The Drumbeats of War:Music of the Mexican-American War, 1846-1848

Intro To Historical Research 3300

Section 2 Harrison King

Professor Saxon November 11, 2012

This paper will examine U.S. music during the Mexican-American War during the years

1846-1848. It will describe the function that music played during the war, both culturally on the

home front, and the martial function on the battlefields. I will be looking at its composers and

publishers as well, and deciphering the messages in the music they were publishing. Art, and

especially music, offer excellent windows into the souls and sub-consciousness of any culture,

but this is particularly true of 19th-century America.1 The ballads and piano battle “fantasies”

were steeped in Romanticism, and were specifically designed to evoke strong emotions, whether

pride in country, sadness for the lost ones, or the terror of the battlefield.2 America by this point

had developed a sense of nationality for the most part unrivaled in the world, and the music

definitely reflected that idealism.3 Robert Johannsen expresses this well in his book, To the Halls

of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination, “Patriotism was instilled

through the keyboard, and great national events were celebrated musically.”4 Songs of the war

immortalized war heroes and glorified martial actions. Even the religious, poorer socio-economic

classes, who typically demonized music as “of the devil,” approved of martial and patriotic

songs.5 Now, while the music did portray positive messages of American nationalism and

idealism, there was a darker side to these Romantic ideals. The music and lyrics also reflected

and promoted negative ideals of imperialism and Anglo-Saxon racial superiority. The purpose of

this paper will be to look past the immediate Romanticism of the intense patriotism of the music,

and dig deep to discover those negative ideals, while at the same time attempting to understand

some of these thought patterns in context of cultural psyche.

As I have stated above, cultural context is crucial when looking at an era’s art forms. The

overwhelming patriotism and warlike attitudes that were prevalent in both the music and other

forms of entertainment stemmed from many sources. The Mexican War was an extremely

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personal war for the American populace, being a war that touched many if not most Americans

with its propinquity both geographically and with the war’s heavy use of volunteers from many

of the states.6 It was a minority of American citizens who did not have either family or close

friends involved in the conflict.7 It was the first U.S. conflict “…to rest on a truly popular base,

the first that grasped the interest of the population, and the first people were exposed to on an

almost daily basis.”8

This war was important in cementing the self-identity of the U.S. The country was still

relatively young, and there was conflict between the new ideas and advances in commerce and

society, and the old ideals of patriotism and nationalism that the country was founded on, which

seemed to be waning.9 The war infused new life and purpose into American chauvinism,

reaffirmed American republicanism, and provided an arena for new American heroes to gallop

onto the scene.10 It was during this contest that American symbols, such as the flag design we

know today and the eagle, were not only reminders of the past, but solidified as true national

symbols and “lent impetus to the patriotism of…the soldiers….”11 This was the first American

war that the soldiers fought underneath the “Stars and Stripes”, and marched to battle to the tune

of the Star-Spangled Banner.12

Foremost among these symbols though, was the song Yankee Doodle. For the American

soldiers, it was far and away the most loved melody.13 Its tune was reproduced and refitted to

many different songs and forms; marches, songsters, and published sheet music all held

renditions of this air. A couple of reasons for its popularity could include the youthful, carefree

attitude of the music or it could be that it was another link to the Revolutionary War, which

seemed to be a reoccurring theme in the popular culture of the time.14 An interesting note, late in

the war when some American soldiers were attending a theater in Mexico City, a call was made

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for Yankee Doodle, and the Mexican musicians obliged, and one Mexican audience member after

hearing the song remarked, “It is no longer a source of surprise to me that we have been so easily

conquered.”15 The American soldiers held strong emotional ties to their national symbols,

showing the wave of patriotism and nostalgia for the American Revolution’s ideals that had

swept the country in a flood torrent.

These ties to the Revolution and its heroes were important for the culture from the

perspective that the public and the soldiers believed that the military success in the Mexican War

would accomplish forging a link to the founders and fulfill their ideals for the nation.16 So strong

was this concept planted in the soldiers’ psyche, that at the battle of Buena Vista, General

Zachary Taylor used George Washington’s birthday to inspire his heavily outnumbered troops to

a valorous victory over a Mexican force over five times greater than themselves.17 One can find

an excellent example of this spirit in the Rough and Ready Songster. Songsters were small books

filled with war songs that soldiers carried with them. The Rough and Ready Songster itself

included 142 patriotic and martial songs.18 In this songster, one of the songs, The American’s

Battle Prayer, invoked:

Oh, Washington, our sainted sire,Pour in our souls thy patriot fire,Against the foul conspiring foe,Arouse each patriot heart below19

The volunteers regarded themselves to be virtual reincarnations of the volunteers who

had first stepped up to fight for the country in 1776. In fact, in the music of the war,

“identification of the ‘boys of ‘46’ with the ‘boys of ‘76’ was forcefully drawn.”20 They wanted

to prove to themselves and the world that they could step up to the expectations from back home

and around the world and carry the flag of democracy to foreign lands.21

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Another very important concept to keep in mind when considering the context of the

music was the idea of “Manifest Destiny.” The Mexican War was powered in its core by this

idea. One could make the argument that the reason that this is somewhat of a “forgotten war” in

American history is because of the aggressive expansionism that was exhibited by the U.S.22 The

patriotism of the Americans was linked hand in hand with Providentially blessed expansion. The

expression “Manifest Destiny” was both a legitimate, if not Romantic ideal, while it also was

merely a justification for territorial expansion.23 Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had

ordained that Americans were entitled to all of North America, and it “provoked the first

widespread embrace of the Anglo-Saxon race as prototypical of the U.S. national identity.”24 In

the very first sermon preached in Mexico to the American troops, the preacher pronounced that

“God intended the Anglo-Saxon race not only to take possession of all North America but also

‘influence and modify’ the character of the entire world.”25 Referring again to the Rough and

Ready Songster, a great example of this expansionist attitude can be found in the song, Empire in

the West.

There came a voice! it spake of wealth, and of the cheering rays,Of science, and religion pure, which soon will brighter blaze:That voice!-it was the mingled tone of free-

men, nobly blest:The founders of that mighty power-the empire of the west.26

This promotion of Anglo-Saxon imperialism led to a degraded view of the Mexicans. One

“humorist” Thomas B. Thorpe proclaimed Mexican soldiers as a mutt of all races “where the evil

qualities of each…[are] alone retained.”27 Even a Cincinnati phrenologist affirmed after

examining skulls of Mexican soldiers a “very coarse organization, rather animal than

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intellectual.”28 Evidence of these mentalities can be found by examining the cover lithographs of

some of the popular pieces of sheet music at the time, such as Santa Anna’s Retreat from Cerro

Gordo, with a lampooning of the Mexican general running from battle losing his hat and wooden

leg in his scamper to safety. Interestingly enough though, the Americans held great respect for

the Mexican women, and the song The Maid of Monterey became one of the most famous songs

of that time period.29 This beautiful song told the tale of a Mexican maid who after the battle of

Monterey came to help the wounded and comfort the dying on the American side. Its last verse is

very touching.

For, tho’ she loved her nation, and prayed that it might live,yet for the dying foemen she had a tear to give.Then here’s to that bright beauty who drove death’s pang away,the meek-eyed Senorita, the maid of Monterey.30

These cultural notes help set the background for the production of the music, but there are

several other key aspects to consider when looking at the music.

To appraise sheet music of a time period can offer a window into the inner life of an

American family much differently than perhaps a newspaper article or a general’s journal. Music

and song are the life-blood of a culture, and when we access the music it “transports us to that

place and time for a moment.”31 Sheet music was not very cheap to produce until the 1840s,

when new technologies in lithography made it more feasible to produce sheet music in large

quantities.32 To give a brief definition of sheet music for those not familiar, it can be described as

a “single sheet of paper printed on one or both sides with musical scores and possibly lyrics.”33

By the mid 19th century, it was increasingly common to find sheet music in households, mainly

due to increases in income to purchase instruments, leisure time to actually earn and practice

instruments, and increased demand for recreational music.34

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For the cultivated middle class family, it was a sign of cultural achievement to have

instruments, mainly the piano, and to have family members who could play. The piano was the

most popular household instrument of the time, with its “…versatility and value both as a

cultural symbol and a source of entertainment.”35 A typical evening of family entertainment

during the war might include an after dinner concert in the parlor from one of the more musically

talented children of the family. They would play the latest quickstep or march fresh off the

publisher’s presses, and transport the family away to the exotic land of Mexico and the heroic

deeds of the conquering soldiers. An excellent piece showing this very scene can be found in J.C.

Viereck’s Parlor Duets, with a cover image of the typical family gathered in the parlor eagerly

listening to the daughter and son tickle the ivories.

The lithographic illustrations on the covers of the sheet music were also a window to the

world of war, often showing intense battle scenes. These images were usually stylized and

romanticized to help stir up the proud, patriotic heart of the listener of these often dramatic

pieces of music, and the combination of auditory and visual stimulation made a powerful impact.

Excellent examples of these action-packed lithographs can be found on such pieces as J.G.

Osbourn’s Buena Vista Grand Triumphal March, with American soldiers firing into the open

gate of the Black Castle, General Zachary Taylor signaling the charge, and the Stars and Stripes

proudly flying above the fray. Another good sample would be Thomas H. Chambers’ Palo Alto

Grand March, with the dauntless Major Ringgold regally posing on his stallion, with four

separate images of cavalry in fierce battle action surrounding his image. Patriotism was running

at fever pitch in America during this war, and the music publishers definitely capitalized on the

high emotions. The majority of these publishers were from the Northeast; New York, Boston,

Philadelphia, and Baltimore all housed major publishers, though smaller companies were to be

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found in cities such as Cincinnati and New Orleans. The market was flooded with music, as “…

almost anyone, it seems, could gain publication in that era of a seller’s market for parlor piano

music.”36 War song after war song was cranked off the publishers’ presses, often imitating, if not

downright copying each other’s work. The concepts of plagiarism and copyrights were not

exactly major issues at that time. A perfect case is found in three different songs with the title

Santa Anna’s March, produced by George Willig of Philadelphia, F.D. Benteen of Baltimore,

and W.C. Peters of Baltimore. The tunes had almost note for note the same melody. The

consumers must have been fine with these practices, as the virtuosity and ability of the song

performers to improvise were valued more than the originality of the song itself.37

Now the music styles that were made were almost homogenously martial, with few

exceptions being funeral marches and dirges. Three major styles dominated the market,

quicksteps, marches, and piano “fantasies.” Quicksteps were set at a tempo of a quick 108 steps

per minute, and were very popular for the military bands to play.38 Marches were also extremely

popular; with their stately pomposo tempos, they were the quintessential military tunes. The

funeral tunes were often marches as well, as they well suited the respectful, structured tempo of

those occasions. Both the quicksteps and the marches musically were not extremely complicated

compositions, mainly using three chords, all in major keys. They often borrowed from

Revolutionary War tunes such as Yankee Doodle and Hail, Columbia and revised the music or

changed the lyrics to match the current conflict. The tune of Yankee Doodle, as discussed earlier,

was hugely popular with the 19th-century American public. It was the most repeatedly played

tune on the actual battlefield, the favorite of the army bands. It served as a battle hymn

triumphantly celebrating American victories, and was a great concert piece back at the camp.39

One song in particular to note that carried the Yankee Doodle tune was Uncle Sam’s Song to

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Miss Texas, straight out of the Rough and Ready Songster. It is a good example of what

Americans threatened to all who stood in their way, going back to those imperialistic strains.

If Mexy, back’d by secret foes,Still talks of taken you, gal.

Why we can lick ‘em all, you know,An’ then annex ‘em too, gal.40

These quicksteps and marches were usually first played on the battlefield by either the field

musicians or the “band of music.” The field music consisted of the drummers, fifers and

trumpeters that were included in any army unit. The band of music was usually a larger group,

sometimes up to 16 brass instrumentalists, and was paid for by a specific regiment’s officers.

Music was extremely important to the soldiers of the Mexican War. It refreshed the weary men’s

souls, reviving spirits and easing tensions that ran high before battles.41

The U.S. soldiers loved dancing to the Mexican tunes as well. 42 They would attend the

local Mexican dances, or fandangos, and show the locals the steps of home.43 The mixing of

American and Mexican music can be seen in a couple of other instances. One example would be

the American song Green Grow the Lilacs. This was “so universally sung by the U.S. troops, the

term gringo is thought to originate from this.”44 Another great case would be Santa Anna’s

March by William Ratel. On the cover of this song, it explains, “This beautiful air was brought

on by some Kentucky Volunteers having heard it played by the Mexican bands at Buena Vista

while on sentry duty.” This song also could be used as an example of the importance of the battle

of Buena Vista in the populace’s mind as the most dramatic and heroic encounter of the entire

war.45

Besides the marches and quicksteps, the third popular music form came in the battle

fantasies. These were far and away the most elaborate, original compositions of the war.

8

Sweeping in both scale and vision, these songs recounted entire battles in their music. Prolific

composers, such as Charles Grobe with his song The Battle of Buena Vista, brought the audience

of his music right into the battle scenes. The artillery opens fire, played with loud, staccato notes

on the piano. The theme switches to a rolling swell as the American forces give a mighty cheer

and charge. The theme switches again later in the piece to a slow minor key, honoring the fallen

in battle. These songs were almost the epic movie soundtrack predecessors. They were often

accompanied with narratives of the action, possibly read aloud as the music played along.

Composer Francis Buck wrote arguably his best piece in this form, The Fall of Vera Cruz.

Another grandiose piece, it various themes and tempos were exemplary in their intricate

descriptions of the emotions of battle. These fantasies were also unique in that they were written

only for piano, as opposed to the marches and quicksteps, which were first written for and played

by the military brass bands, then arranged for the piano.

The Mexican-American War was a war of heroes, as can be well seen through the

majority of the song titles published. And rising above them all stood General Zachary Taylor.

General Taylor, through his stunning victories at the beginning of the war, “sprang into fame ‘as

a fabled personage of mythology…the instant creation of a perfect hero.’”46 His victories were

celebrated in countless songs and dedications. In a sample of seventy-one songs from the war,

over a quarter of them were dedicated to General Taylor. His death in 1850 was achingly

mourned by the nation. The Death of Taylor, by John Ordway laments,

He’s breath’d his last no more we’ll seeHis honest and manly formChant the sad strain with melodyAnd bear the sacred notes along. America has lost a friend, on whom her fondest hopes were castO’er land and sea the tidings send, Brave Taylor’s gone! He’s breath’d his last.47

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The other legendary hero of the war was Major Ringgold, who fell in the battle of Palo Alto

early in the war. At least three funeral marches and six compositions honored this man and

inspired a nation to avenge his untimely death.48

Music played a huge role in the war effort during this terrible conflict. It was during this

time period that “America burst into melody.”49 The Romantic Movement in the arts, and

especially music, found its voice, as the slew of music composers and publishers “sought to

oblige a public that saw in music a reflection of itself, its values, aspirations, and national

character.”50 It was a time for the U.S. to fully realize her uniqueness and nationality. It was a

time for the American people to come together emotionally and patriotically to celebrate and

glorify war and American conquests. It was a time to promote the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon

ideals of expansionism and imperialism that Americans held so dear. Music is an excellent gauge

of the populace’s psyche, both in their response to the war and their emotions that were

expressed in the music.51 The drumbeats of the war were used for the first time in a major

American conflict to inspire the nation to martial glory, and forever solidified patriotic

archetypes that Americans still hold dear to this day.

10

1 Robert W. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 231.2

Ibid.3

Ibid.4

Ibid.5

Lotta Spell, Music In Texas (Austin: n.p., 1936), 24.6

Johannsen, 16.7

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer, "Mexican-American War." American History Through Literature. Vol. 2. Gale Cengage, 2006, http://www.enotes.com/mexican-american-war-reference/ (accessed November 14, 2012).8

Johannsen, 16.

9 Johannsen, viii.10

Ibid.11

Ibid, 55.12

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.13

Johannsen, 54.14

Ibid.15

Ibid.16

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.17

Ibid.18

An American Officer, The Rough and Ready Songster: Embellished with Twenty-Five Splendid Engravings, Illustrative of the American Victories in Mexico (New York: Nafis & Cornish, 1848), 29.19

Ibid, 19. 20

Johannsen, 58.21

Ibid, 57.22

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.23

David Pletcher, “An Ideal or a Justification? A Conversation With David M. Pletcher Indiana University,” KERA, Denton, Texas, United States. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html (Accessed

November 14, 2012).24

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.25

Johannsen, 50.26

An American Officer, 51. 27

Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.28

Johannsen, 22.29

Spell, 50.30

John H. Hewitt, The Maid of Monterey. (Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1851). 31

Duke University, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, North Carolina, United States “Historic American Sheet Music”, n.d., http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm/about/ (Accessed November 14, 2012).32

Ibid.33

Lea Worcester, Music from the Attic: Texas History in Sheet Music, (Unpublished), 1.

34 Ibid. 35

H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988), 79.36

Ibid.

37 Ibid, 59.38

Elise K. Kirk, Sheet Music Related to the United States War with Mexico (1846-1848) in the Jenkins Garrett Library, University of Texas at Arlington. Notes, Second Series, Vol. 37, No. 1. (N.p.: Music Library Association, 1980), 16.

39 Johannsen, 237.40 An American Officer, 54.41

Johansen, 238.42

Donald S. Frazier, The United States and Mexico at War: Nineteenth Century Expansionism and Conflict (New York: Macmillian Reference Center, 1998), 298.43

Ibid.44

Ibid. 45

Johannsen, 234. 46

Ibid, 115.

47

John P. Ordway, The Death of Taylor Sung by Ossian E. Dodge Esq. Poetry and Music Composed and Respectfully Inscribed to the Family of the Beloved and Lamented President. Arranged for the Piano Forte by W.C. Peters. (Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847).48

Johannsen, 233.49

Ibid, 231.50

Ibid. 51

Ibid, 240.

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