KeepYour Card in This PocttetBooks will be issuedonlyonpresentationofproperlibrarycardsUnlesslabeledotherwise,booksmayberetainedfor four weeks Borrowersfindingbooks marked,defaced or mutilated alre ex-pectedtoreportsame atlibrarydesk,other-wisethelast borrower will be heldresponsiblefor allimperfectionsdiscoveredThecard holder isresponsiblefor all booksdrawn onhis cardPenaltyfor over-due books 2c aday pluscost of noticesLost cards andchang-eof residence mustbereportedpromptlyPUBLIC LIBRARYKansasCity,.Mo.KeepYourCard in Tliis PocketTHE CURRICULUMBYFRANKLINBOBBITTProfessorof EducationalAdminwtrationTJieUniversityofChicagoHOUGHTONMIFFLJNCOMPANYBOSTON NEWYORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO(CfceteerjJiQeprefcCambridgeCOPYRIGHT,19x8,BV FRANKLINBOBBITTAI.I* RIGHTS RESERVEDtBfce fbtt*fceCAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTSPHINTEI*IN TUB USAPREFACESINCEtheopeningof the twentiethcentury,theevolu-tionofoursocialorderhasbeenproceedingwithgreatandever-accelerating rapidity. Simpleconditions have beengrowing complex.Small institutions havebeengrowinglarge.Increasedspecializationhasbeenmultiplying humaninterdependencesandtheconsequentneedofcoordinatingeffort.Democracyisincreasingwithin theNation;andgrowingthroughouttheworld. Allclassesareaspiringtoafull humanopportunity.Neverbefore havecivilization andhumanizationadvancedsoswiftly.Astheworldpresseseagerlyforwardtowardtheaccom-plishmentof newthings, educationalso must advance nolessswiftly.It must providetheintelligence and theaspirationsnecessaryfortheadvance;andforstability andconsistencyinholding thegains.Education must take a paceset,not byitself,butbysocialprogress.Thepresentprogramofpubliceducation wasmainlyfor-mulated during thesimplerconditionsof the nineteenthcen-tury.Indetailsit has been improved.In fundamentalsitisnotgreatlydifferent. Aprogramneverdesignedfor thepresentdayhasbeeninherited.Anyinheritedsystem, goodfor itstime,whenheldtoafteritsday, hamperssocial progress.Itis notenoughthatthesystem,fundamentallyunchangedinplanandpurpose,be improvedindetails. IneducationtMshasbeendoneinconspicuousdegree.Ourschools to-day arebetter thaneverbefore. Teachers are better trained.Supervisionis more ade-quate. Buildingsand equipmentareenormously improved.Effectivemethodsarebeingintroduced,andtimeisbeingIV PREFACEeconomizedImprovementsarevisibleoneveryhand. Andyetto dothe nineteenth-century task better thanit was thendoneis notnecessarilytodothetwentieth-centurytask.Newdutieshebeforeus. Andtheserequire new methods,newmaterials,newvision. Theoldeducation,exceptas itconferred the tools ofknowledge,wasmainlydevoted tofillingthe memorywithfacts. The newageismoreinneedoffactsthantheold;andofmorefacts,andit mustfindmoreeffectivemethods ofteachingthemBut there arenowotherfunctions. Education is now todevelopatypeofwisdomthatcangrowonlyoutofparticipationin thelivingexperiencesofmen,andneveroutofmerememoriza-tionofverbalstatementsoffacts Itmust,therefore,trainthoughtandjudgmentin connection with actual life-situations,ataskdistinctlydifferent fromthecloistral ac-tivities ofthepast.It is alsotodevelopthegood-will,thespiritofservice,thesocialvaluations,sympathies,andatti-tudes of mindnecessaryfor effectivegroup-actionwherespecializationhascreatedendlessinterdependency.Ithasthefunctionoftrainingeverycitizen,manorwoman,notforknowledgeaboutcitizenship,but forproficiencymcitizenship;notforknowledgeabouthygiene,butforpro-ficiencyinmaintainingrobusthealth,notforamereknowl-edgeof abstractscience,butforproficiencyin the useofideasinthecontrol ofpracticalsituations. Mostofthesearenewtasks. Inconnection witheach,much is nowbe-ingdone in allprogressiveschoolsystems;but most ofthemyetarebutpartially developedWehavebeen de-velopingknowledge,notfunction;thepowertoreproducefacts,ratherthanthepowerstothinkandfeelandwillandactinvitalrelationtotheworld'slife. Now we mustlooktotheselatterthingsaswell.Ourtaskinthisvolumeis topointoutsomeofthenewduties. Weare to showwhyeducationmustnowunder-PREFACEvtaketasksthatuntilrecentlywerenotconsideredneedful;whynewmethods,newmaterials,and newtypesofexperi-encemustbeemployed.Weheretrytodevelopapointofviewthatseemstobeneededbypracticalschoolmenandwomenastheymaketheeducational adjustmentsnowde-mandedbysocialconditions;andneededalsobyscientificworkerswhoareseekingto definewithaccuracythe ob-jectivesofeducation. Itisthefeelingofthewriterthatinthe social reconstructions of thepost-war yearsthat hejustaheadofus,education is tobecalledupontobearahitherto undreamed-of burden ofresponsibility;and toundertakeunaccustomed labors. Topresentsome of thetheoryneeded for the curriculum laborsof this newagehasbeenthetaskhereinattempted.Thisis afirstbookinafieldthatuntilrecentlyhasbeentoolittlecultivated Fora longtime,we havebeen, develop-ingthetheoryof educationalmethod,bothgeneralandspecial,andwehaverequiredteachers andsupervisorstobethoroughlycognizantof itRecently,however,we havediscernedthatthere is atheoryofcurriculum-formulationthatisnolessextensive andinvolvedthanthatofmethod;andthat it isjustasmuchneededbyteachersandsuper-visors. To know whattodoisasimportantasto know howto do it. Thisvolume, therefore,isdesignedfor teacher-traininginstitutions as anintroductorytextbook in thetheory of the curriculum; and for readingcircles in thetrain-ingof teachers in service. It ishopedalsothat itmayassist thegeneralreaderwhois interestedinnotingrecenteducational tendencies.CONTENTSPARTI. ENDSANDPROCESSESITwo LEVELSOFEDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE . . 3IL EDUCATIONAL EXPEDIENCE UPONTHEPLAT-LEVEL . 8HI. EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE UPONTHE WORK-LEVEL . 18IV. THE PLACEorIDEASINWORK-EXPERIENCE . . 26V.WHEREEDUCATION CANBE ACCOMPLISHED , 34VI. SCIENTIFIC METHODINCxnmicuLUM-MAKmG. . 41PAETII. TRAINING FOR OCCUPATIONAL EFFICIENCYVH.PURPOSESOFVOCATIONALTRAINING . 55VIII SPECIALIZEDTECHNICALTRAINING 71IX.THESPECIALIZEDTRAININGOFGROUP-WORKERS . 76X. SOCIALASPECTSOFOCCUPATIONALTRAINING.. 87PARTIH.EDUCATIONFORCITIZENSHIPXI. THE NATUREOFTHEGOODCITIZEN .... 117XII. THEDEVELOPMENTOFENLIGHTENEDLARGE-GROUPCONSCIOUSNESS , 131XIII. MORAL ANDRELIGIOUSEDUCATION .....163PARTIV.EDUCATIONFORPHYSICALEFFICIENCYXIV.THE FUNDAMENTAL TASKOF PHYSICAL TRAINING . 171XV. PHYSICALTRAINING180XVI, TflESOCIALFACTORSo$PHYSICALEFFICIENCY . . 189viiiCONTENTSPARTV.EDUCATIONFORLEISUREOCCUPATIONSXVJLLTHEFUNCTIONOFPLATINHUTVEANLIFE . . . 07XVTELREADING AS ALEISUBEOCCUPATION ....227PARTVI.EDUCATIONFORSOCIALINTERCOMMUNICATIONXIX.THE MOTHER-TONGUE247XX TRAININGINFOBEIGNLANGUAGES255XXI SOMECONCLUDINGCONSIDERATIONS . . .282INDEX291THECURRICULUMPARTIENDSAM)PROCESSESTHECUKEICULUMCHAPTERITWOLEVELSOFEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCECURRENTdiscussionofeducationrevealsthepresenceinthefieldof twoantagonisticschoolsofeducationalthought,Ontheonehandarethose wholookprimarilytothesub-jjecJKeu^sjdts:theenrichedmind,quickenedappreciations,\refinedsensibilities,discipline,culture. Tothemtheendof education is theabilityto live ratherthanthepracticalabilitytoproduce.ForttL^Tmistofeducationistobemo-tivatedbyinterest in the educational experiences themselves,withoutparticularsolicitudeatthemomentastotheprac-ticaluseoruselessnessofthoseexperiences.Iftheyexpandandunfoldthepotentialnatureof theindividual,thereinliestheirjustification.The full unfoldmentofone'spowersistheprimordialpreparationforpracticallife.Ontheotherhandtherearethosewhoholdthateduca-^tion is to lookprimarilyandconsciouslyto efficientprac-tical action in apracticalworld. Theindividual is edu-catedwhocanperformefficientlythelabors ofhiscalling;whocaneffectivelycooperatewithhisfellowsinsocialandcivicaffairs; whocankeephisbodilypowersatahighlevelofefficiency; whoispreparedtoparticipateinproperrangeof desirableleisureoccupations;whocaneffectivelybringhis children to full-orbedmanhoodandwomanhood;andwhocancarryonall his social relationswithhisfellowsinanagreeable andeffective manner. Educationisconsciouslytoprepareforthesethings.4 THECURRICULUMThecontroversyinvolvespracticallyeveryfield oftrain-ing.Forexample,the advocatesof culture would havesciencestudiedbecauseitisarich andvitalizingfieldofhu-manthought. Theywould have the studentliveabundantlywithinthewidefieldsofhischemistryorbiologyorphysicswithoutatthetime anygreatregardforthepracticaluseoruselessnessof the particularfacts met with. If the experienceisvivifying,if itsatisfies intellectualcravings,thereinis tobe foundits sufficientexcuse.Theyassumethatenoughofthescientificfacts,principles,andhabitsofmindacquiredWill be of use afterwardstojustify the teaching from a purelyutilitarianpointof view. Infact,they assert that thesethingscan bebettermastered whenstudiedas"scienceforscience'sake "than when narrowed downtopracticalscienceforthework'ssake.Theutilitarians,ontheotherhand,wouldhavesciencestudiedinorderthatthefactsmay beputto work byfarm-ersintheirfarming,bymechanicsin theirshops,andva-riouslyinthefieldsofmanufacturing,mining,cooking,san-itation,etc.Theywouldhaveanaccuratesurveymadeofthescience-needsof eachsocialclass, and to each they wouldteachonlythefactsneeded,onlythosethataretobeputtowork. Inanageofefficiencyandeconomytheywouldseekdefinitelyto eliminate the useless andthe wasteful.Tocoverthebroadfields ofthescienceswithoutregardtothefunctioningvalue of theparticularfacts is a blunder-buss methodinanagethatdemandstheaccuracyof therifle. It is towastetimeandenergyandmoneythatareneeded elsewhere. It is to forceuponunwillingstudentsthingsthatcanbejustifieduponnopracticalgrounds.Asocialstudylikehistoryorliteraturetheculture-advo-cates conceiveto bechieflyameans ofliftingthecurtainuponhumanexperiencein all landsandages.Itgivesthepupilanopportunityto viewandtomingle vicariouslyinTWOLEVELSOFEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCE 5theage-longvariedpageantofworld-wide humanlife. Thepupil'sbusiness issimplytolookuponthispageantashewouldviewaplayatthetheater. Theexperienceisinitselfasatisfyingmodeofliving, enrichinghisconsciousness,ex-pandingthefields of hisimagination,refininghisapprecia-tions Wheninhisreadinghebeholdsthe"glorythatwasGreece and thesplendourthatwasRome/'theepicsofHomerorthedramasofShakespeare,heneednotconcernhimselfwiththeapplicationofthatexperienceintheper-formanceof hispracticalduties. Ontheotherhand,theutilitarians tell us thatwewouldbetter eliminateancienthistoryandtheolderliteratures. Thesedealwithaworldthatisdead,acivilizationthatismouldered,withgovern-mentsthatare nowobsolete,with manners and customsandlanguagesthatarealtogetherimpracticableinthismodernage.Intheirjudgment,insofaras we need historyatall,itshould be modernhistory drawn for the purposeofthrowinglight uponcurrentpractical problemsofindustry, commerce,andcitizenshipThefactsshould begatheredindefinitere-lationtothe problemsandijgti&j&ereblunderbusshistorythat aims atnothinginparticular.Andas for literature, theysay,it wouldbestbethat whichrevealsthe worldofto-day:thepresentnaturesofmenandwomen;present-daysocialproblemsandhumanreactions;currentmodesofthought;existingconditions in the fields ofcommerce, industry,sanitation,civicrelationships,and recreationallife;notclassics,butcurrentliterature.Thecontroversyisparticularlymarkedinthematterofforeign languages.Ancientlanguagesdonot function inthelivesofmen,saytheutilitarians,thereforetheyshouldbecastout. Forthevastmajority,eventhemodernlan-guagesdonotfunction. Whatdoesnotappearinthehvesofthepeople has noreasontolppearin theeducationof thepeople.The argumentisplausible,convincing,andyetthe6TEECTJEEICULCMforeign-languageadvocate is not convinced. Heassertsthatimportant mattersaxelostsightof;thatthereare morethingsin human life thanpracticalaction,howeverefficient;that livingitselfisworthwhile; thatitis the end of education;andthatthevarious utilitiesarebuttoprovidethemeans.Helootstoaself-realization,toahumanism,toaworldofsatisfactions thatheaboveandbeyondthemeremeanstobeusedinattainingthosehighends. Heaccusesourprac-ticalageofaimingat alife for manthatis toonarrow,barren,mechanical,materialistic.Now, whichsideisright?Doubtlessbothareright.Itislikeaskingthequestion,"Whichshallthetreeproduce,theflowerorthefruit?"Itmustproducebothor itwill notperformits fullfunction. Wehaveheresimplytodowithtwolevels offimctioning>twolevels oeducatiooalexpe-riences,both ofwhich are essential to fullness ofgrowth,efficiencyofaction, andcompletenessofcharacter. Botharegood, botharenecessary;oneprecedestheother. One isex-perienceupontheplay-leveltheotherexperienceuponthework-level. Oneis action drivenbyspontaneousinterest:theother,byderivedinterest. Oneistheluxuriationofthesubjectivelife which hasavalue forobjective experienceeventhoughonebenotconsciousofthevaluesatthetime.Theotherlookstotheconsciousshapingandcontroloftheobjectiveworld;butrequiresfor maximumeffectivenessthebackgroundofsubjectivelifeprovidedbytheother.Theculture-peoplearenotwrongindemandinganedu-cationthatlookstothewideningofvision,thedeepeningofthegeneralunderstanding,theactualizingofone'spoten-tialpowers,thefull-orbedexpansionand maintenanceofthepersonality,theharnessing-upof nativeinterests,thedevelopmentofenthusiasmsandideals;orbriefly,the fullhumanization of the individual.Theycannot too muchinsist., TWOLEVELSOFEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCE 7Thepractical-mindedpeoplearenotwronginaffirmingthat man's lifeconsists,and mustconsist,largelyin theperformanceofresponsibleduties;thatthesearetobeca-pablyperformed;thatresponsibilitiesare to beefficientlyabsolved;thatthereis needoftechnicalaccuracy,depend-ableness, industry, persistence,righthabits, skill,practicalknowledge,physicalandmoralfiber,andadherencetodutywhetherit bepleasantorpainful;and thattheseresultsarenet to besufficientlyachieved without education of thepractical work-type. Uponthesethings theycannot toomuchinsist*CHAPTERIIEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCEUPONTHEPLAY-LEVELRECENTpsychologytellsusthat manhasalongperiodofchildhoodandyouthm orderthathemayplay.Heplays,notbecauseheisyoung,butheislongyounginorderthathe mayplay;andthusthroughactiveexperiencesecurehiseducation.PlayisNature'sactivemodeofeducation.Shall aboyunfoldhisphysical powersso that he canrunwithspeedandendurance,orthrowaccuratelyorfightwithstrength andskill,orexerthimselflonghourswithoutunduefatigue?Natureprovidesthatinhisplay heshallrunandthrowandfightandotherwiseexerthimself,andthusmakeactual' hispotentialpowers PhysicalplayisNature'sphysical education Shall the boy develop thesocialabilitiesnecessaryforfullcooperationwith the membersofhissocialgroup?Natureprovidesinstinctivetendencytoparticipateingroup-plays,socialgames,conversation,etc,which de-velophissocialnature,fix hissocialhabits,andcementso-cialsolidarity.Socialplayis Nature's active method ofsocial education Shall theboypossessanunspecializedmechanicalabilityof atypethat is evenmoreneedfulto-daythanintheage whenman'snaturewasshaped?Fortu-nately,hereagain we findthestrongconstructive andoper-ativeplay-instinctswhichdriveboystomakeandoperatethings.Giveanormal-mindedboya richopportunitytomakethingsandto"makethemgo,"-*andonehasthenonlyto leave him alone with hisoppoilumtyNature'smethodofeducationwilldotherest Shallhe beobservantof men andaffairs about him? Shallhefillhis mindconcern-ingthethingswithwhichheistobeconcernedthroughoutTHEPLAY-LEVELlife? Shallheacquireandmaintainmassesofknowledgethroughthepossessionof aninquiringdisposition? AgainNaturehasprovidedthedeep-lyingandpowerfulmental-playinstinctofcuriosity,theintellectualappetite,thedesireto know. Theboyis madewatchful ofeverythingthatgoeson abouthim,especiallytheactionsof men. Thushelearns and thus he continues to learnthroughoutlife*Mentalplayis Nature's activemethodoffillingthemindwithinformation^Sinceeducationis solargelyamatteroflearningthings,letusfirsttakeupthistopicofmentalplayasthebasisofintellectual education. Oneobservesmenandtheiraffairs,the thingsofone'senvironment,and the natural phenomenabywhichone issurrounded,simplyas amodeofliving.Throughsuchobservation heiscontinuouslygathering factsthroughallofhiswakinghours;andwithoutquestionastothe use or uselessness of the information* Hemakes noattempt to observe merely the things that can beof practicalserviceinhispersonalaffairs(Helives mostfullywhokeepshimselfawaketoeverythingbefore himandwhosees allinduerelationandproportioneventhoughmostof it hasnovisiblerelationtohispracticalaffairs,?Notonlydoes he observedirectly,buthelistens withconsuminginterest to the stories ofthingswhich he hasnotseen. Mostofthegossipofthedailypapersrelatestothingswithwhichhehasnoimmediateconcern. Andyethereadsandlearns,andfeels thatifhedoesnotdosohedoesnotfullylive. Theaviditywithwhichheabsorbsthenewsor theeager curiositywithwhichgossipsdelve intothe affairs oftheneighborhoodshowtheuniversalityandtheintensityofthishungerafterknowledge,evenofuselesstype.Onedrinksendlesslyat this fountain without eversomuchasraisingthequestionwhethertheknowledgesoobtainedis orcaneverbeofanyuse. Likebreathing,one10 THECURRICULUMfeels it tobeanaturalportionoflivingwhichrequiresnojustificationLearningthingsbecauseofcuriositywithoutreferencetotheuseofthatknowledgeisreallyoneofthelargestnormalactivities ofman.Knowledge-gettingbecause ofcuriosityisanalogoustofood-gettingbecauseofhungerOnewantsthe foodwhenhungrywhetherhe knowsanythingaboutits functionalvalueornot Thehungeris Nature'swayofascribingvaluetothingsthatthemanneeds.Equally,thehealthymindwantstoknowthethingsthatappealtothementalappetitewithoutcareatthetimeas totheirprac-ticalapplication.Thisknowledge-hungerisNature'smethodofascribingvaluetothethingsthatthe manneedswhenheistooimmatureortoostupidtoknow whatheneeds Suchstrongandcontinuinginstinctsimpelonlytothingsthatareonthewholeusefulandnecessary.It isplay,but it has its valuesAlthoughmostthingsobservedhavenovisible relation to his immediateaffairs,yet everythingin thecommunityis related toeverythingelseinsubtle,intangible,andusually unknownways.Eachindividualis thecentei ofavortexof influences. Heneedsanunderstandingofthetotallifeofthecommunitym orderthathe mayadjusthisactionstothefactorsofthesituationas a whole His current informationconcerning appar-entlyuselessthingsreallygiveshimfullnessofvisionofthetotalpageantofcommunitylife ofwhichheformsapart.Thisfullness of vision isnecessaryforunderstanding;forvaluations;andrightsocialattitudesWhiletravelingto mywork m theOrient,some yearsago,Ihadoccasiontoobserveaportionofthe educationalex-periencesoftwoboysabouttwelveyearsofageTheshiponwhich we weretravelingstoppedforadayor twoateachof a numberofports; Hongkong,Shanghai,Nagasaki,Kobe*Yokohama,etcScarcelyhadtheship cometoanchor whenTHEPLAY-LEVELIItheboyswereoff and away onanexploringexpedition.Forthemitwasaregionstrangeand new There wasnoassign-mentofanythingfor themtolearn;theywerenotsent,theywerenotgoingashoretogetinformationsothattheymightreciteuponitatnight;itwasnotathingupon whichthey werelater tobe examined.Simplya nchfieldofexperi-enceopenedbeforethemandtheyeagerlyembracedtheiropportunitiesandwentforthtopartaketothefull Itwassimplyplaj^exg^en^^^resulting^from^their^mtellectualhungers.Duringtheday theyvisited asmany'differentportionsof thecityas then*timeandtheirmeansof loco-motionwouldpermit Theylooked into the residences ofrichandpoor,intotheshops,amusementplaces, religioustemples,soldiers'barracks,streets andalleys,the condi-tions of lifeamongthewell-to-doandamongthepoor,etc.Theycamebackto theshipatnightwith rich stores ofexperienceand full tooverflowingwith information Itrequirednoeffortonthepartoftheadultmembersoftheirpaityto secure extended and enthusiastic verbalreports.Theboyswereliving Theywerenotsimplymemorizingfacts It wasallupontheplay-level,andyettheywerese-curingthe best possible type of education. Haditbeen madeawork-taskfor themwithdefiniteprogramandtime allot-ments,withreportsthathadtobeputupinspecifiedformandwithexaminationstoseethatnothinghadbeen over-looked,wouldthey haveleft theship?And in what mood?Thisexperienceofthe two boysseemstoindicate the kindofintellectualplay-experienceneededthroughoutthefieldsofeducation. Inthesameway,impelledonlybycuriosityand theplay-motive, followingtheleadingsofinterest,children andyouthshould,itappears,wanderthroughevery importantfield of humanknowledgeand humanexperienceWithoutanyparticularconsciousnessofthese-rious values orpurposesofthelearning, theyshouldthus12THECUBRICULUMlayawide and secure foundation ofunderstandingof allimportantaspectsofreality.Sofaraspossible,thisshouldbebyobservation. Butone'shorizonisnarrow,andmostofthisworldliesbeyond,andstretchesbackwardthroughhistory.Mostis tobeexploredvicariouslyinimaginationonthebasis ofthereportsofothers. Forthis,pupilsneedbooksthatvividlyreconstructtheexperiencesofothersThere is agreatwealthofgeographical readings, espe-ciallytravels,whichpresentavividreconstructionoflifeinotherlands. Aschildrentravel,forexample,intheirread-ingswithPearytotheNorthPole,orwithAmundsenandScottto the SouthPole,theirexperienceswillbringthemtoappreciate the nature of thepolar regionsalmostasclearlyas iftheyhadbeentherein theflesh Letthemtravel inspiritwithLivingstoneandStanleyandRooseveltintotheheart of Africa andtheywill haveanappreciationof thenatureof Central Africa thattheycan obtain innootherway.LetthemtravelwithCaptainCookandDarwinandStevensonthroughtheSouthSeas,with Danainhisvoyagearoundthe"Horn,"withTyndallandJordanintheAlps,withJohn Muirand EnosMillsintheRockies,withGeorgeKennaninSiberia,etc,letthemthustravelvicariouslythrough thevariouslandsandregionsoftheearth,and theywill cometohavea fullappreciationofthenatureof theworld Inthereadingofliteraturewithgeographicalback-groundlikeCaptains Courageous^ Heidi, jKm,The IronTrail>TheLumberman,etc.,childrenarepermittedfurtherto relive the lives ofpeoplesin various lands and undervariousconditions;andthusthroughliving acquireunder-standing.Thesegeographical readingsshouldaim*not atinformation,butatexperience.Likethetwoboysroamingthroughthecitiesmerelyasamodeofliving,thechildreninourschools shouldroamthroughthewideearth inthepagesoftheirreadingmerelyasasatisfying modeofliving.THEPLAY-LEVELISThemoreunsophisticated,the lesstheyareconscious ofthe seriousvalues,the morethey simplyfollowinterest,probablythebetterwillbetheexperienceforeducationHistorypresentsanotherrichandendlessfieldforexplo-rationupontheplay-level.This children shouldreadforthesakeoftheir interest in thehumanstory,intheanec-"dotes,thebiographies,thestruggles,theadventures,andall oftheotherthingsthatappealtochildhoodandyouth.Thustheyshouldbecomeacquaintedwith all thefamily,ofnations.Theyshouldparticipateinthehistoricalexperi-encesofallimportantcountriesforthesametypeofdelightthatactuatedtheboysinexploringtheforeigncities.Theyneednotknowatthetimethevaluesof thisexperienceindeveloping large-groupconsciousness,national andplane-tary sympathiesandunderstandings,the bases of civicjudgment,orthe solid foundations ofany"FederationoftheWorld"whichwe mayeverproduce.Theteachermustseetheseriousendsinordertoadjustconditions,tocontrolmotives,andtoguideButchildrenshouldnotbegreatlyconsciousofthegrowth-endsofplay-experienceTheplay-spiritisaskittishthingthattendstotakeflightwhenit sees itselfharnessedupandset topro-saicproductivelabors. Onthis level it isenoughfor thechildren that the historical reconstructions betrue, vivid,'interesting,voluminous,andrapidlyread;thattheexperi-encebeasatisfying modeofliving,likegoingtoaplay,orreadinganexcitingstory. On thislevelitshould not becon-sciouslearningoffacts,forthe reason that we want morelearningthan canbeaccomplishedthatway;and otherthingsequally valuable that cannot beaccomplishedthatwayatall.Onehasanaturalinterest,notonlyintheaffairsofmen,butalsointhethingsandforceswithwhichmenaresur-roundedandwithwhichtheymustdeal the phenomenaofnature,thefieldsofscience. Givehealthy-mindedchildrenM THECURRICULUMafullopportunitytoindulgeintheplayfulmanipulationoftoys,tools,machines,appliances,andmaterialsthatinvolvemechanicalprinciples;themaking and operationofelectricaldevices;the manipulationofsound-producing apparatusandinstruments,oflenses, projection apparatus, photographicapparatus, experimentationwith the chemicalelements;exploringgeologicalformations,keeping pets; visitingtheZoo,theAviary,theAquarium,or theplantconserva-tory; observingplantsandanimals in their nativehauntsandhabitats; givetheunspoiledchildproper oppor-tunities at thesethingsand he asks nobetter fun. Hebringstothemthesameeagerintellectual desirestoknowthatinspirethetrained scientist whodelightsin scientific"knowledgefor its own sake." Let thechild, therefore,exploretheworldofrealityaswidelyanddeeplyashecanbeenabledtogetatit,and whenhehasreachedthelimita-tionsimposed byconditions,let him read the stones of'insectlife,offlowers, birds,bees,rocks,stars, animalswildandtame,electricityanditsapplications,chemistryanditswonders,mechanics andinventions,lightand sound andheat,andall therest.Naturallyhewillexplore accordingto hismaturity.Muchofthiscanbeaccomplishedintheelementaryschools morethanschoolpeoplehaveusuallythought possible.Still moreof it shouldcomein thehighschool.Probablythescientificinterestisnostrongerinthehighschoolthan in the elementary;simply pupilsarecapableofseeingwider anddeeperrelations. Itisprobablethatthescienceexperienceof theelementarylevel should cover awiderange.Thenuponthehigh-schoolleveltheywillsimplygointogreaterdetailandattainthehigherlevelsofgeneralityAfteroneis familiarwiththeconcretedetails,thetracing-outofgeneral relationshipsanddiscoveringthenaturalorganizationof the field areamongthe normalintellectualdelights.THEPLAY-LEVEL 15Neitherthelaboratorynorreadingexperiencesuponthislevelneedbefunctionalintheconsciousnessofthechildrenanymorethanthedailynewspaperorone'sobservationsout of a carwindow. Theexperienceis nottobesosys-tematized that thespontaneous play-spiritisdestroyed.There is notto betoomuchteachingWhatthe childrencraveandneedisexperience.Theschool'smaintaskis tosupplyopportunitiesthataresovariedandattractivethat,likethetwoboyswhentheyarrivedataport, pupilswillwanttoplungeinandtoenjoytheopportunitiesthatareplacedbeforethem.All of thesepreliminarystudies orexperiences,whethergeographical,historical,literary,orscientific,likechildren'splayingeneralneed to be rich indetails,full ofhumancolor,infinitelyvaried,touchedhghtlyand thenleftbehind,takenupaspromptedbyinterestnotbylogic, superficial,repetitious,andlooselyorganized.Thereisneedofmove-ment,irregularity, caprice,variety,andincessantinterplayofallthefactorsthatcomposethehumanspirit.Forsucharethewaysofchildhood,and evenofyouth andadulthoodinthehoursoftheirfreedomEnoughhasbeensaidto illustratethenatureof educa-tionalexperienceupontheplay-levelin fields thatinvolvealargeintellectual element* but there are other kinds ofplay.Theusualmanualtrainingshopis aplay-shop,andthekitchenaplay-kitchen.Theexperiencesinthe mainarebut a liberation of the constructive andoperative play-instincts. Andupontheearlyorpreliminarylevelsofone'seducationthis is asitshouldbe Forwheretheequipmentis such as topermit diversityofexperiencewithtools,machines, materials,andprocesses,there isnothingsogoodasplay-experienceforlayingthesolidfoundationsforthelaterindustrialstudies.It isgenerallyconcedednowadaysthatthebesttypeof16THECUERICULUMphysicaltrainingis the liberation of thephysical play-impulsesofchildren.Systematicgymnasticsandcalisthen-icsare beingdiscardedandintheirstead weareintroducingagreat varietyof indoor and outdoorgames, sports,rhythmicdances, folk-dances, hiking expeditions, etc.,ofthetypesinwhichwell-trainedchildrenandyouthindulgeinthehoursoftheirfreedom Wearemakingthischange,notbecauseit is easiertomanageorlessexpensiveormoreeconomicaloftime,foritisnoneofthesethings;butratherbecausephysical experienceupontheplay-levelis amoreeffectivekindofphysicaleducationthanspiritlessmechan-izedphysicalexercisesatwordof commandfromwhichtheplay-spiritisabsent.Thesocialtraininglikewisethatweareintroducingintoour schoolsismainly upontheplay-level.Itisaccomplishedin connection withtheplaysandgames,the socialclubs,thedancing,the civicleagues,theBoyScouts and theCamp-FireGirlsmovements,andthegeneralsocial life oftheschool. Thegreaterthespontaneity,otherthingsequal,thegreaterthevalues,Tosaythatportionsofseriouseducationaretobeontheorderofplaynolongershocksapractical-minded peopleasitoncedid. Ourbiology,psychology,andsociologyhaverecentlyshownustheserious values ofplayandthevitalfunctionit hasalwaysperformedandmustperforminhu-manlife. Forwhateverthefieldof man'sactivity,itisthisthatlaysthefoundationfortheserious;specializedmattersthataretocomelater Itisman'sbasictraining, andin thepresentworld ofinfinitecomplexity, demandingworld-widevision and sympathies,it needsto befull,rich, andextensive.Wearealsocomingtorecognizethevalueofharnessinguptheplay-motivewhenwewish strenuousexertion* It doesnotmeanlackofeffort;ratherintensification of effort, Aboy"willplaytillhedrops fromfatigue, anddoit all volun-THEPLAY-LEVEL 17tarilyfortheloveofthecause. Hewillnotvoluntarilydothat111 hiswork,wheretheplay-spiritisomitted. Itis theboysorgirlswhoenterwiththegreatestzest into theac-tions of menas reconstructed in theirhistories,whotakesidesinthestruggles,and whoare warmedbytheirsympa-theticandvicariousparticipationin thehistoricalactions,whohavemosthistoricalexperienceandgetthegreatestgoodfromtheirhistory.Itis theboy whowantstowininthespelling match who willmanfully mastertheentirespell-ing bookas a part of the game.Thepupilwho sees Ms mathe-maticsasaseriesofinteresting puzzles and games,istheonewhowill comenearest toconqueringevery difficultythatshowsits head. Thethingthatoneenjoysis thethingatwhichonewill straineverynerve. Given ahealthyplay-motive andtheright opportunity,it is like ahigh-powerengineandastraighttrackahead.We findhereapartialanswertothecontentionthatedu-cationonthebasisofinterestresultsinsoftnessandflabbi-ness.Reallyit is the onewhofinds his educationalpre-scriptionspiecesofdrudgery whomosttriestoevadethem,consciouslyorunconsciously;andwhoconsequentlysuf-fers from softness and flabbiness Theboysonthe ath-leticfielSswhomostenjoytheiropportunitiesaretheoneswho most oftenover-develop physically;and later suffertherefrom.Interest-driven exercise is notonlyefficaciousfordevelopingfiber,but it mustevenbeguardedagainstbecause of itsover-efficacywhereconditions arespeciallyfavorable. Itisnolesstrueintheintellectualrealm. Findthestudentin mathematicsorphysicsorLatin whohasthebestgeneralcommandoverthesubject,whoseesrelationsinclearestperspective,whohasleastintellectualflabbiness,*it isalwaysone whodelightsinhisstudiesinthatfield;one wholovesthe subject"forits ownsake/* Itis never theonefor whomtheexperienceisdrudgery.CHAPTERHIEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCEUPONTHEWORK-LEVELALTHOUGHplayhas itsplacein theprocess,educationaimsat preparation for the seriousduties oflife, one'scalling,thecareofone'shealth,civiccooperationsandregulation,bringingupone'schildren, keepingone'slanguageingoodform,etc. Educationalexperience uponthework-level isintended to prepareconsciouslyfor theefficientperformanceofthese andallotherseriousdutiesByworkinthischapterwerefer notmerelyto one'scalling,but to all of one'sresponsibleactivities.Evenone'splayhas endsthatareasserious asthoseofone'swork,fortheyare thesameends;buttherelationsaredifferent.Althoughone maybeunconsciousatthetimeofthe serious values of hisplay,Nature isthereby aimingdefinitelyathisphysicalupbuilding,his mentalexpansion,andhissocialdevelopment.Neithertheplay-mstmctsnorthepleasurestherebyoccasioned aregivenaspurposelessluxuries. Thepleasureis not an end;itisalure. Itisaprim-itivemethodofimpellingseriousdevelopmentalactivitieswheretheintellect cannotbedependeduponto directthework It is seriousactivity impelledbyinstinct;whereasworkisseriousactivity impelled byideas. Theplayisshort-sighted;even blindinthefaceofmodernconditions Workwhenfullydevelopedisfar-sighted,clear-sighted,fullycon-sciousofendsandmeans. Theaccompanyingdiagram mayassist inshowingtheidentityofplayandworkends,andalsothedifferencesinrelationships.Thefigure showsfour things,A,B,C, and D,allobviouslyinvolved in thepreparationfor,andperformance of,re-THEWORK-LEVEL19sponsibleactivities.Playis consciousofonlythefirst,buttinsreallylookstothesecond,thesecondis involvedinthethird, and thethirdthenproducesthefourth* AsindicatedPLAYWORKA B C I>FIG 1. Torepresenttherelationsofplay-activitiesandwork-activitiestoeducationandtoeach,otherbyfollowingthearrows,theplay,withouttheindividual'sknowingit,isleading him toward thefruitsofseriouslaborsButsince he doesnot see theends,there is nofeelingofresponsibilityTVork-activitydiffersinthatit looksconsciously toallofthe factors It is consciousprimarilyof the fruits of thelaborsHereiswherethefundamentalinterest lies Thiscastsa derivedinterestback over the other factorssince theyareprerequisites.Theworker,while intraining,has adoubleinterestinthework-activities the primary oneisduetothefact thattheyproducethefruitsthatheisafter;thesecondary,thattheyfurtherdevelophispowerstoact,liftingthemtohigherlevelsofefficiency.Heistheninter-ested in thegeneralexerciseoftheplay-level,notbecauseof thepleasurestherebyderived,but becauseof its valueindevelopingthepowerstothinkandactThediagramshowstheplaceinthetotalschemeofthetwolevels of educationalexperience.Arepresents experi-encesoftheplay-level,Cthoseofthework-level. Botharefactorsindevelopingtheindividual's work-powers.A comes20THECURRICULUMearlier andlaysthe foundations; and maycontinuethrough-outlifealongsideormingledwiththe workformaintainingthefoundations.Ccomesonlyafteronehascometofeelactualresponsibilityforseriousresults. Itis notto besome-thinglikework,itmustbeactualworkIt mustbeobservedthatthework-levelactuallydifferen-tiates intotwo,because of the twotypesof fruits to bederived fromthework-experiencesOnemayperformthework-activities(C)forthesakeoftheultimateresults(D)withoutconsciousnessoftheeducationaleffects(B)On theotherhand,onemay,fromfeltresponsibilityfor final re-sultsandconsciousnessofinferiorityofhispowers,performthe work-activities for the sake of thedevelopmentalre-sults(B)alone These are asgenuinelythe fruits of thelabors as theultimateobjectiveresults. Therecannot befeltresponsibility,however,forthesedevelopmentalwoik-resultsexceptasitisderived fromafeelingofresponsibilityforsecuringtheultimateresults.Whether thework-experiences,therefore,look toward sub-jectiveorobjective fruits,both interests andresponsibilitiesrelateprim&niytotheobjective,andonlyinderivedformtothesubjective.Thestrength ofthe derived interests andresponsi-bilitiesisdeterminedbythestrengthoftheprimaryones. Evenwhenthedevelopmentalresultsarethethingsprimarilysoughtbyteachersindirectingeducation,thestudentsmustbeaimingprimarilyat theobjective results,andonly secondarilyat theprerequisitedevelopmentalones.Anawakeningeducationiseverywherecomingtorealizethe needofwork-activities as theonlypossiblenormal methodofprepariixgfo& the workofthe world Intheoccupationalfield,we aredevelopingschools and courses fortrades,commerce,householdoccupations,agriculture,mining,etc.,inspecialschools, continuationschools,andingeneralhighschools. Inthemoreprogressiveofthese,there isevery-THEWORK-LEVEL21whereattempttoperformarealportionofthe world's workas themeansoftraining.Thismaybeaccomplishedbytransferringaportionof thecommunity's occupationalactivitiestfo the schoolsandhavingtheworkdonethere;orbydistributingthestudentsthroughoutthecommunitywheretheycanfind theirwork-experiencesin thosesitua-tionsprovidedbythework-activitiesoftheadultworld.Bothplansareused. Ontheonehand,vocationalactiv-itiesare beingtransferredtotheschools, andthe workdonethere underregular shopconditionsinvolving genuineresponsibilityThustheboysintheshops,insteadoftheold-type manualtrainingexercises,areengagedin manufac-turingschoolequipment,furniture,farming implements,playgroundapparatus,articles neededforRedCrossworkand forcommunity poor-relief,laboratory apparatus,electri-calappliancesfor homeuse,etcTheyare alsoinplacesdoingactualcommunity printing, milk-testing,seed-testing,repair-workonfurniture,tools,machinesandautomobiles,cementconstruction,building portablehouses,garages,gymnasiums,playgroundpavilions,etc. Thegirls,insteadofformalcookingexercises,arenowadaysmoreandmoreputtopreparationof thedailyschoolluncheon,homecan-ningandpreserving,sometimesdoingbakingfor homeuse,or even for thegeneral market Andtheir sewingisthe mak-ingofactualgarments.Sinceitis often difficult to transfer actual work-activities tothe schools,another methodisfor the students togooutintothecommunitywheretheworkisbeingearnedonbytheadult worldand there to share inthelabors fortrainingpurposes. Althoughdifficultenoughtoarrangeandman-age,thisisoftentheeasier methodof the twobecauseof thefrequent practical impossibilityoftransferringthe actualresponsibilitytotheschools. Asaresultofthisrecognitionwearesubstitutinghoinegardeningfortraining purposes2THECDEEICULUMfor theold ineffective schoolgardening,thehome-projecttypeofagriculturefortheschoolfarm,andpart-timeworkinshops,stores,offices,etc.,for meredrillexercisesinschoolshopsandcommercialrooms.Intrainingforcitizenship,also,practicalactivities arebeingintroduced.Pupilsarehelpingto makethecityclean,sanitary,andbeautiful,tocareforthecity'strees andshrub-bery,topreventflies andmosquitoes;toprotectthebirdsand to destroynoxiousinsects.Theyareengagedinmakingthingsfor school orcommunityuseBoyScouts at timespatroldangerous street-crossingsmorningandafternoontoprotectthehttlechildrengoing to andfromschool. Schoolcivicorganizationsaremakinglocalsurveysofcommunityconditions forresponsible reportto the authorities or toadult civicorganizationsForpracticalhygienictraining,pupilsareoftenmadere-sponsiblefor someportionof theschoolventilation,buildingcleanliness andsanitation,theregulationoftemperature,humidity,andsunlight. Throughthe schoolmedicaldepart-mentandthroughgivingcreditfor homework,childrenarestimulated to outsidepractical hygienicactivities, homeventilation andsanitation,cleansingtheteeth,rationalchoiceoffoods,regulationofsleepingconditionsandhours,adjustmentofexercisetoneeds,careoftheeyes,etcIn thepupil'slanguage,also, weareintroducingthe work-motiveoffeltresponsibility. Pupilsarebroughttoaimatsocial results thatforattainmentrequireacorrectandef-fectivetypeoflanguage.Thiscompelsthemto see theirlanguageas awork-activity employedforgettingresults.Eesponsibilityfor ends thenimpels themto watchfulness andeffort inorganizingtheirthought,inparagraphand sen-tenceconstruction,inchoiceofwords,pronunciation, spell-ing, handwriting,etcTheyaregiventheopportunitiesinproblem-solving,oralreports,writtenreports, letters,newsTHEWOKK-LEYEL23items,communications tocivicorganizations, applicationsforposition,debates,social-clubactivities,etcButaftec.enumeratingall of thesethingswemustcon-fessthatprofessionalvisionisfarinadvanceofprofessionalpracticeForreally, exceptforthelanguagefield,takingschoolsthecountryover,thereisnotmuchtrainingexperi-enceofgenuinework-type,thecriterionbeingfeltrespon-sibilityforseriousresults. Even trade-schoolexperiencesaremostoften exercisesinisolation fromthe world'sactual workFarmoreis this the case with coursesbearingvocationalnamesinthegeneralschools,andwithtrainingforcitizen-ship,hygiene,andsanitation. Thelist ofthingsbeingdonesomewherein thecountryisvery long,butit is arareschoolsystemthat has founda waysotoshare incommunity work"responsibilityastosecureasufficientportionofactual work-*experiencefortrainingpurposesThere isinsufficient realizationoftheneedorthelegit-imacyforpubliceducation of actualwork-experiencesEvenyetourschoolsappeartobewell-namedfiointheoldGreekwordschole,meaningleisure Inthemain,educationingrammargrades, liighschool,andcollegeof liberal artsweexcept the masteryof theschoolartsin theelementaryschoolandthetraininginprofessional andtechnicalschoolsisyetalifeofleisure. Teachersareoftenable topreventstudents'enjoying it,butthatdoesnotmaketheactivityanorganicportionoftheworld'swork,whichissetasidefortrainingyouthintheprocessesofthatwork.Intechnologicalandprofessionalschools wehavelongrecognizedthe need of work-activities.Youngphysiciansin training are helpers in hospitals, engineering students havefield andshopwork;agriculturalstudents,work on theschoolfarm,butevenintheseschoolstheamountofwork-experienceisusuallyfelttobeinadequateThisisrevealedbysucha movementasthatin theUniversityofCincinnati,24THECUEEICULUMwhere the studentsin mechanicalengineering have beengivenopportunitytoworkhalf-time inmanufacturingestablish-mentsofthecity,bearingactualresponsibilitiesandreceiv-ing wagesfortheir work. Thisistoprovide work-experiencethatisgenuineincharacterandadequatezjaquantity.Theneedofworkfortraininghaslongbeenunderstoodbythe skilled trades. Theapprenticeship systemtrainedthroughexperiencesof thework-type.Therecentagita-tionforvocationaltraining inpublicschoolsisdue,nottoanewneed,buttonewconditions. Theapprenticeshipsys-tem,neververyefficient,has brokendownin the face ofcomplicatedconditions Publiceducation iscomingtotherescue But even though we organizeschoolsfor thepurpose,wemustnoless thanintheolddaysincludeactualwork-experience.Indeed,wemustnowhaveagreaterquantityofresponsiblework than was providedby theoldapprentice-ship system,because of thegreater present complexityofworkandofthehigherlevelsofefficiencytobereached.Anditmustbenotless realthantheoldFinding work-experiencefortraining presentedno diffi-cultytotheapprenticeship systemIthadlittleelsetopro-vide Butthatisjustthethingthathasbeenmostabsentfrompubliceducation. Schoolshavebeenplacesof leisureoccupations;notplaceswheretheworld's workisbeingper-formed.Theycanprovideany amountofexperienceontheplay-level.Buttheyare not in command of the world'swork-activities,whether production,distribution,civicregu-lation,communitysanitation,orother. Intheirtraditionalformtheyarethereforenotin apositiontoprovidemuchtraining onthework-level.Hence,educationrequiresapro-foundtransformationbeforeitisabletotakeadequatecareofwork-experienceastrainingforwork. Schoolsmustbe-comesharers intheworld'sworkofeverykindbywayoffindingtheonlypossibletrainingopportunities.THEWORK-LEVEL 25Experiencesofthework-typemaywellbegininasmallwayeveninkindergartenandprimarygrades.Theexpan-sionofthepupils'understandingofendsandmeanswillbegradualupthroughthe grades.Itoughttobefairlyfullbythelateryearsofthehighschool inspiteofpresentusualpracticesto thecontrary.It is not unreasonabletosup-posethatitshould bedominantonthecollegelevelagaininspiteofcurrentcontrary practices.vTheacademictend-encyhas beentodelayeducational activittelTo? Hieworlc-type)They havebeenwithheldfromcollegestudentsuntiltheprofessionalschoolshavebeenreached,andfrommosthigh-schoolstudents untiltheyreachtechnicalschools,ortheschooloftheworld'swork. Thisisthe wayofeaseandeconomy;but the worldisrapidly coiningto think it amistake.CHAPTERIVTHEPLACEOFIDEASINWORK-EXPERIENCEEVENthe crude activities of thepastwere directedbyideas Thefarmerin hisfields,themachinistathislathe,thehousewifeathercooking,thecitizeninarrivingatjudg-mentsofpublicaffairs,orinstavingoffdisease,allcon-sideredtheconditionsbeforethem,andappliedthemeansandprocessesthatappearedtothemthe mostrational. Buttheylackedaccuratescientificknowledgeofthefactors in-volved Theideasthattheyputtoworkwerecrude,andthat iswhytheir labors were crude and inefficient Thethoughtorsubjective partof theworkis the work essen-tially Op.eindispensablethingformakingworkefficient isa fullsupplyof accurate scientific informationconcerningallthefactors! Thesecondthingisacorrectperformanceoftheideationalportionof thepracticalwork. LetusbeginwiththelatterandcallitTheantecedentperformanceThepracticalperformanceofanytaskdividesitselfnatu-rallyinto twoparts.First,there is theplanningof thework:makingdecisionsastoexactobjectivesandastothespecificmaterialsandprocessestobeemployed.Thistaskinvolves performanceinimaginationof theentire labor fromincipiency' to finishedproductIt involvesmarshalingallof one's sciencerelativeto bothobjectivesandprocesses;and drawing plansasdictated bythescience One mustalsotest outinimaginationeachstepin the series to see thateverythingfits intoeverythingelse,and that there is nocontradiction,interference,orotherobstacle.Anycompletetask will serve to illustrate Let us takePLACEOFIDEASINWORK-EXPERIENCE 7thecaseofthe boyin themachine-shop whosetsouttocon-structagas-engineHefirstconstructsitinhisimagination.Thisantecedentconstructioninvolvesalloftheparts,sizes,designs,and relations. In thisway,withoutanyrisk orwasteofmaterials,he mayconstructitoverandoveragain,toseethattherearenomistakes,nointerferenceofparts,andnoinsurmountabledifficulties. He mayconstructitinmanyways, usingdifferentdesigns,sizes ofparts,orpro-portions;andhe maytestouteachdesigninordertodeter-minetheworkingplanthatseemsbest Fortheseantece-dentlabors,hemustmobilizeall of his scienceandputittoworkbothintheplanningandthetesting.Histhoughtmaybeconcentratedinto a fewhoursor distributedovermonths.But whenthisantecedentconstruction andtestingaresatisfactorilyaccomplished anddecisionmade,the morefundamentalportionof the workis done Thereremainstheobjectificationofhisplans.Thisis notmeremechan-icalregistrationof his decisions. Back of hishands,histhoughtis stillbusy directing, guiding,andsupervising.Hishandsarethetoolsofhisintellect. Such manuallabors,beforebeingmechanized intohabit,a laterprocess,areessentiallyintellectuallabors.This mustbeemphasizedbecauseof thefrequenttend-encyin thetrainingtocommitone or the other of twofundamentalerrors. Oneis toleaveoutalargeportionoftheideationalelement,bygivingready-madeplanstothestudents whichtheyaresimplyto follow:shop-manuals,books ofrecipes, blue-print plans, ready-made patterns,detaileddirections. Insuchcasepupils maygetpracticallynovision of thecontrollingscience,andarenotevenput-tingsecond-hand ideas to work.Theymay get nothingmore thanideas of mechanicalmanipulationwithoutanyinsightinto the reasons for theprocesses.Astrainingexperience,itisbarrenandineffective*28THECURRICULUMTheoppositeerror Is theattemptto teach thesciencewithoutanyrelationtothework-situations. Thisnomorethantheotherisputtingideastowork;it is thereforenotintellectualwork-experienceItmayaccomplishmuch asintellectualplay.Practicalexperienceprovesthatitlaysagoodfoundationforlateractualwork-training,aswherethemantrained in"pure"sciencegoesintopracticalin-dustry,andrapidly getshisnextlevel oftrainingWedonotdenythattheplay-levelprovidesanexcellentfounda-tion fortrainingof thework-type;wehaveeverywhereaffirmed it. Butit is nottrainingonthework-level. Andinthe degreein whichthelatterisnecessary,theexperienceisincomplete,inefficient, unfocused,fails toprovidework-valuations, work-habits, attitudes,and sense ofresponsi-bility.Asamethodoftrainingforseriousduties,it tooisineffective.Wemustpointoutanimportantdifferencebetweentheantecedent orsubjective performanceof the act andthelaterobjectiveperformance.Intheformer,onedrawsonallhisideasthatarein any wayrelatedtothetaskinhand.Ifhehasabundantideasandafertileimagination,hemaybebroughtintocontactwithabouteveryimportantthinginthefield. Hecomestoknowthescienceandproperlytovalueit,as hethus chooses thethingsthateta serve hispurposesandrejectsthosethatareof noservice. Theplan-ning,theantecedentperformanceofthetask, is, therefore,from an educationalpointofview,the mostimportantpartofit. Butitcannothavevitalityforeducationunlessit isreallyantecedent to intendedaction,unless it is anorganicportionof atotalactof whichtheoutwardperform-anceisbuttheculminatingportion.On theotherhand,afterdecisionsaremade,plansdrawn,andonlyexecutionremaining,then one's mental life ismuchnarrowed. It isconcernedintensivelywith the onePLACEOBIDEASJNWORK-EXPERIENCE 20designthatliasbeendecidedupon,theonesetofmaterialsandmethods Thisculminating activityhasmanyeduca-tional values itgives motive andsubstantiality to the wholeprocess,itgivesdepthtoone'sunderstandingandappreci-ations;itconfersoperativeskill. Butit cannotbecomparedwiththeantecedentlaborsforgivingwidthof intellectualvisionThepupilmustytherefore,not be robbedofthe antecedentperformanceby havingthefinished plans prescribed bytheteacherorbyaclassmanual.Theantecedentperformancepossessesanother importantvalue Novices will notacquirea sense ofresponsibilityunlesstheyareforcedtotaketheinitiative,tomakeplansanddecisionsforthemselves,andtobeartheresponsibilityofmakingtheplanssuccessful Butwithnovices,this in-volvesmistakes,wasteofmaterials,andlosses Sincepen-altyalonecanenforceresponsibility,and since loss is thenormalpenaltyofmistakes,seriouswasteappearstobethepriceof initiative andresponsibility,iftheyare to bereal,andnotmerelymake-believeWehavea wayoutofthedifficultyaswedistinguishbe-tweenantecedentandeliminatingperformance,andas wedevelopeducationaltechnique appropriateto the two.Fullandcompleteinitiativecanbegivenstudentsfortheante-cedentperformance ofthe action.Then,before thestepsplannedareactuallytaken,theycanbereviewed,stepbystep,asfrequentlyasnecessarybythestudentbywayofseeingthatnomistakeis involved. Planscanbetakenupinclassdiscussion,andtriedoutinthecriticaltesting imagi-nation ofteacherandpupils,Senous defects willthusbediscovered. Mistakes can be seen beforetheyare madeactual. Lossescanberealized,andthepenaltyenforcedinimagination sufficientlyto restrainwrongaction. As amatteroffact,thisisthe wayNatureenforcesherpenalties80THECURRICULUMmostofthetimeinthecase ofthesuccessfulman. Heissuccessful becauseheanticipatesmistakes and correctsthembeforetheyaremade Theunsuccessfulmanistheone of narrower vision and dullerimaginationwho doesnotseehismistakesuntilheisinjuredor crushedbeneaththem."Experienceisthebestteacher"Butexperienceinanticipatingmistakesandcorrectingthem beforetheyaremade is a better teacherthan loss andinjury.Theplandemands fulldevelopmentof thetechniqueof antecedentperformance.ThetechnicalinformationOnthework-level,thetasktobeperformediscentral;andthescienceisorganizedaboutit. Aboy,forexample,in theschoolshopwishesto construct andoperateatele-graphicapparatusThisambition will serveas thecenterof the sciencetraining.He will be motivated togatherinformationconcerningbatteries,wiring, electro-magnets,makingandbreakingofcircuits,etc. Hewilllearnjustthethingsthatheneedsforthetaskinhand,and nothing moreatthe timeThroughusinghisideasintheplanningandintheactualconstructionhecomestorealizethefullsignifi-canceofthevariousfacts. Thederivedinterest arousedisformostindividuals morepotentthanthenative interestintheabstractsciencefactsandprinciples.Forthisreasontheknowledgeismoreeffectivelydrivenhomeandremem-beredThere is astrongdrift inpubliceducation toward thisproject-methodoforganization.Theschoolcornclubs,forexample,assemble allpossibleinformation relative to thegrowthof cornanduse it for thecontrol ofpracticalpro-cedure.Childrenengagedin ananti-mosquito campaignassemblejusttheentomological, bacteriological,andotherinformationneededintheirlabors,rejectingforthe momentPLACEOFIDEASINWORK-EXPERIENCE 31allirrelevantscientificinformation. Thetree-protectingleague gathersallpossiblefactsconcerningthespeciesoftreesattackedby insects,fungi, etc,togetherwith thescientificinformationneededforcombatingthedestructiveinfluencesTheyrejectforthetimeall botanicalorento-mologicalinformation thathasnobearingontheprobleminhand Inweedingoutthegrammaticalmistakesmadebychildrenintheirspeech,thegrammaticalinformationisassembledthat relates to thespecificmistakesfound;allothergrammaticalfacts arepassed byas irrelevant. Inbrief,one learns thethingsneededfordirectingaction inconnectionwiththesituationsin which theactionistotakeplace,andjust previousto thedrawmg-upof theplans.Onlyunder such circumstances canknowledge properlyreveal itssignificance,berightlyfocuseduponhumanaffairs,or benormallyassimilated.Knowinganddoingshouldgrowuptogether.Inspiteofthesevirtues,theproject-methodasa modeofteachingscience is notalwaysingoodrepute.This is notdue toanyinherent defect in the method when it iscompleteIt isbyfar themostcomplicatedmethod;anddiffersmostfromfamiliartraditionalones Itisnot,there-fore,surprisingthatteachers oftendevelopanincompleteandineffectiveformofthemethod. Wheneveratrainingtask involvespractical performance,this is sovisible,tangible,andsolid to sense that it oftencomestobecon-ceivedasbeingthewholething.Theteacherattemptstogetthepupilsinthemosteconomicalandexpeditiouswaytoperformthepracticalactionsbywayofsecuringthere-sults. Theteachers,therefore,oftendothethinking,drawuptheplans,andprescribe procedurefor thestudents. Thisisexceedinglycommoninsewing-rooms,kitchens,and shops.Sofarasthepupils'experienceisconcerned,theintellectualelementislargelydroppedout. Insuchcasethepupilsdo32THECURRICULUMnotthemselvesperformthemostvitalportionofthework.Thepart givenover to them does notrequirethattheymasterthe science involved for the sake ofplanningandself-guidance.Thetechniqueoftheproject-methodrequiresthatintheteachingthemajorattention begivento what wehavecalled the antecedentperformancerather than to theobjectiveorculminatingperformance.Italsorequiresthattheantecedentactivitiesbeperformed bythestudents.Intheuseof thismethodthenecessaryideas aretobegotfromatleastthreeplaces.Tomakethemattersclearletusresumeourillustrationofthegas-engine.1. Inthefirstplace,theboy,motivatedbyintentiontomaketheengine,willobservesuchenginesmasgreatvari-etyas available. Forfullness ofunderstanding,heshouldoperatethem,andseetheworkingsoftheparts.Heshouldtakethemtopieces,andreassemblethem Thisexperiencebringshimintodirectcontactwithallthesciencerealitiesinvolved thefirst vitalstepinlearningscience. Afterhehasthusexperiencedtherealities,heispreparedtoisolatethem,verbalizethem,andappreciate quantitativerela-tions. Thesituationdoesnotcontainallthatheneedsforthese latterpurposes,andcertainlynotenoughfor fullscientificgeneralizations;butthe thingsitcontainshe needsaspartofthetotalprocess.&Inthe secondplace,hewillreaddescriptions,pictures,drawings,anddiagramsofenginesthathehasnotseen,bywayofextendinghis vision ofpossibility.If hecanhavedirectaccesstotwoorthreetypesofactualengines,hewillhaveanapperception-alphabetthat will enablehimeasilyandquickly through readingto examine another ten ortwentytypesItwouldbewellinsuchcasetobeginwiththehistoricallyearliestandsimplesttypes,notingboththestructures and the scienceinvolved;then to trace thePLACEOFIDEASINWORK-EXPERIENCE33changesthathavebeenmadebywayofimprovementandof adaptation tospecial needs,andreasons for thesechanges.Whentfcdsexperienceisadded,heisprovidedwithabetterbasis forgeneralizations.Butprobablyeven this is notenough.3. Forillustratingthethirdstep,letusisolatethesinglefeatureoftheignitionsystem.Insteadoffurtherwideninghisunderstandingoftheelectricalscienceinvolved bylook-ingto still moreengines,there is alimitbeyondwhichlittleornothing newappears,hemightlookoff andviewthewidefield ofelectricityingeneralanditsapplicationsingeneral.Heis stillmotivated,let ussay,byhisprojectofdevelopinganimproved typeofignition system.Hereads afulltreatise onelectricity and itsapplications.Wherehisapperceptionisdefective,hetriesthingsoutinthelabo-ratory.But,though takinga fullsurveyof the"pure5*science,heisonlysortingoverthepossibilitiesofthefield,locating suggestions, tryingto find the ideas that he canputto work. Thispure-scienceoverview is the ultimatelevelofproject-scienceexperience.Whileinasensethisis"pure"science,itisverydifferentfrom the usualnon-functionaltype.Here theprimarythinginthestudent'sconsciousnessistheproject,thepieceof workto bedone;notthesatisfactionofintellectualinter-ests. Heexamineseveryfact andprinciplein relation tohispractical problem,andnotmerelyas a field of intel-lectualsight-seeing.Thetwotypesofexperiencediffer asplaydiffersfromwork.CHAPTERVWHEREEDUCATIONCANBEACCOMPLISHEDEDUCATIONALexperiencesmust takeplacewheretheycanbenormal.FrequentlythisisnotattheschoolsThenatureoftheproblemcanbe madeclearbyillustra-tionsofvaryingcharacter. Letustakefirstthecaseofthetrainingofgirlsinsewing.Thepracticalactivitieswilltransfer tothe schoolswith ease. Thecontinuingneed ofgarmentsandotherhouseholdnecessitiesinvolvingneedle-workgivesrise to thenormalresponsibilitiesWhile theactivitiesmaytakeplacein the individualhomes,theteachergoingaboutfrom hometohometosuperviseit,theplanis notadministrativelyeconomical Theschools caneasilyprovidethesimpleappliancesneeded Thematerialscan be carried to the schools aseasilyasbooks,andthepracticallaborsperformedthere asnormallyas at home.Whentasks canbeso transferred without loss of normalresponsibility,this isadministrativelydesirable,Thetraininginhomecookingwill nottransferwithanysuchease. Foodmaterialsarebulky,andnoteasilycarriedtotheschoolforthework,noreasilyreturnedtothehomes.Theyareperishable, easily subjecttocontamination intransit,andoftenshouldbeserved as soonaspreparationiscomplete.Mostofthepracticalactivitiesthereforemusttakeplacein thehomekitchen,notinthe school kitchen.Forsupervisingit,teachersneedtobeinintimatecontactwiththehomes. Afewsuchcookingtasks can be trans-ferredto theschoolsattimes,asforexample,certainspecialbaking,aportionofthecanning,preserving, jelly-making,etc. Thesecanoccasionallybeperformedattheschoolandtheproductthenreturnedtothehomesofthegirls.WHEREEDUCATIONCANBEACCOMPLISHED35Owingtothedifficultyofprovidingnormalresponsibili-ties,and therefore normaltraining conditions,manyschoolsatpresentareusingasubstitute. Thepreparationoftheschoolluncheonisusedtoprovideresponsibletrain-ingconditions. Thegirlsinrelaysprovidedailyoneor twodishesfortheluncheon. Inothercasestheypreparelunch-eons for theteachers,regularlyoroccasionally.Inafewschoolstheyevengosofarastoprovideanentirenoondaymeal eachday includinga dozen or moredishes,servedcafeteria-fashion for several hundred students. When aneededactivitywill nottransfer,it is thuspossibleocca-sionallytofindasufficientsubstitute thatis not mere make-believe.Recognitionofthenecessityof normalresponsibilityasafactorofeducationalsituationsisarelativelyrecentdevel-opment.Not manyyearsagoitwasfelt,forexample,thattrainingingardeningcould begivenin our little schoolgardens. Recentlyit hasbeendiscoveredthatinso far astheschoolgardenomitsnormalresponsibilityforsecuringactualresultsthataretobeusedinseriousways,itisbutaplay-garden.Assuchit is ofvalueforpreliminarytrainingof theplay-typeIt can introduce thesubjectandgivesomebeginningideas astogardening;andit canservefordemonstration andexperimental procedure;but it is in-sufficient for serioustraining.It isbeingdiscoveredthatgardening responsibilitytransfers to theschoolonlywithgreatdifficulty,andthatthereforethetrainingshouldtakeplacein thehomegardenswith the teachergoingaboutfromhometohometosupervisethe work.Tke^trainingneeds to be taken careofwhere the workcan benormal,notwhereitmaybemostcomementforteachers.Formerlywethoughtwecouldtrainmachinistsandcar-pentersinourhigh-schoolmanual-trainingshops.Nowweseethatourshopsofthe usual type provideplay-situations.36THECURRICULUMnotwork-situations.Theconstructiveinstinct isstrongiiboys,andwhetherinschoolornottheirplayinclinesthento constructiveactivities. The usual schoolshopofferithese instincts a favorable outlet. This is oflargevalueConstructiveplay,distributed fromkindergartentohigtschool,is ahighly profitable trainingof thepreliminarytype.Itintroducesnovicestothefieldofseriousmechanicaloccupations.It cancarrythembutaportionoftheway,however. After such introduction thethingneeded is re-sponsiblework,where theboycanparticipatein seriousmechanical activities,under actualworkingconditionsThepractical responsible aspectsofshop trainingwilltransfer to theschools underpresentconditionsonlywithgreat difficulty.It isscarcely possibletoorganizeinanysufficientwayat ourschools actualmachine-shopproduc-tion or the actualbuildingof houses Atthe schoolonlypreliminary, laboratory,and demonstrationportionscanbe takencareof. Theculminatingportionsoftheeducativeprocessaretobefoundoutintheworldofresponsiblein-dustry.Tothatmust the students be sent for the laterlevels of theirmechanicaltrainingOurschools havetried to trainfor healthbyimpartingtextbook and lecture informationconcerningmatters ofanatomy,physiology,andhygiene.Ifthechildrengotthefacts inmindwellenoughto reciteandpasstheexamina-tions, theywere considered educated.Applicationof theinformationhasbeenlookeduponasathingtobedonebythepupilsonlyafteftheexaminationhasattestedthecom-pleteness of theireducation. Theapplication has been lookeduponasbeingin no sense apartof thetraining process;certainlynotapartoftheschool'sresponsibility. Eecentlywearebecomingbetterinformed. Wearediscoveringthatthe applicationofthe informationistheculminating processofeducation;that withouttheprocessesin wWchthe knowl-WHEREEDUCATIONCANBEACCOMPLISHED 37edgeisputtowork,education isonlyhalfdone. Wearecomingto see that education inhygieneisaccomplished,notin themomentsofacquiringthepreliminarytechnicalinformationattheschool,butinthemomentsofusingthatinformationin the controlofconduct,and in therecwrringmomentsof suchactualuseof knowledgewhilehealthhabitsarebeingfixedThetrainingisaccomplishedas oneputshisideastoworkintheventilationofhissleeping-room;inhischoiceoffood,incaring forhisteeth,inkeeping uphis mus-cularstrengthandtone,in work andplay,inevadingbacterialinfection;and in the countless other matters inwhichheis calleduponto actMostofthesehygienictrainingactivitieswillnottransfertotheschool Thetraininghastobeaccomplishedwheretheactivitycantakeplacenormally.Theschoolcangivenecessaryantecedentinformation;it can aid students informing judgmentsasto whattodo;itcan through teachersand school nursescooperatewithparentsinstimulatingandsupervisingthe activities ofthestudents;butinmostcasestheself-directed activitiesthat.'toundoutandfix thetrainingcannotbetransferred to theschools. Thehome-visitinghealth-nurse in continual contact with the homesituationsinwhichthe pupilsliveistheoneideallysituatedforsupervisingtheculminatingaspectsofthetraining.Wheninlaterchapterswelookattheresponsibleactivi-ties involvedintrainingforcitizenship,forleisureoccupa-tions,forparenthood,forreligion,forsocial intercommuni-cation,etc,weshalldiscoverthatin mostfieldsoftrainingthere aresomeoftheculminatingactivities that transfertotheschoolswithentireease,thatthereareotherswhichtransferwithdifficulty,andthattherearestillotherswhichwillnottransferataU. Itwillbefound,too,thattherela-tivevalueofanyaspectoftrainingis innowiserelatedtotheplacewhereithastobecarriedon.Verymanyactivi-38THECURRICULUMtiesmosturgentlyneededcanbetransferredtotheschoolsonly withgreatdifficulty,ornotatall. Educationis nolessimperative,however,simplybecauseof thisdifficultyorimpossibilityoftransfer. Ourprofessionmustfindwaysofgoingout to the activities that cannot bebroughttotheschools. Thisis nowbeingdoneinpart-timework,ingivingcreditfor homeactivities,andinschool-club workof variouskinds. JAgoodexamplecomesfrom Iowa. Thebulletin oftheIowa Home-Work School-Credit Club enumeratesthreehundred andthirtyhomeactivities of widediversityforwhichcreditisgiven.Itisunfortunatethatspaceprecludesthepresentationof theentirelist;butthefollowingtableshowsthe numberofactivitiesofeachclassforwhichcreditisgiven:NumberofactivitiesAgriculturalactivities.>Plants 45Animals 18Agriculturalconstructionandfarmeconomics .... 21Homeeconomics:Sewing, 23Cooking29Laundry, . . . 17Housekeeping. . ... . 18Generalconstruction,repairs,andotherworkwithtools59Homedutiesofboysandgirls, 9Healthactivities . .20Self-culture(homereading,music,etc).... .16Helpingtheaged,theweak,theill,etc 11Businesspractice 6Thriftactivities4Civicactivities . .10Clubprojects. . . .24Total,_33QWHEREEDUCATIONCANBEACCOMPLISHED 39Naturallysuch non-transferable activitiesrequiredirec-tionandsupervision.Muchofthisisto betakencareofattheschoolbuildinginthe antecedentplanning for theactivi-ties^Thisinvolves thepreviousmasteryof thenecessaryinformation.Sofar aspossiblethe children will dotheirownplanningandthusknowwhattheyareabout. Iftheantecedentportionsoftheactivityarefullytakencareof,theneedofpersonalsupervisionisgreatlydiminished. Butpupilsneedleadershipandencouragement.Whileparentsherehaveaparttoperform,themajorresponsibilityrestsuponthe teachers. It demands thatthey minglein thecommunitylife and come into contact with theirpupilswhilethe latter aresecuringtheir educativeexperiences*Asteacherseducateforefficientperformance oflife'saffairs,'they must beaportionoftheactive worldofaffairs. In thedegreeinwhichtheexperienceitself cannotbetransferredtotheclassroom,inthisdegreetheteacherhimselfcannotbeplacedwithinaclassroomfordirectingthework.Thepart-timeschoolorcourseis anotherpracticalrecog-nitionofthefactthat,wherenormalexperiencecannotbetransferredtotheschool,the childrenmustbesenttotheplaceswheresuchnormalexperiencecanbehad. Insuchwell-knownexamplesas those of Cincinnati orFitchburg,*the, boysin theshopcoursesspendonehalf of theschoolyear in the classes,laboratories, andshopsof the high schoolsandthe other half of the schoolyearin theshopsofthecity, doingreal workforwagestindershopforemen. Theplanisworkedoutbyhavingtwoboysassignedtoonejobintheshop.Each boy works a weekin theshop and a weekin the schoolalternately.Whenone is in theshoptheotherisin theschool; botharein the shoponSaturdays.Thispart-timeactivitycanbeindefinitelyextended;andtheextensionisatpresentbeingactuallyandrapidly made.Theyoungmenintheshopsofhighschoolsandindustrial40 THECUERICULUMschools arebeingusedbythe educational authoritiesofcertaincitiesintakingcareoftherepairsuponschoolbuild-ingsandschoolequipment,underthedirectionofresponsi-blerepairforemen. Inatechnicalhighschoolrecentlyvis-ited,theboysintheagriculturalclasshadcontractedwiththefruit-growersoftheregionroundaboutto care fortheorchardsforacertainpriceperyear. TheywentoutSatur-days,holidays,vacations,and did thespraying, pruning,cultivation,harvesting,etc., undertheconditions ofnormalresponsibility. Arrangementsarebeingmade inmanyplaceswherebystudentsintypewriting,bookkeeping,sales-manship,advertising,window-dressing,etc,workforafewhoursperweekor certain weeksduringtheyearonpart-timeworkwithincommercialestablishments.We discover here a further administrative reason formakingclear distinction between the antecedentportionandtheobjectiveportionofpracticalaction* Theplanningandall thepreparationincident thereto caninpracticallyall cases bemosteconomicallyandeffectivelytaken careofattheschools Theactualputtingofideastoworkunderresponsibleconditionsmustbeaccomplishedinthediverseand scattered situations where those conditions obtain.AdministrativelythisactualaccomplishmentoftenpresentsdifficultproblemsIn tliedegree,however,in which theantecedentportionhas beenadequately performed,thesedifficulties are minimized. Thenovices whenthey gooutfind themselvespreparedtoputtherightideas towork;todothethingswithconfidence;todothemcorrectly;andwith littlesupervision.Theworldknowshowto use thatkindofability*CHAPTERVISCIENTIFICMETHODINCURRICULUM-MAKINGTHEtechniqueofcurriculum-makingalongscientificlineshasbeenbutlittledeveloped.Thecontrollingpurposesofeducation have not beensufficiently parBc^rized.Wehaveaimedat avagueculture,anill-defineddiscipline,anebulous harmoniousdevelopmentof theindividual,anindefinite moralcharacter-building,anunparticularizedsocialefficiency,or,oftenenoughnothingmorethanescapefrom alifeof work. Oftenthereare nocontrollingpurposes;the momentumoftheeducationalmachine keepsitrunning.Solongasobjectivesare butvague guesses,or not eventhat,there can be no demand foranythingbutvagueguessesastomeansandprocedureButtheeraofcontent-mentwithlarge,undefinedpurposesisrapidlypassing.Anageofscienceisdemandingexactnessandparticularity.Thetechniqueof scientific method is atpresent beingdevelopedforeveryimportantaspectofeducation.Experi-mental laboratories and schools arediscoveringaccuratemethods ofmeasuringandevaluatingdifferenttypesofeducationalprocesses.Bureaus of educational measure-mentarediscoveringscientificmethodsofanalyzingresults,of diagnosingspecificsituations,andofprescribing remedies*Scientificmethodisbeing appliedtothefields ofbudget-making, child-accounting, systemsofgradingandpromo-tion,etc.Thecurriculum,however,is aprimordialfactor. If it iswronglydrawn up onthebasismerelyofguess and personalopinion,allofthescienceintheworldappliedtothefactorsabove enumeratedwill notmakethe workefficient. Thescientific taskprecedingall others is thedeterminationof42THECURRICULUMthecurriculumForthisweneedascientifictechnique.Atpresentthis isbeingrapidlydevelopedin connectionwithvariousfields oftraining.Thecentral theoryissimple.Humanlife, howevervaried,consistsintheperformanceofspecificactivitiesEducationthatpreparesfor life is one thatprepares definitelyandadequatelyforthesespecificactivities. Howevernumerousanddiverse they maybeforanysocialclass,they can bedis-covered. Thisrequiresonlythatonegooutintotheworldofaffairsanddiscovertheparticularsofwhichtheseaffairsconsist. These will show theabilities, attitudes, habits,appreciations,and forms ofknowledgethat men need.Thesewill betheobjectivesofthecurriculumTheywillbenumerous, definite,andparticularized.Thecurriculumwill thenbethat series ofexperienceswhich childrenandyouthmusthave bywayofattainingthoseobjectives.The wordcurriculumisLatinforarace-course,ortheraceitself,aplaceofdeeds,oraseries ofdeeds. Asappliedtoeducation,it is thatseriesof things'whichchildrenandyouthmustdo- andexperience by wayofdevelopingabilitiestodothethings weHthatmake uptheaffairsof adult life;andtobeinallrespectswhatadultsshouldbe.Thedevelopmentalexperiencesexistupon twolevels.Ontheonehand,there is thegeneral experienceoflivingthecommunitylife,withoutthoughtofthetrainingvalues Inthisway,throughparticipation,onegetsmuchofhis edu-cationforparticipationincommunitylife. Inmanythingsthisprovides mostof thetraining,andinallessentialthings,muchof it. Butin allfields,this incidental Orundirecteddevelopmentalexperienceleaves thetrainingimperfectItisnecessary,therefore,tosupplementit with theconsciousdirectedtrainingofsystematizededucation. Thefirst levelweshall call undirectedtraining;andthesecond,directedtraining.CUERICULUM-MAEING 43Thecurriculummay,therefore,bedefinedintwoways:(1)itistheentirerangeofexperiences,bothundirected anddirected,concerned inunfoldingthe abilities of the indi-vidual;or()it is theseriesofconsciouslydirectedtrainingexperiencesthat the schools use forcompletingandper-fectingthe unfoldment. Ourprofessionusesthetermusu-allyin thelattersense. Butas education iscomingmoreandmoretobeseenasathingofexperiences,andasthework-andplay-experiencesof thegeneralcommunitylifearebeingmoreandmoreutilized,the lineofdemarcationbetween directed and undirectedtraining experienceisrapidly disappearing/Education must beconcerned withboth,eventhoughit doesnotdirectboth.When the curriculum is defined asincludingboth di-rected and undirectedexperiences,thenitsobjectivesarethetotal rangeof humanabilities, iabits,systemsofknowl-edge,etc.,thatoneshouldpossess.)Thesewillbediscoveredbyanalyticsurvey.Thecurriculum-discovererwill firstbeananalystof human nature and of human affairs. Histaskatthispointisnotatallconcernedwith"thestudies,'*laterhewill drawupappropriatestudiesasmeans,buthewillnotanalyzethetoolstobeusedinapieceofworkasamodeofdiscoveringtheobjectivesofthatwork Hisfirst taskrather,inascertainingtheeducationappropriatefor anyspecialclass,istodiscoverthetotal rangeofhabits,skills,abilities,forms ofthought,valuations, ambitions,etc,thatits membersneedfor the effectiveperformanceoftheirvocationallabors; likewise,thetotalrangeneededfortheircivicactivities;theirhealthactivities;theirrecrea-tions,theirlanguage;theirparental, religious,andgeneralsocialactivities. Theprogramofanalysiswillbe no narrowone.It will bewideas life itself. Asit thusfinds all thethingsthatmakeupthemosaicoffull-formedhumanlife,>tdiscoversthefullrangeofeducationalobjectives.44THECUBEICULUMNotwithstandingthefactthatmanyof theseobjectivesare attained without consciouseffort,the curriculum-dis-coverer musthave all of thembeforehimfor his labors.Eventhoughthe scholastic curriculum will not find itnecessarytoaimatallofthem,it isthefunctionofeduca-tiontoseethatallofthemareattained.Onlyashelooksto the entire series canhe discover the ones thatrequireconsciouseffort. Hewillbecontenttoletasmuchaspos-siblebetakencareofthroughundirectedexperiencesIn-deedhe will strive for such conditions that amaximumamountofthetrainingcanbesotakencareof.Thecurriculumofthe schools will aim at thoseobjectivesthatarenotsufficientlyattainedasaresultofthegeneralun-directedexperienceThisistorecognizethatthetotalrangeofspecificeducationalobjectivesbreaksupinto two setsone,those arrived atthroughone'sgeneral experienceswithout histaking thoughtas tothetraining,theother,those that areimperfectlyor not at all attainedthroughsuchgeneralexperience.Thelatter arerevealed,anddis-tinguishedfromtheformer, bythepresenceofimperfec-tions, errors,short-comings.Likethesymptomsofdisease,thesepointunerringlyto thoseobjectivesthatrequirethesystematizedlaborsofdirectedtraining.B^feiSRciespointtotheendsof consciouseducation Asthespecific obj'ec-tivesuponwhicheducationistobefocusedarethuspointedout,we are shown where the curriculum of the directedtrainingistobedeveloped.Letus illustrate Oneof themostimportant thingsinwhichoneistobetrainedistheeffectiveuseofthemother-tongue.It ispossibletoanalyzeone'slanguageactivitiesandfind all ofthethingsonemustdo ineffectivelyandcorrectly usingit. Eachof thesethingsthenbecomesanobjectiveof thetrainingButitisnotnecessaryconsciouslytotrain foreachofthem. LetanindividualgrowupinaCURRICULUM-MAKING45cultivatedlanguage-atmosphere,and lie will learn todo,and besufficientlypracticedindoing, mostof them,withoutanydirectedtraining.Hereandthere he willmakemis-takes Eachmistakeisacallfordirectedtraining.Themwricvlumof thedirectedtraining wtobediscovered intheshortcomingscf individualsaftertheyhavehadallthatcanbegivenbytheundirectedtra^n^ng.Thisprincipleisrecognizedintherecentworkofmanyinvestigatorsastothecurriculumofgrammar.Oneoftheearlieststudies wasthat of Professor Charters.1Underhisdirection,the teachers of KansasCityundertookto dis-covertheerrorsmadebypupilsintheir oral andwrittenlanguage.For theoralerrorsthe teachers carried notebooksfor five daysof one week andjotted down every grammaticalerror whichtheyheard made byanypupilatanytimedur-ingtheday.Forthe errors inwritingtheyexaminedthewritten workofthe pupilsforaperiodofthree weeks.Theydiscoveredtwenty-one typesof errors in the oralspeechandtwenty-seven typesinthe written. The oral errorsintheorder oftheirfrequencywereasfollows.Percent1. Confusionofpasttenseandpastparticiple. 242. Failureof verbtoagree withitssubjectin numberandperson. . . . . 143.Wrongverb 124. Doublenegative,, 115.Syntacticalredundance * 106Wrongsentencefonn . &7. Confusionofadjectivesandadverbs 48.Subjectofverbnotinnominativecase ... .... 49. Confusion of demonstrativeadjectivewithper-sonal pronoun310. Predicatenominativenotinnominativecase . .11. Firstpersonalpronounstandingfirstinaseries %*Chaxterf,WW,andMiller,Edith ACourseofStudym Grammarbaseduponthe Grammatical Error*ofSchool Children in KansasCity,UniversityofMissouri,EducationBulletin,no 9.46THECURRICULUM12.Wrongformofnounorpronoun13. Confusionofpastandpresenttenses ...... ... 814.Objectof verborprepositionnotintheobjectivecase . 115.Wrongpartofspeechduetoasimilarityofsound 116. Incorrectcomparisonofadjectives117. Failureof thepronountoagree withitsantecedent 318 Incorrectuseof mood 0319.Misplacedmodifier0320. Confusionofprepositionandconjunction. . . 0221. Confusionofcomparativesandsuperlatives. . 01Eacherrordiscoveredisa symptomofgrammatical igno-rance,wronghabit,imperfectvaluation,orcarelessattitudetowardone'slanguage.Thenatureofthedeficiencypointstotheabilitiesanddispositionsthataretobedevelopedinthechildby wayofbringingabout theuse of thecorrectforms. Eachgrammatical shortcomingdiscovered,there-fore,pointsto aneededobjectiveof education Itpointstoadevelopmentofknowledgeorattitudewhichthegen-eral undirectedlanguage experiencehas notsufficientlyaccomplished;and which must therefore beconsciouslyundertakenbytheschools.Scientific methodmustconsider bothlevelsof thegram-marcurriculum. Onetask is toprovideat the school asmuchaspossibleof a cultivatedlanguage-atmosphereinwhichthe children canliveandreceiveunconscious train-ing.This isreallythetaskofmajorimportance,andpro-videsthe typeofexperience thatshouldaccomplish anever-increasingproportionofthetraining.Theothertaskis tomakechildrenconsciousoftheirerrors,toteachthegram-marneededfor correction orprevention,andtobringthechildrentoputtheirgrammatical knowledgeto work ineliminatingthe errors. Inproportionas theothertypeofexperienceisincreased,this conscioustrainingwillplayadiminishingr6le.CUREICULUM-MAEING47Inthespellingfield,Ayres,Jones,CookandO'Shea,andothers havebeentabulatingthe wordsthatchildren andadults useinwritingletters,reports, compositions,etc. Inthisway theyhave beendiscoveringtheparticularizedobjectivesoftraininginspelling.ButwordsareofunequaldifficultyMostarelearnedinthecourseofthereading andwritingexperienceofthe childrenwithoutmuchconsciousattention to thespellingBut here and there are wordsthatarenotsolearned.Investigations, therefore,layspe-cialemphasis uponthe words that aremisspelled.Eachmisspelledwordreveals adirected-curriculumtask.Here,asinthegrammar,erroristhesymptomoftrainingneed;andthecompleteerror-listpoints unerringlytothecurricu-lumofconscioustrainingIn the vocationalfield,andonthe technical sideonly,Indianapolishasprovidedanexcellentexampleof methodofdiscoveringtheobjectivesoftraining. Investigators,withoutpre-suppositionsastocontentof vocationalcurricu-lum,setouttodiscoverthemajoroccupationsof thecity,theprocessesto beperformedineach,andtheknowledge,habits and skills needed for effective workTheytalkedwithexpertworkmen;and observed thework-processes.Intheirreport,foreachoccupation,theypresent* (1)alistoftoolsandmachineswithwhichaworkmanmustbeskill-ful, ()alist ofthematerialsusedintheworkwithwhichworkersneedto befamiliar; (3)a list of itemsofgeneralknowledgeneededconcerning jobsandprocesses, (4)thekindsofmathematicaloperationsactuallyemployedinthework; (5)theitemsorportionsofscience neededforcontrolofprocesses; (6)theelementsofdrawinganddesignactu-allyusedinthework; (7)thecharacteristicsoftheEnglishneededwherelanguageisvitallyinvolvedinone'swork,asin commercialoccupations; (8)elementsofhygieneneededforkeepingone'sselfuptothephysical standards,demandedbythework;and(9)theneededfactsofeconomics.48THECURRICULUMManyof thethingslisted in such asurveyare learnedthroughincidentalexperienceOtherscannotbesufficientlylearnedin thisway.It isbyputtingtheworkerstowork,whether adolescent oradult,andbynotingthe kinds ofshortcomingsand mistakes that show themselves whentrainingis absent ordeficient,that wecan discover thecurriculumtasksfordirectedvocationaleducation.Theobjectivesof educationare not to bediscovered withinjust anykindorqualityof humanaffairs.Occupational,civic,sanitary,orotheractivitymaybepoorlyperformedandproductiveofonlymeagerresults. Attheotherendofthescalearetypesofactivitythatareaswellperformedasitisin humannaturetoperformthem,andwhichareabun-dantlyfruitful ingoodresults Education is establisheduponthepresumptionthathumanactivities existupondifferentlevelsofqualityorefficiency,thatperformanceoflowcharacterisnotgood;thatitcanbeeliminated throughtraining;andthatonlythebestoratleastthebestattain-able isgood enoughWhether inagriculture, building-trades,housekeeping,commerce,civicregulation,sanitation,or anyother,educationpresumesthatthebestthatisprac-ticable is whatoughtto be. Education is tokeepits feetsquarelyupontheearth;butthis doesnotrequirethatitaimlowerthanthehighestthatispracticable.Let us take a concrete illustration. The curriculum-discovererwishes,forexample,todraw up acourseoftrain-inginagriculture.He willgooutintothepracticalworldofagricultureastheonlyplacethatcanrevealtheobjectivesofagriculturaleducation. Hewill start outwithoutpre-judgmentastothespecificobjectivesAllthatheneedsfortheworkispencil,notebook,andadiscerningintelligence.Hewillobservethe workoffarmers;hewilltalkwiththemabout allaspectsof theirwork,andhe will read reliableaccounts whichgiveinsightintotheiractivities* FromtheseCUKMCCJLUM-MAEING 49sources he will discover theparticular thingsthat thefarmersdoincarryingoneachpieceofwork;thespecificknowledgewhichthefarmersemployinplanningandper-formingeachspecifictask;thekindsof judgmentsatwhichtheymustarrive;thetypesofproblemstheymustsolve;thehabitsandskills demandedbythetasks,theattitudesofmind,appreciations, valuations, ambitions,anddesires,whichmotivateandexercisegeneralcontrol.Factsuponall ofthesematterscanbeobtainedfromasurveyofany agricultural region,howeverprimitiveorbackward. Butprimitive agricultureis thethingwhichexists withoutanyeducation. It is thethingeducation istoeliminate. Thecurriculum-discoverer,therefore,willnotinvestigatejust anyagriculturalsituation. Hewillgoto thefarmsthat aremostproductiveandmost successfulfromeverylegitimatepointofview. Thesewill oftenbeexperi-mental or demonstration farms whichrepresentwhat ispracticablefor thecommunity,but whichmaynot betypicalofactualpracticesinthatcommunity.Wheresuchgeneral practicesareinferior, agriculturaleducation is toaimnotatwhatisbutat whatoughttobe.When thefarming practicesare already upon a high plane*education has butasinglefunction: itis to hand overthese,practicesunchangedtothemembersof the newgeneration.Wherethepracticesof aregionareprimitiveorback-'ward,educationhasadoublefunctiontoperform.Itisnotonlytohandovertothenewgenerationaproficiencythatisequaltothatoftheirfathers,butit isalsotoliftthepro-ficiencyofthesonstoaheightmuchbeyondthatoftheirfathers Withinsucharegion,therefore,agriculturaledu-cationhastheadditionalfunctionofservingasthefunda-mentalsocialagencyofagriculturalprogress.Whatwehave saidconcerning agricultureisgenerallyapplicablethroughouttheoccupationalworld,Fordiscov-50THECUBRICULUMeringtheobjectivesforatrainingcourseinbricklayingonewillanalyzenottheactivities ofbricklayersingeneral,butthose wherebricklayinghas been earned to itshighestpracticablelevelofefficiency,asthisefficiencyisjudgedon the basisofalllegitimatestandards. Education willaim,notataveragebricklayers,butatthebesttypesof brick-layers.When stated in broadoutline,thegeneral principleisobvious. Inpractical application,itpresentsdifficulties.Mendonotagreeastothecharacteristicsofthemostdesir-abletypesofwork. Theemployersofthebricklayerswillbeinclinedtouse maximumproductivenessasthecriterionofsuperiorwork;andunquestioningobedience to ordersandcontentmentwithanykindofhours,wages,andwork-ingconditions aspropermentalattitudes. Theemployeeswilljudgeotherwiseastosomeofthefactors. Theemploy-erswillinvitethecurriculum-discoverer toinvestigatesitua-tionswhere productivenessinproportiontocostsisgreatest;theemployees,wherethetotalwelfareoftheworkeriscon-sideredalongsideofthefactorofproductiveness.Bothsideswillagreethateducationshouldaimatthebestandthatscientificinvestigationsas toobjectivesshould seek todiscoverthecharacteristicsofonlythebest.Theydisagreeasto whatisthebest,and therefore where theinvestigationsaretobemade.Thegeneralprincipleoffindingthescholasticcurriculumin theshortcomingsof childrenandmenisquiteobviousandentirelyfamiliar to teachers in itsapplicationto thecurriculum ofspelling,grammar,and othersubjectsthatresult inobjective performance,such aspronunciation,drawing,music,computation,etc. ItisnotsoclearJncon-nectionwiththehighlycomplexsubjectsofhistory,litera-ture,geography,etc. What are the socialshortcomingsthataretobeeliminatedthroughastudyofthes$ sgcialCURBICULUM-MAEING51subjects?Ourideasareyetsovague,in mostcases,thatwecanscarcelybesaidto haveobjectives.Thefirst taskofthescientificcurricultpii-makeristhediscoveryof thosesocialdeficiencies thatresultfromalackofhistorical,liter-ary,andgeographicalexperiences.Eachdeficiencyfoundisacallfordirectedtraining;itpointstoanobjectivethatistobesetupfortheconscioustraining.Thenatureoftheobjectiveswillpointtothecurriculummaterials tobese-lectedforthesesubjects.Amajorobstacleislackofagree-mentas to whatconstitutessocialdeficiency.Thereishow-ever nojustification forscholastictraining ofanykindexceptasagapexists between thetrainingofgeneralexperienceandthetrainingthatoughttobeaccomplished.Society agrees sufficientlywellas tomanysocial short-comings.Educationneedstoassemble theminasaccurateandparticularizeda form aspossible. Theycanthen beusedasthesocialsymptomswhichpointtotheobjectivesof history,literature,geography,economics, andothersocialstudies.Societywilldisagreeastomanysuggesteddeficien-cies. Aprogramcanbescientific, however,withoutbeing%complete.ThethousandspellingwordspresentedbyMr.Ayresisagoodlistnotwithstanding thefact thatitpresentsnotmore thanaquarterofthe wordsneeded. Itisasecurebeginningthatcanbecompletedbyfurtherstudies.Inthesame wayinoursocialtraining,weshalldoverywellif wecansetup aquarterof thedesirableobjectives.That wouldbe agreatadvanceover none atall,asatpresent; and wouldprovidethenucleus,thetechnique,andthevisionofpossi-bilities,necessaryforgraduallyroundingoutthelist.Theprincipleinvolvesusinsimilardifficultiesinitsappli-cationtocivic,moral,vocational,sanitational,recreational,andparentaleducation. It isequallyvalid, however,inconnection witheachofthese.Onlyas weagree uponwhatoughtto beineachofthesedifficultfields,canweknowat52 TEECURBICULUMwhattlietraining shouldaim.Onlyas we Kst theerrors andshortcomingsofhumanperformancein each of the fieldscan weknowwhat to include and toemphasizein thedirectedcurriculumoftheschools.PAUTHTRAININGFOROCCUPATIONALEFFICIENCYCHAPTERPURPOSESOFVOCATIONALTRAININGWITHonlyoccasionalexceptions,each of thetwentymillionchildren nowinthepublicschoolsofAmericawillintime beobligedto earn hisliving.The schoolsshould,therefore,dealwitheverynormal childandyouthonthetheorythat,whenadulthood isreached, hemustearn hisliving.Eachis tobeaproducertotheextentthathecon-sumes.Inanysurveyof civilized conditions themostobviousthingisthat menand womenmustwork;thattotheircall-ings theymustdevoteamajorportionof their timeandenergy. Theyfind Natureveryparsimoniouswithhersup-pliesoffood,clothing,fuel, shelter;more illiberal still insupplyingbooks,pianos, theaters,railroad andsteamshiptickets,churchpews,andcollegecourses. Naturesuppliesonlythecrudestrawmaterials. Therestmustbecreatedby humanlabor.Were mancontentwithwhatNaturesupplies,hewouldnot beman,butonlyanexceptionally intelligentanimalspecies.Buthehas not been content. HehasmanfullytakenrawNaturein handandthroughheavylaborcon-trolleditandshapedittohishighhumanpurposes.Thushe has laid the foundations of hiscivilization;won hismeasure of freedom from sternbiological necessity;andthusglonecanheholdhisgains. Throughproductivetoilhehaswonhisleisure,hissurplusenergies,andthemeansforhisart,hisliterature,sports,travel,science,religion.Occupationallaborsclearlyrepresentthebasicservicetohumanity,themostfundamental social service. Inaday56THECURRICULUMwhenthewatchwordof theworld's humanitarianreligionis "socialservice,"it is welltonote that themost solidandnever-relaxing portionsof this service are thelaborsoffarmerandmerchant,plumberandcarpenter,housewifeandseamstress,minerandengineer,physician,teacher,andjournalist,and the rest of the valiantarmyof menandwomenwholabor.Thosewhoobject to vocational educationinpublicschoolsbecausemanuallabor is sordid andunclean,shouldnotethatitsfrequent unlovelrnessisdue,not to the fact that menwork,buttotheconditionsoftheirlabor.Insanitaryshops,factories,and minessap the physicalvitalityofthe workers.Theirinertia,ignorance,andinefficiencyresultintoolongawork-dayandatoo-extendeddeadlymechanicalmonot-ony. Theyliveusuallywithinanarrowmentaland socialhorizon. Thereis agreatdearthofhumanizinginfluences,companionships, andassociations; and owingtothisabsenceofupliftinginfluencesandopportunities,theyalltoooftentendtoviciousanddestructiveanimalpleasures.Toooftenthey are compelledtoliveincrowded,unwholesomehouses;are too oftenill-fed, ill-clad,anduncleanlyofhabit;andhavewagesthatpermitlittle better even iftheyshoulddesire and attempt a higher standardofliving.Thefrequentuglinessoflaborconditionsissufficientlyevident.Theundesirable conditions aredebasing,even destruc-tive. Theirmaligninfluenceyearafteryeardoesdegradeorevendestroythelaborer. Afterlongexposuretothem,hischaracter cannotusuallybeofsociallydesirabletype.Menshould, however,clear the scales fromtheireyes,andseethatwhilethemaleficentinfluencesmaybetheusualcon-comitants oflabor,theyare notnecessaryconcomitants.Eachisreallyafoetorightlabor;ademonstrableobstacletoefBciency.KThepurposeof occupationaleducationisthe removalthroughPUEPOSESOPVOCAllONALTRAINING mgeneralenlightenment oftheinjuriousor destructive laborconditions.Toadmit that much of labor is debased anddebasingis not an excuse forfaltering before the task of voca-tionaltraining.Itistheveryreasonfor manfullyundertak-ingit Itisthepresenceofimperfectionsinthelaborfieldthatjustifytheameliorativelaborsofeducation. Asinthefieldoflanguage,wheretherearenoimperfections,thereisno reasonfor.trainingingrammar.The more mistakes thereare,themorethereasonsfor education InjJhesamewayinthelaborfields-the.greaterthenumberofimjp^ectibiis,thegreateris theneedofvigorousoccupationaleducation.Inobjectiontothesocial-servicedoctrineof labor,itmaybeurgedthatvocationsareandoughttobeindividualistic.It mustbeadmitted, however,that there aresomevoca-tionalclassesupon whomdoesrestthemoralobligationsofsocial service. Thephysician,forexample,supportedbyagivencommunityisexpectedto servethatcommunitytothebestofhisabilityHewillrespondto calls forserviceatanyhourandunderallconditions. Nothisconvenience,buttheirs,is tobeserved Hemustrespondtothecallofthepoorwhocannotpaywiththesamepromptnessandgood-willthatheextendstothecall ofthewell-to-do. Hemustkeepinviolate all informationprofessionallyconfidedtobiscare. Inthesematterstheethicsof themedicalvoca-tion isclearlysocial. The workisrecognizedassocial serv-ice. Thephysician'smeasureof honoris the greater becauseit isso.Mostprofessionalserviceis ofanalogoustype.Anditisthesesocial-servicevocationsthat weregardas thehighest.Menofthelargestintelligenceandambitionsregardthemastheonesmostd