Chie Fukada*, Noriyuki Kida*, Takatsugu Kojima**, Hirokazu Kitao*, Hiromichi Hagihara***

The dynamic relationship between linguistic instructions and

physical performance

* Kyoto Institute of Technology ** Shiga University of Medical Scienve

*** Kyoto University

1. Introduction

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Instructor-trainee interaction

Bring your head straight up!

choice of verbal instructions

trainee

instructor

Straighten yourself up! Look ahead!

Assume a good posture!

How instructions affect motor skills learning

External (i.e. movement effects) focus instructions are more beneficial than internal (i.e. body movements) focus instructions (Wulf et al., 1998)

Instructions focusing on technique-related, close (but not remote) movement- effects are more advantageous than those of more remote effects (Wulf et al., 2000)

Wulf et al. (2000) wondered:

(i) whether or not their findings are true for expert performers, (ii) whether or not their findings are true for the cases in which

performers manipulate no sport implements.

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Japanese studies: particularly focusing on “Kansei” words instructions and their elicited performances

(i) Verbalization of movements using onomatopoeia is beneficial for motor skill learning (Fujino et al., 2005)

(ii) “Kansei” words (i.e. onomatopoeia, common-words based onomatopoeia and words like “one, two!”) elicit mentally retarded children’s smooth physical movements (Udo, 2007)

(iii) Onomatopoeia instructions in preschool physical activity sessions elicit a variety of children’s physical movements (Shimogama, 2013)

Cf. A large number of linguistic studies have been published on Japanese onomatopoeia, which suggests that onomatopoeia and its frequency and amplitude are one of the striking features of Japanese language.

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a. “Kansei” words seem to have two different effects, i.e. enhancement of performance (Fujino et al., 2005; Udo, 2007) and diversity of performance (Shimogama, 2013).

Instructions with “Kansei” words, especially onomatopoeia, seem to be effective for eliciting “desirable” performances for Japanese people, but…

b. The definitions of “Kansei” words seem to vary from author to author.

c. No detailed kinematic analysis have been conducted in these studies, although the research in the field of sports science has placed a greater emphasis on this analysis.

d. These Japanese studies have made no reference to the findings by Wulf and her colleagues.

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No research has been conducted so far in Japan in order to explore the dynamic relationship between a variety of instructions including “Kansei” words and elicited physical performances in detail (see also the discussion in Tani (2006)).

• What are “Kansei” words? • Which impact do “Kansei” words have for motor skill tuning, diversity or

enhancement of performances? A detailed analysis of elicited physical performances as well as a linguistic analysis will provide possible answers to these questions.

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• To investigate systematically the dynamic relationship between a variety of Japanese instructions including Kansei words and elicited physical performances, expanding on Wulf and her colleagues’ studies

Purpose of Our Research Project

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Objectives of the present study

Reconsider the study of Fukada, Kida, Kitao, Kojima, and Hagihara (2017b) through adding new analyses and deepen the discussion with special reference to Japanese “Kansei” word instructions and their effects on physical performances, and, if possible, suggest the relationship between language, movement image and performance for Japanese people

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i. Vertical jump performances

ii. Motor controlling process

2. Details of the two experiments in Fukada et al. (2017b)

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Experiment 1 (see more details in Fukada et al., 2017b and Kitao et al., 2018)

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monitor

Method Participants: 71 Japanese adults (37 men, 34 women; Age: 26.8±5.3 years old)

Task: To perform a vertical jump after looking at an instruction presented visually on the monitor (1 vertical jump = 1 trial), to produce 15 trials to 15 different instructions (15 trials = 1 set, 5 sets in total)

Procedure 1. Present an instruction visually on

the monitor for 2 sec. 2. Blank for 2 sec. (Participants

perform a vertical jump.) Repeat this process. The 15 instructions were randomly presented in each set.

Objective To grasp a rough idea of what kinds of Japanese instructions produce what performances

Head

Hip joint

Knee joint

Shoulder joint

０

Bent angle of knee joint

Range of motion of arm swing

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or

Height of head peak

Table 1 Instructions used in Experiment 1

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Instructions for a high jump Instructions for a low jump Others

“tenjo ni fureru yooni jampu” [jump so as to touch the ceiling]

“yuka kara hanare nai yooni jampu” [jump so as not to detach yourself from the floor]

“hiza o fukaku magete kara jampu” [jump after bending your knees deeply]

“hiza o asaku magete kara jampu” [jump after bending your knees slightly]

“saidaigen no jampu” [jump with a maximum power] “ookiku jampu” [do a big jump] “takaku jampu” [jump high]

“saishoogen no jampu” [jump with a minimum power] “chiisaku jampu” [do a small jump] “hikuku jampu” [jump low]

“pyoon to jampu” [jump in a manner of pyoon]

“pyon to jampu” [jump in a manner of ‘pyon’]

“usagi mitai ni jamp” [jump like a rabbit] “kaeru mitai ni jampu” [jump like a frog]

Note: In addition to these 14 instructions, the simple instruction “jampu” (‘jump’) was included in Experiment 1. All instructions were given in Japanese. The onomatopoeia pyon represents the act of jumping by a small animal like a rabbit, and pyoon the act of jumping higher and/or longer. Green represents “close external” words, blue, body parts, orange, adjectives or adverbials, and red, onomatopoeia or simile.

Important Results of Experiment 1

i. The instruction which elicited the highest jump was “tenjo (=ceiling, close external) ni fureru yooni.”

#The claim by Wulf et al. (1998) seems to be plausible in jump motor control.

#This instruction evokes smooth upward eye movements, which functions as a visual target and elicits autonomously a maximum jump performance.

iii. The instructions which elicited a variety of performances were onomatopoeia instructions.

# Support the claim by Shimogama (2013), but NOT those by Fujino et al. (2005) and Udo (2007)??

ii. The instruction “yuka (=floor, close external) kara hanarenai yooni” had the lowest intra- and inter-individual variability.

#The claim by Wulf et al. (1998) seems to be plausible even in eliciting minimum jump performances.

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Experiment 2 (see more details in Fukada et al., 2017a, and Fukada et al., 2017b.)

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Method Participants： 18 Japanese university students (15 men; 3 women; Age 20.3±1.9 years old)

Task: To perform a vertical jump after looking at an instruction presented visually on the monitor (1 vertical jump = 1 trial), to produce 45 trials with 45 different instructions (1 set = 15 trails, 3 sets in total)

Procedure : Mostly the same as in Experiment 1, but the order of the instructions presented was fixed.

Objective To investigate in more detail the relationship between verbal instructions and elicited performances, using instructions like (a) mental or mental-physical instructions, (b) onomatopoeia + other(s) instructions, (c) adjective/adverbial + body part instructions, (d) instructions concerning heaviness, and so forth, and comparing instructions which are assumed to convey “similar” meanings.

List of instructions in Experiment 2

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“tenjo ni tacchi suru tsumori de jampu” [jump so as to touch the ceiling] “kumo o tukamu tsumori de jampu” [jump so as to grasp a cloud] “takai tokoro ni natte iru kinomi o toru tsumori de jampu” [jump so as to pick a nut high in the tree]

“takaku jampu” [jump high]

“ookiku jampu” [do a big jump] “ude o ookiku futte jampu” [jump swinging your arms wide]

“hayaku jampu” [jump fast] “subayaku jampu” [jump quickly] “ude o subayaku ue ni futte jampu” [jump quickly swinging your arms upward]

“tsuyoku jampu” [jump strongly] “yuka o tsuyoku kette jampu” [jump, strongly pushing off from the floor] “yuka ni tacchishite kara jampu” [jump after touching the floor]

“hiza o shikkari magete kara jampu” [jump after bending your knees firmly] “shikkari jampu” [jump firmly]

“hiza o chan-to tsukatte jampu” [jump using your knees in a perfect manner] “chan-to jampu” [jump in a perfect manner] “gut-to kagande kara jampu” [jump after crouching in a manner of gut-to (‘low’)]

List of instructions in Experiment 2 (continued)

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“hiza o fukaku magete kara jampu” [jump after bending your knees deeply]

“isshookemmei jampu” [jump hard] “gambat-te jamp” [jump with all one’s energy] “omoikiri jampu” [jump {to the full/with all one’s might}]

“chikara-ippai jampu” [jump with all one’s might] “zenryoku de jampu” [jump with full power] “saidaigen no chikara de jampu” [jump with a maximum power]

“pyoon-to jampu” [jump in a manner of pyoon] “usagi mitai ni jamp” [jump like a rabbit] “kaeru mitai ni jampu” [jump like a frog] “haneru yoo ni jampu” [jump as though one springs up (in the air)]

“chiisaku jampu” [do a small jump] “chot-to dake jampu” [jump slightly]

“saishoogen no chikara de jampu” [do a minimum jump]

“hikuku jampu” [jump low]

“yowaku jampu” [jump weakly]

“sot-to jampu” [jump quietly] “yasashiku jampu” [jump kindly]

List of instructions in Experiment 2 (continued)

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“raku ni jampu” [jump easily] “karuku jampu” [jump lightly] “pyon-to jampu” [jump in a manner of pyon]

“fuwat-to jampu” [jump lightly and softly] “yawarakaku jampu” [jump softly]

“yukkuri jampu” [jump slowly]

“dosun to jampu” [jump, making a sound of dosun (big and heavy sound)] “suton to jampu” [jump, making a sound of suton (small and light sound)]

“ichi, nii no, san de, jampu” [jump after “one, two and three!”] “seeno! de, jampu” [“ready!” and jump]

Note: All instructions were given in Japanese, although their English translations are added here. Honestly, it is very difficult to translate them into English, which in itself proves that they convey different, but somewhat related meanings, which cannot be perfectly translated.

Important Results of Experiment 2

i. Among the instructions which were expected to elicit high jumps, “tenjo (=ceiling) ni fureru yooni” was the most effective. The instructions which focus on invisible or remote external targets like “kumo” (=cloud) and “ki no mi” (=nut) or, the instructions which highlight the body part hiza (knees) were less effective.

#The claim by Wulf et al. (2000) seems to be plausible in jump performance.

#Visible targets in the same direction of the assumed movement —in case of vertical jump this is the “upward” direction— elicit autonomous motor control.

ii. Since onomatopoeia + others instructions can convey more clearly what performances are “desirable” than onomatopoeia-only instructions, they tended to elicit more effectively “desirable” performances.

#Onomatopoeia’s ambiguity is dissolved by adding other expressions.

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3. Additional analyses of the two experiments and reconsideration

of the results

In order to explore more precisely what instruction(s) convey more various/ambiguous images and thus elicit more diverse performances among the Japanese: A) calculate both inter- and intra-individual variations among all

the instructions in Experiment 1 B) calculate inter-individual variations between among all the

instructions in Experiment 2

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3.1 Results of the calculation of both inter- and intra-individual variations among all the instructions in Experiment 1

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Note: The instructions which are assumed to elicit a high jump cause more variations than low-jump instructions, because how high participants can jump depends on each participant’s motor skills or motor control abilities.

• As we expected, simile and onomatopoeia instructions led to diverse jump heights, although onomatopoeia instructions elicited less diverse performances.

• The “KNEE-slightly” instruction elicited more diverse jump heights from each person among the low-jump instructions. … NEEDs to be discussed!

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• The high-jump onomatopoeia pyoon led to more fixed arm swings among the high-jump instructions, while the low-jump onomatopoeia pyon elicited the most diverse ones among the low-jump instructions.

… NEEDs to be discussed!

• The “KNEE-slightly instruction elicited the most diverse arm swings compared with the other low-jump instructions.

... NEEDs to be discussed!

• Among high-jump instructions, the “ceiling” instruction elicited most fixed arm movements from the participants, even though this instruction does not say anything about the movement of the shoulders. … NEEDs to be discussed!

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• Simile instructions led to diverse knee angles, as expected.

• The two KNEE instructions, particularly the “KNEE-slightly” instruction, led to diverse knee angles, although they mention knees’ movements clearly.

… NEEDs to be discussed!

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Discussion 1 (“tenjo”)

• Among high-jump instructions, the “ceiling” instruction elicited the most fixed arm movements from the participants, even though this instruction did not say anything about the movement of the shoulders.

The combination of the words tenjo (‘ceiling’) and fureru (‘touch’) impelled the participants to try to touch the ceiling, and thus elicited autonomous and fixed (probably, maximum) arm swing.

… Importance of clarification of both the target and the target action

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Discussion 2 (onomatopoeia)

• The two onomatopoeia related to the height of the jumps caused different effects: the high-jump onomatopoeia led to more fixed arm swings among the high-jump instructions, while the low-jump onomatopoeia the most diverse ones among the low-jump instructions.

To achieve the highest level of performance is desirable in sports. In the case of vertical jump, people tend to consider the goal is to do the highest jump.

Since the onomatopoeia pyoon-to conveys the meaning of a higher or longer jump it coincides with this goal, and encourages more fixed performances.

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• The two KNEE instructions, i.e. “hiza o asaku” and “hiza o fukaku,” particularly the “KNEE-slightly” instruction (“hiza o asaku”), led to diverse knee angles, although knee movements were clearly mentioned in these two instructions.

• The “KNEE-slightly” instruction, i.e. “hiza o asaku,” elicited the most diverse arm swings compared with the other low-jump instructions.

One possible explanation is that when the adjectives fukaku (‘deeply’) and asaku (lit. ‘shallowly’) are used in combinations with knee movement instructions, the Japanese cannot get clear movement images, because they cannot check the action of bending their knees visually when performing a jump, and therefore the action depends on each person’s own sense/ability of knee movement.

Discussion 3 (KNEE instructions)

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3.2 Results of the calculation of both inter-individual variations among all the instructions in Experiment 2

i. Onomatopoeia-only vs. (Seemingly) corresponding Adjective/Adverbial-only

ii. Adjective/Adverbial-only vs. Adjective/Adverbial + Body part, and Onomatopoeia-only vs. Onomatopoeia + Body part

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A) “fuwat-to jampu” [jump lightly and softly] “yawarakaku jampu” [jump softly]

B) “pyon-to jampu” [jump in a manner of pyon] “karuku jampu” [jump lightly]

C) “sot-to jampu” [jump quietly] “yasashiku jampu” [jump kindly]

D) “chot-to dake jampu” [jump slightly]

“chiisaku jampu” [do a small jump]

E) “isshookemmei jampu” [jump hard] “gambat-te jamp” [jump with all one’s energy] “omoikiri jampu” [jump {to the full/with all one’s might}] “shikkari jampu” [jump firmly] “chan-to jampu” [jump in a perfect manner]

3.2.1 Onomatopoeia-only vs. (Seemingly) corresponding Adjective/Adverbial-only

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Comparison among the instructions in (A-C)

The instruction with the adjective karuku (‘lightly’) elicited the least diverse performances among these six instructions.

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

ふわっとジャンプ

やわらかくジャンプ

ぴょんとジャンプ

軽くジャンプ

そっとジャンプ

やさしくジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

fuwat-to yawarakaku pyon-to karuku sot-to yasashiku

The instruction with the adjective yawarakaku (‘softly’) elicited highly diverse arm swings and knee angles, and the instruction with the adjective yasashiku (lit. ‘kindly’), highly diverse knee angles.

Some adjectives like karuku induce more fixed movements, while others like yawarakaku and yasashiku elicit diverse movements. … WHY?

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Comparison among the instructions in (D)

The instruction with the onomatopoeia chot-to (meaning ‘slight’) elicited less diverse arm swings, although, as seen in comparison in (A-C), the onomatopoeia words fuwat-to and pyon-to induced more diversity.

Some, but not many, onomatopoeia like chot-to (and sot-to in arm swing) induced more fixed movements, while others like fuwat-to and pyon-to less fixed (more diverse) movements. … WHY?

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0ちょっとだけジャンプ

小さくジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

chot-to dake chiisaku

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Comparison among the instructions in (E)

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

一生懸命ジャンプ

頑張ってジャンプ

思い切りジャンプ

しっかりジャンプ

ちゃんとジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

isshookemmei gambat-te omoikiri shikkari chan-to

The instruction with the word omoikiri (meaning ‘to the full’ or ‘with all one’s might’) elicited the lease diverse knee angle.

…WHY?

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A) “ookiku jampu” [do a big jump] “ude o ookiku futte jampu” [jump swinging your arms wide]

B) “subayaku jampu” [jump quickly] “ude o subayaku ue ni futte jampu” [jump quickly swinging your arms upward]

C) “shikkari jampu” [jump firmly] “hiza o shikkari magete kara jampu” [jump after bending your knees

firmly]

D) “chan-to jampu” [jump in a perfect manner] “hiza o chan-to tsukatte jampu” [jump using your knees in a perfect manner]

3.2.2 Adjective/Adverbial-only vs. Adjective/Adverbial + Body part, Onomatopoeia-only vs. Onomatopoeia + Body part

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0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0大きくジャンプ

腕を大きく振ってジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0 素早くジャンプ

腕を素早く上に振ってジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

ookiku ude o ookiku futte

subayaiku ude o subayaku ue ni futte

In the case of ookiku (‘big’) instructions, indicating clearly the body part ude (arm) induced less diverse arm swings, as expected, while, in contrast to our expectations, in the case of subayaku (‘fast’ or ‘quickly’), the use of ude (arm) in the instructions increased the diversity of arm swings slightly while decreasing that of knee angles.

… WHY?

Comparisons between the two instructions in (A) and (B)

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0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0 しっかりジャンプ

膝をしっかり曲げてからジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD 0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0 ちゃんとジャンプ

膝をちゃんと使ってジャンプ

Arm Swing _ SD Knee Angle _ SD

shikkari hiza o shikkari magete kara

Chan-to hiza o chan-to tsukatte

In both cases, indicating clearly the body part hiza (‘knee’) induced less diverse knee angles, as expected, and more diverse arm swings, against our expectations.

Comparisons between the two instructions in (C) and (D)

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Discussion 1 (Adjectives)

• Some adjectives like karuku induced more fixed movements, while others like yawarakaku and yasashiku elicited diverse movements.

Adjectives eliciting less fixed movements (e.g. yawarakaku and yasashiku) are

those evoking less clear images of movements, because features like softness, tenderness or kindness are more difficult to evaluate objectively than those like heaviness.

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Discussion 2 (Onomatopoeia)

Relating this result with the other results concerning onomatopoeia in

Experiments 1 and 2 and adjectives in Experiment 2, onomatopoeia which elicit more diverse/less fixed movements can be assumed to convey a variety of senses concerning a variety of features.

• Some, but not many, onomatopoeia like chot-to (and sot-to in arm swings) induce more fixed movements, while others like fuwat-to and pyon-to less fixed (more diverse) movements.

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Contrary to our expectations, the instruction with the word omoikiri (meaning ‘to the full’ or ‘with all one’s might’) elicited the lease diverse knee angles, although the onomatopoeia chan-to also induced a less diversity.

Unlike other similar expressions, the word omoikiri induces an excess (or sometimes unnecessary) downward physical force when used as a jump

instruction. This suggests that when being directed with this word, the Japanese tend to mentally brace or strengthen themselves, resulting in exerting excess (and sometimes unnecessary) downward physical force on their own body.

Discussion 3 (“Omoikiri”)

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In the cases of ookiku (‘big’) instructions, indicating clearly the body part ude (‘arm’) induced less diverse arm swings, while in the case of subayaku (‘fast’ or ‘quickly’), the use of ude increased the diversity of arm swings slightly while decreasing that of knee angles. In addition to this, the contrast between shikkari/chan-to and shikkari/chan-to + body part hiza (‘knee’) demonstrated that indicating clearly the body part hiza induced less diverse knee angles and more diverse arm swings.

The results suggest: (i) the Japanese consider that vertically high jump performances are not

elicited by quick arm swings, and so they feel that the quickness image represented by the word subayaku is inconsistent with vertical jump performances

(ii) in contrast to instructions with the word hiza (‘knee’), instructions with the word ude (‘arm’) induce autonomous body movements, affecting not only arm movements but also movements of other body parts like the knees, although any instruction with a body part noun can affect the movement of the body part indicated.

Discussion 4 (“ookiku”/“subayaku” and “shikkari”/“chan-to”, “ude” and “hiza”)

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4. Conclusion

Close-External Target

Indicating both a close-external target and target action is the best way to elicit a particular and more fixed performance. In addition to this, when the instruction is closely related to the (tacit) goal of the performance —in case of vertical jump, it is doing a higher jump— the positive effect of the instruction increases.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia can be more effective and elicit more fixed performances when its meaning is compatible with the (tacit) goal of a given performance, and the Japanese can evoke a particular performance image clearly.

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Onomatopoeia and adjectives

Onomatopoeia and adjectives whose meanings are related to various sensory and motor factors and are hard to evaluate objectively evoke less clear performance images and elicit more diverse performances.

This result suggests that so called “kansei” words are the words whose meanings are related to various sensory and motor factors and hard to evaluate fully and objectively.

Why are Japanese people said to use “kansei” words frequently?

One possible answer is that since Japanese people express their feelings less by using gestures and/or in changing their tone of voice, these words have developed and come to be used frequently in conversation.

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Omoikiri

Instructions with this word encouraged the Japanese to mentally brace or strengthen themselves, resulting in exerting excess (and sometimes unnecessary) physical force on their own bodies.

Remaining Issues: Subayaku This word focuses on the speed or quickness of the movement. If it is used as an instruction of the performance whose goal is achieved by improving the speed or quickness of the movement, then use of this word is effective. Hiza (‘knee’) vs. Ude (‘arm’) Instructions with the word ude, but not with hiza, seem to induce autonomous whole body movements. WHY? • Is it because we can easily move our arms, while our knees are related to force or

power? • Is it because we can see the movements of the arms easily, but not the knees? … Effects of a variety of English instructions on native English speakers Effects of different tones of voice in verbal instructions on physical performances Effects of a variety of English verbal (not visual) instructions on Japanese people

Instructor

Performance

Interpretation of language

Imagining of the action

BRAIN

trainee

INTERACTION

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BODY

instruction 1 (language)

Performance 1 (body)

Instruction 2

(modified/adjusted) Performance 2

(modified/adjusted)

Instruction n

(modified/adjusted) Performance n

(modified/adjusted) …

Adjustments of words and performances between the instructor and trainee occur in successive interactions.

References Fujino, Y., Inoue, K., Kikkawa, M., Nishina, E., & Yamada, T. (2005) Undoo gakusyuu no tame

no supootu onomatope deetabeesu [Database of sport onomatopoeia for sport learners]. Japan Journal of Educational Technology 29: 5-8.

Fukada, C., Kida, N., Kitao, H., Kojima, T., & Hagihara, H. (2017a) Jump instructions and their physical performances: How language and bodily movement are connected. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of Japanese Cognitive Science Society, 275-283.

Fukada, C., Kojima, T., Kida, N., & Hagihara, H., (2017b) Jumping in Japanese: Converting linguistic instructions into physical performances. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2017), 3712.

Kitao, H., Kida, N., Fukada, C., Nakamoto, T., Kojima, T., Hagihara, H., & Nomura, T. (2018) The effect of differentiation in the linguistic movement-instructions on performance. Transactions of Japan Society of Kansei Engineering 17(2): 257-265.

Tani, H. (2006) Serapisuto ni yoru kyoji ya fiidbakku wa gakushuu ni kookateki ka? [Are therapists’ instructions and feedback effective for learning?] Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 21(1), 69-73.

Udo, M. (2007) Kansei o karada de arawasu kotoba: Kotoba to ongaku to miburi ga choowasuru hanchuu [Words for expressing kansei by the body: The category in which language, music and action harmonize]. Kobe papers in linguistics, 5, 217-234.

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Shimogama, A. (2013) Shintai hyogen katsudo ni okeru onomatope o mochiita ugoki to imeeji [Movement and Image in Physically Expressing Activity Utilizing Onomatopoeia]. Nagasaki Joshi Tanki Daigaku Kiyo 37, 78-83.

Wulf, G., Höb, M., & Prinz, W. (1998) “Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention”, Journal of Motor Behavior, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 169-179.

Wulf, G., McNevin, N., Fuchs, T., Ritter, F., & Toole, T. (2000) “Attentional focus in complex skill learning”, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 229-239.

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Acknowledgements This work is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP 16K13070.

Special thanks to: the participants of our experiments, Sandra Healy for her meticulous reading of my draft, and my present research assistants, Shota Nakagawa, Takuma Kato, and Ryuki Yokogawa for their assistance and helpful discussions.

Mahalo!

Thank you for listening!