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The Costs of Production
Chapter 13
Copyright © 2004 by South-Western,a division of Thomson Learning.
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Chapter 13 the costs of
productionIn this chapter you will:Examine what items are included in a firm’s costs of productionanalyze the link between a firm’s production process and its total costslearn the meaning of average total costs and marginal cost and how they are related
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Consider the shape of a typical firm’s cost curvesexamine the relationship between short-run and long-run costs
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Key conceptTotal revenueTotal cost
profit
Production function
Marginal product
Diminishing marginal product
Fixed costs
Variable costs
Average total cost
Average fixed cost
Average variable cost
Marginal cost
Efficient scale
Economies of scale
Diseconomies of scale
Constant returns to scale
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The Costs of Production
The Law of Supply:Firms are willing to produce and sell a greater quantity of a good when the price of the good is high.This results in a supply curve that slopes upward.
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The Firm’s ObjectiveThe economic goal of the firm is
to maximize profits.
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A Firm’s Total Revenue and Total Cost
Total Revenue The amount that the firm
receives for the sale of its output.
Total Cost The amount that the firm pays to
buy inputs.
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A Firm’s Profit
Profit is the firm’s total revenue minus its total cost.
Profit = Total revenue - Total cost
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Costs as Opportunity Costs
A firm’s cost of production includes all the opportunity costs of making its output
of goods and services.
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Explicit and Implicit Costs
A firm’s cost of production include explicit costs and implicit costs.
Explicit costs involve a direct money outlay for factors of production. Implicit costs do not involve a direct money outlay.
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Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit
Economists measure a firm’s economic profit as total revenue minus all the opportunity costs (explicit and implicit).
Accountants measure the accounting profit as the firm’s total revenue minus only the firm’s explicit costs. In other words, they ignore the implicit costs.
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Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit
When total revenue exceeds both explicit and implicit costs, the firm earns economic profit. Economic profit is smaller than
accounting profit.
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Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit
RevenueTotalopportunitycosts
How an EconomistViews a Firm
Explicitcosts
Economicprofit
Implicitcosts
Explicitcosts
Accountingprofit
How an AccountantViews a Firm
Revenue
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A Production Function and Total Cost
Number ofWorkers
Output MarginalProduct of
Labor
Cost ofFactory
Cost ofWorkers
Total Cost ofInputs
0 0 $30 $0 $30
1 50 50 30 10 40
2 90 40 30 20 50
3 120 30 30 30 60
4 140 20 30 40 70
5 150 10 30 50 80
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The Production Function
The production function shows the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good.
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Marginal Product
The marginal product of any input in the production process is the increase in the quantity of output obtained from an additional unit of that input.
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Marginal Product
Additional input
Additional output=Marginalproduct
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Diminishing Marginal ProductDiminishing marginal product is the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases. Example: As more and more workers are hired at a firm, each additional worker contributes less and less to production because the firm has a limited amount of equipment.
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A Production Function...Quantity of
Output(cookies
per hour)150140130120110100
908070605040302010
Number of Workers Hired0 1 2 3 4 5
Production function
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Diminishing Marginal Product
The slope of the production function measures the marginal product of an input, such as a worker.
When the marginal product declines, the production function becomes flatter.
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From the Production Function to the Total-Cost Curve
The relationship between the quantity a firm can produce and its costs determines pricing decisions.
The total-cost curve shows this relationship graphically.
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A Production Function and Total Cost
Number ofWorkers
Output MarginalProduct of
Labor
Cost ofFactory
Cost ofWorkers
Total Cost ofInputs
0 0 $30 $0 $30
1 50 50 30 10 40
2 90 40 30 20 50
3 120 30 30 30 60
4 140 20 30 40 70
5 150 10 30 50 80
Hungry Helen’s Cookie Factory
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Total-Cost Curve...TotalCost
$80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Quantity of Output
(cookies per hour)
0 20 40 1401201008060
Total-costcurve
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The Various Measures of Cost
Costs of production may be divided into fixed costs and variable costs.
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Fixed and Variable Costs
Fixed costs are those costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced.
Variable costs are those costs that do change as the firm alters the quantity of output produced.
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Family of Total Costs
Total Fixed Costs (TFC) Total Variable Costs (TVC) Total Costs (TC)
TC = TFC + TVC
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Family of Total Costs
Quantity Total Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost0 $ 3.00 $3.00 $ 0.001 3.30 3.00 0.302 3.80 3.00 0.803 4.50 3.00 1.504 5.40 3.00 2.405 6.50 3.00 3.506 7.80 3.00 4.807 9.30 3.00 6.308 11.00 3.00 8.009 12.90 3.00 9.90
10 15.00 3.00 12.00
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Average Costs
Average costs can be determined by dividing the firm’s costs by the quantity of output produced.
The average cost is the cost of each typical unit of product.
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Family of Average Costs
Average Fixed Costs (AFC) Average Variable Costs (AVC) Average Total Costs (ATC)
ATC = AFC + AVC
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Family of Average Costs
AFC=Fixed costQuantity
=FCQ
AVC=Variable cost
Quantity=
VCQ
ATC=Total costQuantity
=TCQ
AFC=Fixed costQuantity
=FCQ
AVC=Variable cost
Quantity=
VCQ
ATC=Total costQuantity
=TCQ
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$3.00
Family of Average CostsQuantity AFC AVC ATC
0 — — —1 $0.30 $3.302 1.50 0.40 1.903 1.00 0.50 1.504 0.75 0.60 1.355 0.60 0.70 1.306 0.50 0.80 1.307 0.43 0.90 1.338 0.38 1.00 1.389 0.33 1.10 1.43
10 0.30 1.20 1.50
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Marginal Cost Marginal cost (MC) measures
the amount total cost rises when the firm increases production by one unit.
Marginal cost helps answer the following question: How much does it cost to produce
an additional unit of output?
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Marginal Cost
QTC=
quantity) in (Changecost) total in (Change
=MC
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Marginal Cost
Quantity TotalCost
MarginalCost
Quantity TotalCost
MarginalCost
0 $3.00 —1 3.30 $0.30 6 $7.80 $1.302 3.80 0.50 7 9.30 1.503 4.50 0.70 8 11.00 1.704 5.40 0.90 9 12.90 1.905 6.50 1.10 10 15.00 2.10
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Total-Cost Curve...
$0.00
$2.00
$4.00
$6.00
$8.00
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$16.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Tota
l C
ost
Total-cost curve
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ATCAVC
MC
Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves...
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
AFC
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
Marginal cost rises with the amount of output produced.
This reflects the property of diminishing marginal product.
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12Quantity of Output
(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
MC
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
The average total-cost curve is U-shaped. At very low levels of output average total cost
is high because fixed cost is spread over only a few units.
Average total cost declines as output increases.
Average total cost starts rising because average variable cost rises substantially.
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
The bottom of the U-shape occurs at the quantity that minimizes average total cost. This quantity is sometimes called the efficient scale of the firm.
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Tota
l C
osts
ATC
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Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost
Whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling.
Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.
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Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost
The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the efficient scale.
Efficient scale is the quantity that minimizes average total cost.
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MC
ATC
Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
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The Various Measures of Cost
It is now time to examine the relationships that exist between the different
measures of cost.
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The Various Measures of Cost Big Bob’s Bagel Bin
Quantity of Bagels
Total Cost
FixedCost
VariableCost
AverageFixedCost
AverageVariable
Cost
AverageTotalCost
MarginalCost
0 $2.00 $2.00 $0.001 $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 $2.00 $1.00 $3.00 $1.002 $3.80 $2.00 $1.80 $1.00 $0.90 $1.90 $0.803 $4.40 $2.00 $2.40 $0.67 $0.80 $1.47 $0.604 $4.80 $2.00 $2.80 $0.50 $0.70 $1.20 $0.405 $5.20 $2.00 $3.20 $0.40 $0.64 $1.04 $0.406 $5.80 $2.00 $3.80 $0.33 $0.63 $0.97 $0.607 $6.60 $2.00 $4.60 $0.29 $0.66 $0.94 $0.808 $7.60 $2.00 $5.60 $0.25 $0.70 $0.95 $1.009 $8.80 $2.00 $6.80 $0.22 $0.76 $0.98 $1.20
10 $10.20 $2.00 $8.20 $0.20 $0.82 $1.02 $1.4011 $11.80 $2.00 $9.80 $0.18 $0.89 $1.07 $1.6012 $13.60 $2.00 $11.60 $0.17 $0.97 $1.13 $1.8013 $15.60 $2.00 $13.60 $0.15 $1.05 $1.20 $2.0014 $17.80 $2.00 $15.80 $0.14 $1.13 $1.27 $2.20
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Big Bob’s Cost Curves...
$0.00
$2.00
$4.00
$6.00
$8.00
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$16.00
$18.00
$20.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Quantity of Output(bagels per hour)
To
tal
Co
st
Total Cost Curve
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AFC
AVC
MC
Big Bob’s Cost Curves...
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16Quantity of Output
Co
sts
ATC
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Three Important Properties of Cost Curves
Marginal cost eventually rises with the quantity of output.
The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped.
The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.
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Costs in the Long Run
For many firms, the division of total costs between fixed and variable costs depends on the time horizon being considered. In the short run some costs are fixed. In the long run fixed costs become
variable costs.
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Costs in the Long Run
Because many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run, a firm’s long-run cost curves differ from its short-run cost curves.
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Average Total Cost in the Short and Long Runs...
Quantity ofCars per Day
0
AverageTotalCost
ATC in shortrun with
small factory
ATC in shortrun with
medium factory
ATC in shortrun with
large factory
ATC in long run
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Economies and Diseconomies of Scale Economies of scale occur when
long-run average total cost declines as output increases.
Diseconomies of scale occur when long-run average total cost rises as output increases.
Constant returns to scale occur when long-run average total cost does not vary as output increases.
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Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
Diseconomies
of scale
Quantity ofCars per Day
0
AverageTotalCost
ATC in long run
Economies
of scale
Constant Returnsto scale
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Summary
The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost.
When analyzing a firm’s behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of production.
Some opportunity costs are explicit while other opportunity costs are implicit.
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Summary A firm’s costs reflect its production
process. A typical firm’s production function
gets flatter as the quantity of input increases, displaying the property of diminishing marginal product.
A firm’s total costs are divided between fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs don’t vary with quantities produced; variable costs do.
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Summary Average total cost is total cost
divided by the quantity of output. Marginal cost is the amount by
which total cost would rise if output were increased by one unit.
The marginal cost always rises with the quantity of output.
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Summary The average-total-cost curve is
U-shaped. The marginal-cost curve always
crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of ATC.
A firm’s costs often depend on the time horizon being considered.
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Graphical Review
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Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit
RevenueTotalopportunitycosts
How an EconomistViews a Firm
Explicitcosts
Economicprofit
Implicitcosts
Explicitcosts
Accountingprofit
How an AccountantViews a Firm
Revenue
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A Production Function...Quantity of
Output(cookies
per hour)150140130120110100
908070605040302010
Number of Workers Hired0 1 2 3 4 5
Production function
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Total-Cost Curve...TotalCost
$80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Quantity of Output
(cookies per hour)
0 20 40 1401201008060
Total-costcurve
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Total-Cost Curve...
$0.00
$2.00
$4.00
$6.00
$8.00
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$16.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Tota
l C
ost
Total-cost curve
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Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves...
ATCAVC
MC
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
AFC
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12Quantity of Output
(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
MC
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Cost Curves and Their Shapes
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Tota
l C
osts
ATC
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Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost
MC
ATC
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Quantity of Output(glasses of lemonade per hour)
Costs
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Big Bob’s Cost Curves...
$0.00
$2.00
$4.00
$6.00
$8.00
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$16.00
$18.00
$20.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Quantity of Output(bagels per hour)
To
tal
Co
st
Total Cost Curve
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Big Bob’s Cost Curves...
AFC
AVC
MC
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16Quantity of Output
Co
sts
ATC
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Average Total Cost in the Short and Long Runs...
Quantity ofCars per Day
0
AverageTotalCost
ATC in shortrun with
small factory
ATC in shortrun with
medium factory
ATC in shortrun with
large factory
ATC in long run
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Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
Diseconomies
of scale
Quantity ofCars per Day
0
AverageTotalCost
ATC in long run
Economies
of scale
Constant Returnsto scale
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结 束 谢 谢!!