAndrewIrvinewithouttheapparentattainmentoftheobjective.Britishexpeditionof1953:LedbyColonelH.C.J.Hunt,thiswell‐equippedexpeditionresultedinthefirstsuccessfulascentofMt.EverestandsafereturnbySirEdmundHillaryofNewZealandandSherpaTenzingNorgay.Swissexpeditionsof1952and1956:KnowingthattheBritishhadreceivedpermissiontomakeasummitattemptin1953,theSwisssenttwoexpeditionstoMt.Everesttheyearbefore.Afterfailingtoreachthesummitin1952,theSwissteamof1956becamethesecondgrouptoascendMt.Everest.FourmembersoftheSwissteamreachedthesummitandsafelyreturned.Americanexpeditionof1963:JamesWhittaker,accompaniedbySherpaNawangGombu,becamethefirstAmericantoreachthetopofMt.Everest.FourmoreAmericansfollowed.OnememberoftheclimbingteamdiedintheKhumbuIcefall.Indianexpeditionof1965:ClimbersfromIndiaattemptedtoclimbMt.Everestin1960and1962.Ontheirthirdattempt,in1965,theysucceeded.Nineclimbersreachedthesummit.Japaneseexpeditionof1970:Alarge,costly,andfatalexpeditionthatsentclimberstothetreacherousSouthwestface.ThreemembersoftheexpeditionteamandoneSherpareachedthesummitonthetraditionalSouthColroute.SevenSherpasandoneJapaneseclimberdiedonthisandanunrelatedJapaneseexpedition.Internationalexpeditionof1971:Alarge,costlyandunsuccessfulexpeditionthatillustratedthedifficultiesofBigClimbs.AnIndianmemberoftheclimbingteamdiedduringanastystorm.Noclimbersreachedthesummit.Britishsouth‐westfaceexpeditionof1972:Whatbeganasalightweightplanmorphedintoanotherlargeexpedition,againtotackletheSouthwestface.Noonereachedthesummit.Duringtheretreat,oneofthebasecamphelpersdisappearedintheicefall.TransitionalClimbsAustrianexpeditionof1978:ReinholdMessnerandPeterHabelerbecamethefirstclimberstoreachthesummitwithoutsupplementaloxygen.Originallyplanningtoclimbalone,theyjoinedtheAustrianexpeditionaftertheyfailedtoobtaina

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climbingpermit.InadditiontoMessnerandHabeler,sevenmembersofthegroupascendedthemountain.OneSherpadiedintheIcefield.Messnersoloof1980:Supportedbyhisgirlfriendandaminimalstoreofsupplies,ReinholdMessnersprintedtothetopofMt.Everestinthreedayswithouttheuseofsupplementaloxygen.HisminimalistclimbdemonstratedforthefirsttimethatEverestcouldbeclimbedalone,thoughatgreatrisktotheclimber.CanadianEverestexpeditionof1982:ThisoverlylargeexpeditionlostthreeSherpasandonecameramanintheIcefall.Sixclimbersquittheteam.Theremainingmembersplacedsixindividualsonthesummit.NewZealandexpeditionof1985:Afourteenpersonteamattemptedtoforgetwonewroutestothesummitduringthepost‐monsoonseason.Encounteringavalanchesandhorrificweather,nomemberoftheteamreachedthesummit.TheAmerican‐Mexicanexpeditionof1989:AlsoknownastheNutritionExpedition,theorganizersofthiseffortconductedresearchontheeffectsofaltitudeontheabilityofthebodytoconsumefood.Fourteenpersonsparticipatedintheexpedition,ofwhichsixattemptedtoreachthesummitwiththehelpoffourSherpas.TwoSherpasandoneclimberreachedthesummit—thefirstcitizenofMexicotodoso.OneoftheSherpasdiedwhiledescending.EverestInternationalPeaceClimbof1990:LedbyAmericanJimWhittaker,thislargeandambitiousexpeditionattractedclimbersfromtheUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,andChina/Tibet.Twentyindividualsachievedthesummit.TheCommercialEraAdventureConsultants(basedinNewZealand,1992,1996,2012):Createdin1991andincorporatedin1992,AdventureConsultantsisoneofthelongestrunningcommercialoperationsfeaturinghighaltitudeclimbing.Companyco‐founderandtripleaderRobHallalongwithoneofhisguidesandtwoofhisclientsdiedonthe1996Everestexpedition.ThedisasterinspiredJonKrakauer,a1996expeditionmember,towriteIntoThinAir.IMEXfilmclimb(UnitedStates,1996):AmountaineeringteamledbyDavidBreashearsfinanceditsexpeditionbyproducinganIMEXfilmoftheclimb.FiveclimbersandfiveSherpasreachedthesummit.SummitClimb/SummitTrek(basedinEnglandandtheUnitedStates,2011,2012,2013):Foundedasaclimbingandtrekkingorganizationin1990,SummitClimb/SummitTrekconductsoneofthemoresuccessfulandcost‐effectiveEverestoperations.ItoffersexpeditionsonboththeNepalandTibet/Chinaside.DanielMazurled2011and2012EverestclimbsthatplacedacombinedtotalofsixclientsandsevenSherpasonthesummit.

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HimalayanExperience(Europe,2012):HimalayanExperienceisacommercialguideserviceestablishedin1996withadministrativeofficesinArgentiere,nearMontBlancintheFrenchAlps.ItoffersarangeofHimalayanclimbsandtreks.In2012companyguidesledalargegrouptoEverest,noteworthyfortheactionofclimbleaderRussellBricewhopulledtheteamoffthemountainduetowhatheperceivedtobedangerousconditions.RainierMountaineeringInc.(RMI)(basedintheUnitedStates,2012,2013):LouWhittaker(thetwinbrotherofJimWhittaker,thefirstAmericanonEverest)andJerryLynchfoundedRMIin1969toteachclimbingaswellasguideclientstothetopofMt.Rainier.RMIguidesledprivateexpeditionstotheHimalayasbeginningin1982andlaterenteredtheEverestcommercialfield.RMIenlistedDavidHahn,whohasclimbedEverestfourteentimes,toguideits2013trip.

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Table3CostofExpeditionsandPrimeSourcesofFunding

TraditionalExpeditionsBritishexpeditionsof1921,1922,and1924:TheBritishAlpineClubandtheRoyalGeographicalCommitteeformedaJointHimalayanCommitteetoorganizeandconducttheearliestexpeditions.Theexpeditionswerefinancedfromacombinationofprivatesources:thesaleofmediaandphotographyrights,donationsfromclubmembers,andlecturetours.Expeditionleadersestimatedtheexpensesnecessaryforthe1921reconnaissanceat£10,000.The1922expeditioncost£12,538.The1924attemptcostabout£12,500.(Howard‐Bury,1922,19;IssermanandWeaver,2008,118;MountEverestCommitteefinancialreport,26November1923,BlakeneyCollection,BritishLibrary,London;Younghusband,1926,142)Britishexpeditionof1953:Secondaryreportssuggestthattheclimbcost£20,000.TheTimesofLondoncontributedhalfofthissumandreceivedexclusiverightstoexpeditionnewsasaresult.TheBritishgovernmentpaidthesalariesofsometeammembers,contributedrations,providedtransportation,andfundedresearch.Theexpeditionreceivedassistancefromindividualsanddonationsofequipmentfrombusinessfirms.(Hansen,2001,61‐62;IssermanandWeaver,2008,278‐279;Hunt,1953)Swissexpeditionsof1952and1956:TheSwissFoundationforAlpineResearchorganizedthe1956expedition.KarlWeber,presidentofthefoundation,providedfinancialsupport,asdidthebusinessfirmthathedirected(NeueWarenhausAG).Firms,banks,andclubsprovidedadditionalsupport.Eachmemberoftheexpeditioncontributed5,000SwissFrancs,whichWeberreimbursedaftertheteamreturned.Thetotalbudgetforthe1956expeditionwas360,000SwissFrancs.(Oelz,2006,158;Eggler,1957,40).Thecity,Canton,andUniversityofGenevasupportedthefirst1952expedition.Nobudgettotalswereavailableforthetwoexpeditionssentin1952.(SwissFoundation,1972)Americanexpeditionof1963:Theexpeditioncost$405,541,fundedthroughagrantfromtheNationalGeographicSociety,governmentsupport,thesaleofmediarights,donationsinkindfrombusinessfirms,andasmallnumberofprivatedonations.(Huestis,1964,321)Indianexpeditionof1965:TheIndianMountaineeringFoundationandcabinetofficersinthegovernmentofIndiapromotedtheexpedition,whichwasfinancedlargelybytheIndiangovernment.TheIndianDepartmentofDefenceProductionprovidedmostoftheequipmentandfood,withadditionalamountsfromprivatefirms.TheMinistryofEducationprovidedasmallgrant.ExpeditionleadersspentRs.100,000($21,000in1965)onitemsnotavailableinIndia.Sourcesprovidednoaccountingofthevalueofgovernmentsuppliedgoods.(Kohli,1969,xx,267)

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Japanesesouth‐westfaceexpeditionof1970:TheJapaneseAlpineClubraisedfundsfromtheMinistryofEducation,theMainichinewspapers,andtheJapaneseBroadcastingCorporation.Thebudgettotaled¥100million.(Ohtsuka,n.d.)Internationalexpeditionof1971:TheprimecontributionforthisexpeditioncamefromtheBritishBroadcastingCorporation(B.B.C),withadditionalfundsfromtheMainichiNewspapersofJapanandTransWorldAirlines.Thetotalcostoftheexpeditionexceeded$250,000.(Unsworth,2000,404)Britishsouth‐westfaceexpeditionof1972:Workingwithhisagent,expeditionleaderChrisBoningtonandfriendsreceivedsupportfromsuppliers;soldtelevision,newspaper,andbookrights;andreceivedgrantsfromtheMountEverestFoundationandtheBritishMountaineeringCouncil,thelattersupplyingfundsprovidedbytheSportsCouncil.Theexpeditioncost£60,000.(Bonington,1973,84)TransitionalClimbsAustrianexpeditionof1978:TheAustrianAlpineClubreceivedfundsfromtheTyroleanProvincialGovernmentandnewspapers,journals,radiostations,andtelevisionbroadcasters.Industrialsponsorsprovidedequipmentandmaterial.Expensestotaled1,776,000AustrianSchillings.(Habeler,1979,33‐35)Messnersoloclimbof1980:Messner’sbiographerreportsthatMessnerspent$50,000onhisclimb,althoughthisislikelythefeeassessedbytheChinesegovernmentforthepermit.TheChinesealsoinsistedthatMessnertakethreehelperswithhimtobasecamp,whichhedeclined.Messnerapparentlyfinancedtheclimbfromhisbooksalesandlecturetours.(Faux,1982,159‐160)CanadianEverestexpeditionof1982:Whatbeganasalow‐costexpeditionpromotedbyclimberRogerMarshallandsponsoredbytheAlpineClubofCanada,thisfirst‐CanadianexpeditiontoEverestturnedintoathreemillionCanadiandollarundertaking.TheexpeditionreceivedamajorgrantfromAirCanadawithadditionalsupportfrom“alonglistofcorporations,”includingTeleglobeCanada,whichallowedCanadianstowatchtheexpedition’sprogressviatwocommunicationsatellites.(Patterson,1990,32)NewZealandexpeditionof1985:Thebudgetfortheexpeditiontotaledabare‐bonesNZ$165,000or132,740.50Yen(thebudgetsubmittedtoChineseauthorities).Teammembersenlistedsponsors,heldraffles,andsolicitedfoodandequipment.TheyreceivedmodestgrantsfromtheNewZealandAlpineClubandtheNewZealandMinistryofForeignAffairsandMinistryofRecreationandSport.Eachteammembercontributed$5,000.(DingleandPerry,1986,26;Brooks,1986,162‐165)TheAmerican‐Mexicanexpeditionof1989(alsoknownastheNutritionExpedition):ExpeditionleaderWalterMcConnell,aphysician,enlistedthesupportoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.TheU.S.governmentprovidedthetimeof

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USDAresearchersparticipatingintheexpeditionandpaidexpensesassociatedwiththenutritionexperiments.TeammemberRicardoTorres‐NavabecamethefirstcitizenofMexicotoreachthesummit,hencetheformalnameoftheexpedition.TheexpeditionreceivedamajorgrantfromMalaysianAirlinesandcontributionsfromavarietyofcommercialfirms.Expensestotaled$205,000.(CorrespondencewithWalterMcConnellandBobReynolds.)EverestInternationalPeaceClimbof1990:AspecialEarthDay20Foundation,anonprofitorganizationsetuptocelebratethe20thanniversaryofEarthDay,raisedmillionsofdollarsforavarietyofactivities.Thefoundationprovidedtheexpeditionwithits$1.1millionbudget,raisingroughlyhalfofthefundsfromtheoutfittercorporationL.L.Bean.(Feder,1989;Whittaker,1991,47)TheCommercialEraAdventureConsultants(basedinNewZealand,1992,1996,2012):Fortheirfirstcommercially‐ledclimbin1992,AdventureConsultantscharged$35,000U.S.Thefirmenlistedtenclients,sixofwhomattainedthesummit.In1996,itattractedeightclientsandcharged$65,000U.S.Twoclientsandtwoguidesdied,includingco‐founderRobHall.Thefirmledeightclientsin2012atachargeof$65,000U.S.(EverestHistory.com:RobHall;Krakauer,1997,24;adventureconsultants.com:archives;AdventureConsultants:MountEverest2012:ExpeditionNotes)IMEXfilmclimbof1996(UnitedStates):Inatwistonthecustomarycommercialapproach,theIMEXgroupreceiveda$1.65milliongrantfromtheU.S.NationalScienceFoundationandmadeanIMAXfilmoftheclimb.Thefilmgrossedmorethan$100millioninitsfirsttwoyearsofscreening.(NationalScienceFoundationAwardAbstract9614740)SummitClimb/SummitTrek(UnitedStatesandGreatBritain,2011,2012,2013):AmericanclimberDanMazurledfourclientstoMt.EverestfromNepalin2011andfouradditionalclientstoEverestfromthenorthsidein2012.Threeclientsreachedthesummiteachtime,alongwiththreeSherpasin2011andfourSherpasin2012.Thepricewas$33,550forthesouthsideclimband$27,450fortheless‐crowdednorthside.Mazurledanothersouthsideclimbin2013for$35,450.(summitclimb.com)HimalayanExperienceof2012(France):ThisEuropeanoutfitterledalargegroupofsixty‐fiveclientstothesouthsideofMt.EverestintheSpringclimbingseason.Twenty‐threesigneduptoattemptEverestfor€43,000each.(himalayanexperience.com)RainierMountaineeringInc.(RMI)(UnitedStates,2013):Inspiteofitsreputationforenlistingsomeoftheworld’smostexperiencedguides,RMIdroppedthepriceofitsEveresttripsfrom$74,000to$59,000in2013.(rmiguides.com)

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Table4ApproximateCostofExpeditionsin2012U.S.Dollars

British1921reconnaissance(about£10,000) 490,000Britishexpeditionof1922(£12,538) 760,000Britishexpeditionof1924(about£12,500) 740,000Britishexpeditionof1953(about£20,000) 480,000Swissexpeditionof1956(360,000SwissFrancs) 695,000Americanexpeditionof1963($405,263) 3,000,000Indianexpeditionof1965(NotAvailable) N.A.Japanesesouthwestfaceexpeditionof1970: 16,400,000(¥100million)Internationalexpeditionof1971($250,000+) 1,400,000Britishsouth‐westfaceexpeditionof1972(£60,000) 825,000Austrianexpeditionof1978(1,776,000AustrianSchillings) 415,000Messnersoloclimbof1980($50,000) 140,000CanadianEverestexpeditionof1982 5,800,000(3millionCanadiandollars)NewZealandexpeditionof1985(NZ$165,000) 174,000American‐Mexicanexpeditionof1989(alsoknownasthe 380,000NutritionExpedition)($205,000)EverestInternationalPeaceClimbof1990($1.1million)1,900,000IMEXfilmclimbof1996(UnitedStates,$1.65million) 2,400,000Forcommercialclimbs,seeTable5Methodology:U.S.dollarswereconvertedtotheir2012valueusingtheU.S.BureauofLaborStatisticsconsumerpriceindex.Non­U.S.currencieswereconvertedtoU.S.dollarsbasedonaveragecurrencyexchangeratesfortheyearoftheexpeditionusing

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PacificExchangeRateServiceandmeasuringworth.com,thenadjustedto2012valuesusingtheU.S.consumerpriceindexcalculator.

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Table5CommercialTripstoMt.Everest

Costperclimber/clientincurrentand2012U.S.Dollars Costperclimber (2012dollarsU.S.)AdventureConsultants(1992) 57,000(10Everestclimbers@$35,000U.S.)AdventureConsultants(1996) 95,000(8Everestclimbers@$65,000U.S.)SummitClimb/SummitTrek(2011) 34,000(FourEverestclimbersNepal–$33,550)SummitClimb/SummitTrek(2012) 27,000(FourEverestclimbersNorthside–$27,450) HimalayanExperience(2012) 57,000(23Everestclimbers@€43,000)AdventureConsultants(2012) 65,000(8Everestclimbers@$65,000U.S.)RMIMountaineering(2013) 59,000(Advertisedprice$59,000U.S.)

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Table6AmericanExpeditiontoMt.Everest:1963

SourcesoffundingthroughDecember31,1962U.S.dollars(1962)

NationalGeographicSociety 114,719Governmentsupport U.S.StateDepartment(exchangeprogram) 82,000 OfficeofNavalResearch 35,190 NationalScienceFoundation 24,700 NationalScienceFoundation(psychology) 11,600 AirForceOfficeofScientificResearch 10,000 QuartermasterCorps(generalsupport) 10,000 173,490Donationsinkind Equipment 54,950 Food 12,378 Services 5,723 73,051 Media Lifemagazine 9,750 J.B.LippincottCompany(book) 6,750 LifeandN.G.S.(filmprocessing) 1,500 Sawyer’sInc.(3‐Dphotography) 2,500 Skimagazine(article) 1,000 21,500Contributions Generalcontributions 13,961 Explorer’sClub 1,000 14,961Other UniversityofCaliforniaatLosAngeles 3,520 Other 4,300 7,820

TOTAL 405,541

Source:CharlesB.Huestis,“Finance,”inAmericansonEverest:TheofficialaccountoftheascentledbyNormanG.Dyhrenfurth,byJamesRamseyUllman(Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott,1964),321.

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Krakauer,Jon,1997.IntoThinAir:APersonalAccountoftheMountEverestDisaster.NewYork:Villard.

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52

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SwissFoundation,1972.SwissFoundationforAlpineResearch,1939to1970.Zurich.Unsworth,Walt,2000.Everest:TheMountaineeringHistory,3rded.Seattle:The

Mountaineers.Whittaker,Jim,1991.“EverestInternationalPeaceClimb.”AmericanAlpineJournal

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(BritishEdition).

53

Notes1RobertFreitag,quotedinRickGore,“WhentheSpaceShuttleFinallyFlies,”NationalGeographic,March1981,317.Seealso,JosephJ.Corn,WingedGospel:America’sRomancewithAviation(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2002)andReviewofU.S.HumanSpaceflightPlansCommittee,SeekingaHumanSpaceflightProgramWorthyofaGreatNation(NormanR.Augustine,Chair),October2009,13‐14.2AdministrationofRonaldReagan,“UnitedStatesSpacePolicy:RemarksontheCompletionoftheFourthMissionoftheSpaceShuttleColumbia,”WeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocuments,July4,1982,870;BruceMazlish,ed.,TheRailroadandtheSpaceProgram:AnExplorationinHistoricalAnalogy(Cambridge,Mass:MITPress,1965).3JamesM.Beggs,“WhytheUnitedStatesNeedsaSpaceStation”(remarkspreparedfordeliveryattheDetroitEconomicClubandDetroitEngineeringSociety),23June1982,VitalSpeeches48(August1,1982)615‐617;HowardE.McCurdy,TheSpaceStationDecision:IncrementalPoliticsandTechnologicalChoice(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990),xiii,184.4SeeNationalCommissiononSpace,PioneeringtheSpaceFrontier.NewYork:BantamBooks,1986;GerardK.O’Neill,“TheColonizationofSpace,”PhysicsToday27(September1974)32‐40;IsaacAsimov,Foundation.GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1951;LouDobbswithH.P.Newquist,Space:TheNextBusinessFrontier.NewYork:PocketBooks,2001.5ElizabethHawleyliststheerasastheexpeditionaryperiod(1950‐1969),thetransitionalperiod(1970‐1989),andthecommercialperiod(1990‐2009).Hawleyistheofficialscore‐keeperforEverestclimbs,wellknowntopersonsinthefield.Seewww.himalayandatabase.com(accessed3February2013).6Threehundredseventy‐onereachedthesummitfromthesouthside;166fromthenorth.Theestimateof537includesindividualswhoreachedthesummitmorethanoncethatyear.Thetotalnumberofdifferentclimberswasestimatedtobe525.Source:ElizabethHawley,referencedinClimbing@alanarnette.comwww.alanarnette.com/everest/everrest.php(accessed11August2012).7AllconversionsofU.S.dollarsarecalculatedusingtheBureauofLaborStatisticsCPIInflationCalculator.UnitedStatesDepartmentofLabor,BureauofLaborStatistics,Databases,Tables&CalculatorsbySubject,CPIInflationCalculator,n.d.http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm(accessed14January2013).8JamesRamseyUllman,AmericansonEverest:TheofficialaccountoftheascentledbyNormanG.Dyhrenfurth,(Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott,1964),108.9SummitsandDeathsbyyear,EverestHistory.com,n.d.<accessed2March2013;seealsoRichardSalisburyandElizabethHawley,TheHimalayabytheNumbers:AStatisticalAnalysisofMountaineeringintheNepalHimalaya(Seattle:MountaineersBooks,2011),168.10RenéDittert,GabrielChevalley,andRaymondLambert,ForerunnerstoEverest:TheStoryoftheTwoSwissExpeditionsof1952(NewYork:Harper,1954),67.

54

11FrancisYounghusband,TheEpicofMountEverest(NewYork:Longmans,Green,1926)187‐200(U.S.edition).SeealsoWaltUnsworth,Everest:TheMountaineeringHistory,3rded.(Seattle:Mountaineers,2000)107‐111.12JamesW.Whitaker,“ClothingandEquipment,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,334.SeealsoUllman,AmericansonEverest,42.13Ullman,AmericansonEverest,56.14ThestorywasrepeatedbyJamlingTenzingNorgay,thesonofTenzingNorgaywhoclimbedMt.EverestwithSirEdmundHillaryin1953.Fortheoriginofthestory,seeJohnHunt,TheConquestofEverest(NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1954),64.15JamesO.M.Roberts,“TransportandSherpa,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,336.16Ibid.,336.17Ullman,AmericansonEverest,83.18SummitClimb.com,“Newsofourrecentexpedition:EverestNepal,Lhoste,Camp3TrainingClimb,&EverestBasecampTrekNepal,29Marchto5June,2011,”1April,2011www.summitclimb.com/new/default.asp?linktype=r&nid=153#24May(accessed26January2013).19Ullman,AmericansonEverest,108.20Roberts,“TransportandSherpa,”342.21Roberts,“TransportandSherpa,”338&340.22Ullman,AmericansonEverest,178.23Ullman,AmericansonEverest,180.24Ullman,AmericansonEverest,190.25ThomasF.Hornbein,Everest:TheWestRidge(SanFrancisco:TheSierraClub,1965).SeealsoUllman,AmericansonEverest.26Ullman,AmericansonEverest,284.27SummitClimb.com,“Newsofourrecentexpedition:29Marchto5June,2011,”n.d.(accessed29January2013).28SeeFrankH.Winter,PreludetotheSpaceAge:TheRocketSocieties:1924­1940(Washington:SmithsonianInstitutionPress,1983),35‐54,78‐85.29GeorgePal,DestinationMoon(EagleLion,1950);FritzLang,FrauimMond(WomanintheMoon)(1929,availablefromKinoVideoandothersources).Forotherexamplesofindustrialinterestinextraterrestrialexploration,seeJamesCameron,Avatar(TwentiethCenturyFox,2009),RidleyScott,Alien(BrandywineProductions,1979),andDuncanJones,Moon(Sony,2009).30QuotedfromMichaelJ.Neufeld,TheRocketandtheReich:PeenemundeandtheComingoftheBallisticMissileEra(NewYork:FreePress,1995)22.SeealsoHowardE.McCurdy,SpaceandtheAmericanImagination,2nded.(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2011).31CharlesB.Huestis,“Finance,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,319.32Ullman,AmericansonEverest,20.33Ullman,AmericansonEverest,20‐21.34Ullman,AmericansonEverest,26.35Huestis,“Finance,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,321.36AppendixI,inUllman,AmericansonEverest,413‐422.

55

37See“ClimbingMountEverestIsWorkforSupermen,”NewYorkTimes,18March1923.38Younghusband,TheEpicofMountEverest,24.39C.K.Howard‐Bury,MountEverest:TheReconnaissance,1921(LondonandNewYork:Longmans,Green,1922)19.40AscribedtoRobertReynolds,oneoftheleadersofthe1989American‐Mexicanexpedition,inRobertBirkby,MountainMadness:ScottFischer,MountEverest&aLifeLivedonHigh(NewYork:CitadelPress,186).Forasimilarcomment,seeUllman,AmericansonEverest,21.41WaltUnsworth,Everest:TheMountaineeringHistory,3rded.(Seattle:TheMountaineers,2000)404;seealsoChrisBonington,TheUltimateChallenge:TheHardestWayupTheHighestMountainintheWorld(NewYork:SteinandDay,1973),chap.3.42Unsworth,Everest,404.43Ibid.,404‐406.44TheclimberwhowithdrewwasChrisBonington.SeeBonington,TheUltimateChallenge,31.45HiromiOhtsuka,“TheJapaneseMountEverestExpedition1969‐1970,”JapaneseAlpineClub,Expeditions,n.d.www.jac.or.up/english/kiroku/1970/eve70_e.htm(accessed13November2012).46BruceNyznik,“TheManWhoSkiedDownEverest”(1975).47Unsworth,Everest,406‐407.48IsabelB.McConnell,“OnTopEverest,1989,”HimalayanJournal47(1989‐90)162‐165.49PersonalcorrespondencewithWalterMcConnell(29September2012)andRobertReynolds(13November2012);IsabelB.McConnell,“OnTopEverest,1989)HimalayanJournal47(1989‐90)162‐165;seealsoRobertBirkbyRobert,MountainMadness:ScottFischer,MountEverest&ALifeLivedonHigh.(NewYork:Kensington,2008),chap.14.50OfficeoftheWhiteHousePressSecretary(SanClemente,California),TheWhiteHouse,StatementbythePresident,5January1972;OfficeoftheWhiteHousePressSecretary(SanClemente,California),PressConferenceofDr.JamesFletcherandGeorgeM.Low,SanClementeInn,California,5January1972,27‐28;bothinNASAHistoryOffice.51RobertZubrin,“TheMarsPrize,”NationalReviewOnline,1February2012www.nationalreview.com/articles/289775/mars‐prize‐robert‐zubrin(accessed3February2013).52Huestis,“Finance,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,318.53C.NorthcoteParkinson,Parkinson’sLaw(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1957).Theoriginallawstatesthat“workexpandssoastofillthetimeavailableforitscompletion.”54“RobHall1961‐1996,”EverestHistory.com,n.d.www.everesthistory.com/climbers/robhall.htm(accessed19November2012).SeealsoJonKrakauer,IntoThinAir(NewYork:Villard,1997)24.

56

55ReinholdMessner,HighAmbition:ABiographyofReinholdMessner(London:VictorGollanca,1982),158‐166.ElizabethHawleysuggeststhatthecostmayhavefallentojusttwotothreepercentofthecostofareallyexpensiveexpedition.SeeHawley,“SeasonalStories:AContrastofStyles,”inSalisburyandHawley,TheHimalayabytheNumbers,122.562012SpringEverestandLhotsheExpeditions,RadioFrequencies,spreadsheetinpossessionofauthor.57Hunt,ConquestofEverest,xv,108.58Unsworth,Everest,339‐340;seealsoJanMorris,CoronationEverest(London:FaberandFaber,1958).59AllenC.Auten,“Communications,”inAmericansonEverest,byUllman,373‐378;Ullman,AmericansonEverest,194‐195.60StephenRegenold,“EverestClimbingGear—ThenandNow,”NationalGeographic,Everest2012,<adventure.nationalgeographic.com>(accessed7February2013)61Ullman,AmericansonEverest,278&282.62NickHeil,“GivingEveresttheBird,”Outside(May,2012).63SirEdmundHillary,“TheSummit,”inConquestofEverest,byHunt,204.64Krakauer,IntoThinAir,66.65Faux,HighAmbition.66SeeHowardE.McCurdy,Faster,Better,Cheaper:Low­CostInnovationintheU.S.SpaceProgram(Baltimore,MD:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2001)andRobertZubrin,“TheMarsPrize,”NationalReviewOnline,1February2012www.nationalreview.com(accessed24January2013).Seealsoproposalsforaone‐waytriptoMars.BuzzAldrinwithDavidNoland,“BuzzAldrin’sRoadmaptoMars,”14December2005www.popularmechanics.com(accessed7February2013).67IanRidley,Everest2012,“TheIceDoctors,”mountain‐skills.com,22April2012<ian‐mountain‐skills.blogspot.com/2012/04/ice‐doctors.html>(accessed9February2013).68Unsworth,Everest,533.69HimalayanExperience,“Everest2012Members,”Newsletters–EverestSouth2012,2April2012,<himalayanexperience.com/newsletters/everest‐south2012/everest‐2012‐members>(accessed9February2013).70Younghusband,TheEpicofMountEverest,21‐22.71Hunt,ConquestofEverest,4‐5.72Unsworth,Everest,533.73SummitClimb.com,“RecentNews–FromOurExpeditionsAroundTheWorld:EverestTibetExpedition,TrainingClimb&ABCTrek,”14April2012,www.summitclimb.com/new/default.asp?linktype=r&mtype=smenu&vid=17&nid=184#roster(accessed10February2013).74Ibid.,21April2012.75DavidRoberts,“1953:FirstFootsteps–SirEdmundHillaryandTenzingNorgay,”NationalGeographic,Everest2012,April2003<adventure.nationalgeographic.com>(accessed28February2013).76Hunt,ConquestofEverest,63,108,236;IssermanandWeaver,FallenGiants,279.