The Columbian Exchange - mshouapworld...transforming the continents both socially and ecologically....

Essential Questions• Whatweretheoriginsofglobaltrade?

• WhatweretheeffectsoftheColumbianexchange?

• Whatweresomeoftheenvironmentalanddemographicchangesthatoccurredasaresultoftransoceanicencountersintheearlymodernera?

Unit 6, Lesson 4

The Columbian Exchange

Keywordscoffee

cotton

horse

maize

potato

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The Origins of Global TradeEuropeantrading-postempirescreatedacomplexwebofcommercialnetworks,whichhelpedformthefirsttrulyglobalmarket.Throughouttheearlymodernperiod,EuropeandEuropeanmerchantsgraduallycreatedtraderoutesandtradespostsoneverycontinent,withtheexceptionofAustraliaandAntartica.EuropeancoloniesintheAmericasformedthebasisofatrans-AtlanticeconomyinwhichEuropean-manufacturedgoodswereexchangedforsilverbullionfromMexicoandPeruandplantationcashcropssuchassugarandtobacco.EuropeanandAmericangoodswereinturntradedinsub-SaharanAfricainexchangeforAfricanslaveswhowereforcedtolaboronmid-AtlanticandAmericanplantations.EuropeancoloniesintheIndianOceanBasinlikewisestimulatedatrans-PacificeconomyinwhichAsianluxurygoodswerepaidforwithAmericansilver.By1750,mostoftheworld,withtheexceptionofsomepartsofOceania,wasinvolvedincommercialrelationswithEuropeanmerchants.

ThegoodsandresourcesoftheAmericas,Africa,andAsiabecameincreasinglycontrolledbyEuropeanmerchantswhodistributedtheminwaysthatbestbenefitedEuropeannations.Fornationswithvastcolonialterritories,thechallengewastousetheresourcesofeachareaforthegreatestbenefitofthemothernation.Spainhadthelargestcolonialempireatthebeginningoftheearlymodernperiodandsuccessfullytradeditsresourcesonaglobalscale.From1555to1815,Manilagal-leonstraveledfromtheSpanishPhilippinestoSpanishcolonialMexicocarryingsilks,spices,andotherAsianluxurygoods.WhilesomeoftheseluxuryitemswereusedbytheSpanishcolonialelite,mostofthegoodstraveledoverlandtotheAtlan-ticandfromtherejourneyedtoEurope.SpanishmerchantspaidforAsiangoods

Set the StageThe rise of imperial Europe had a profound effect on human history. During the early modern period, European explorers, merchants, and conquistadores established the first truly global market, linking together the Old World of Eurasia and Africa with the New World in the Americas. The ecosystems and societies of the two hemispheres had evolved independently since the end of the last Ice Age. Each continental system had a limited selection of plants and animals that could be domesticated by humans, a factor which significantly affected the development of human civilizations. The interplay between ecology and history is a complex subject which is often ignored or discounted in textbooks. When studying early modern history, however, it is absolutely vital to understand the importance of environmental factors that allowed tiny European nations to subdue entire continents. Contact between the Old World and the New World was not merely between human populations. Animals, plants, and diseases were also introduced into new regions where they significantly altered both the world’s ecosystems and human civilization.

Unit 6, Lesson 4 2


withsilverminedintheAmericas.ThesilverlargelyfedintotheChinesedomesticeconomy,whichreliedonthemetalforitscurrency.Chi-nesedemandforsilverwassohighthatmanymerchantswillinglyexchangedChinese-minedgoldforAmerican-minedsilver.Spanishmer-chantscouldthenusebothsilverandgoldtotradewithotherAsiannationsforadditionalluxurygoods.

Fornationswhoseeconomiesweredomi-natedbyjoint-stockcompanies,understandinghowtobestdistributeglobalgoodsbroughtheady profits and had a profound impacton global developments. For example, theVOC,theDutchjoint-stocktradingcompany,importedwheatfromSouthAfrica,cowryshellsfromIndia,andsugarfromBrazil.ThewheatwasusedtofeedanincreasinglyurbanEuro-peanpopulation,whichwasthenfreedfromagriculturaldutiesandcouldactivelypursuemanufacturing.ThisdevelopmentinturngaverisetotheIndustrialRevolutionandthecon-ceptof“developednations,”whichfocusonservicesormanufacturingverses“developingnations,”whichareprimarilyfocusedonpro-ducingrawgoodsthroughagriculture,fishing,mining,andsoon.Byimportingwheat,theDutchessentiallyhelpedwesternEuropetrans-forminto“developednations”andforcedSouthAfricatoremaina“developingnation”throughouttheearlymodernperiod.ThecowryshellswereoflittleuseinEurope,buttheywereinhighdemandinmanypartsofsub-SaharanAfricawheretheywereusedasaformofcurrency.SoIndiancowryshellswereusedbytheDutchtopurchaseAfricanslaves,manyofwhomweresenttoPortugueseBrazilandvariousCaribbeanislandswheretheyworkedonsugarplantations.Between1600and1750,morethanthreemillionAfricanslaveswouldbebroughttotheAmericastolaboronsugarplantations.SugarandmolasseswerebothinhighdemandinEurope,andmarketsinAmsterdamfedthecontinent’scollective“sweettooth.”Inthisway,Europeanswereabletoextractthegreatestbenefitfromtheglobaltradeingoodsandresources.A“triangular”tradebetweenEurope,Africa,andtheAmericaswasthuscreatedinwhichpeopleandgoodswereexchangedinwaysthatmostbenefitedEuropeans.

Unfortunately,thevoraciousEuropeanappetiteforwealthoftenledtotheexploitationofallotherethnicgroupsandthetransformationoftheworld’sdiverseecosystems.ForNativeAmericans,theyear1492marksthebeginningofalonghistoryofconquest,disease,slavelabor,andculturalgenocide.ForAfricans,the

Spanish galleons were huge ships that carried luxurious merchandise and raw silver between Spain and its various colonies.

Unit 6, Lesson 4 3


openingoftheAtlanticdoomedmillionsofpeopletowretchedlivesofslavery,farawayonforeigncontinents.AsianinteractionswithEuropeansgraduallyledtoaformofeconomicserfdomasEuropeanmerchantsincreasinglyencroachedonandcontrolledAsianmarkets.Throughouttheearlymodernperiod,humansexploitedtheworld’snaturalandagriculturalresourcesonanewscale.SeveralkindsofanimalswereatriskbecausetheirpeltswerefashionableinEurope,NorthAmerica,andChina.Forexample,duringtheseventeenthcenturyapproximately250thousandsablepeltswereexportedfromSiberiatolinetheclothingoftheelite.Duringtheeighteenthcentury,morethan16millionNorthAmericanbeaversweretrapped,theirskinsusedtomakegentlemen’shatsandcloaks.Otherspecies,includingwhales,walruses,seals,tigers,andelephantswerehuntedaggressivelyfortheirpelts,ivory,oil,andotheranimalproductswhichwereindemandbyglobalconsumers.Afewanimalswereusedtofeedthegrowinghumanpopulation,forexampletheAtlanticcodfish,butmoreoftenspecieswerehuntedtofeedagrow-ingdesireforluxurygoods.Manyofthesespeciesweredrivenintoextinctionornearextinction,foreveralteringecosystems.

The Columbian ExchangePerhapsthemostprofoundresultoftheriseofglobaltradewastheColumbianexchange,theexchangeofanimals,plants,diseases,humanpopulations,andculturebetweentheOldWorldandtheNewWorld.Itisconsideredoneofthemostimportantecologicalandculturaleventsinallofhumanhistory.Itaffected

1SELf-ChECK

Why did the VOC

import cowry shells

from India?

This terraced island rests on Lake Titicaca in ancient Peru. This island served several prominent Andean civilizations, most notably the Incas, whose empire was captured by the Spanish con-quistadores in 1533. European presence in these delicate ecosystems altered the landscape in permanent and significant ways.

Unit 6, Lesson 4 4


almosteverysocietyonearthbyintroducingnewcropsandlivestock,alteringtraditions,andleadingtoagriculturalbooms,whichinturnsupportedagrowingglobalhumanpopulation.EurasiandiseasesdecimatedindigenouspopulationsintheAmericas,killinganywherefrom50to90percentofthepre-contactpopula-tion.ThislossallowedEuropeanstomoreeasilyconquerandcontroltheAmericas,transformingthecontinentsbothsociallyandecologically.Theterm“Columbianexchange”wasfirstcoinedin1972byAlfredW.Crosby,anAmericanhistorianwhoprovidedgeographicandbiologicalreasonsforEuropeanimperialism.Hesuccessfullyarguedthatecologyplaysasignificantroleinhistoryandthatbyunderstandingthewayshumansinteractwithintheirenvironment,itispossibletounderstandwhycertainregionsdominateothers.

EurasianandAmericanecosystemsandsocietieshaddevelopedseparatelyforatleast13,000years,sincetheendofthelastgreatIceAge.ThereisnoevidenceofNativeAmericanattemptstocolonizeEurasia,exceptforasmallpopulationofInuits(Eskimo)fromAlaskawhocrossedtheBeringStraitstosettleinSiberia.ThefewearlyEurasianattemptsatcolonizingtheAmericaswereunsuccessfulandleftnolastingmarkoneithercontinent.ThusAmericanandEurasiansocietieswereextremelydifferentnotonlyculturallyandtechnologically,butalsointermsofdomesticatedplantsandanimals.ThesedifferenceswerelargelyresponsiblefortheEuropeanconquestoftheAmericasandhelpeddeterminethescopeandimpactoftheColumbianexchange.

WhenthefirstHomosapiensarrivedintheAmericas,theyencounteredadiversityoflargeanimals,similartothoseinmodernAfrica.ButduringthelatePleistoceneEra(c.9000B.C.)therewasamassextinctionofmostofNorthandSouthAmerica’slargewildmammalspecies,duetoacombinationofclimatechangeandoverhuntingbyhumans.ThiseventwouldhaveadramaticimpactonlaterNativeAmericansocieties.By1492,Eurasiancivilizationshaddomesticated13largespeciesincludinghorses,cattle,pigs,andsheep.Eurasiathereforehadadistinctadvantageintermsoffood,woolandhide,transportation,warfare,andevenagriculture.Bycontrast,SouthAmericancivilizationshaddomesticatedonlyonelargeanimal,thellama,oralpaca.Whileallamaprovidesmeatandwoolandcanbeusedtotransportgoods,itisnotlargeenoughtobearanadulthumanridernorcanitbeusedinwarfareortopullaplow.InNorthAmerica,priorto1492,thedogservedastheonlydomesticatedanimal.

Europeansettlerscouldnotimaginelifewithoutdomesticatedanimals.OnColumbus’ssecondvoyage,hebroughthorses,cattle,sheep,pigs,andchickens,andtheseanimalsmultipliedrapidlyuntiltheywerefoundinvirtuallyeveryEuropeansettlement.WhilemostoftheseanimalswereintroducedtoAmericaforthefirsttime,thehorsewasareintroduction.HorsesoriginallyevolvedinNorthAmericaandhadmigratedtoEurasiaviatheBeringStraits,butthendiedoffintheAmericasduringthePleistoceneextinction.Otheranimalsthatwereintroducedintheearly1600stotheAmericasincludesuchhelpfulinsectsashoneybees,silkworms,andthecommonearthworm.Bycontrast,onlyafewindigenousAmericananimalswereintroducedintoEurope.Llamas,alpacas,turkeys,parrots,andnumerousothertropicalbirdsweretakentoEuropeascuriosities.Theguineapigoriginated

horse a species re-introduced to the Americas and eagerly adopted by many Native American cultures

Unit 6, Lesson 4 5


A Piece ofhiSTOry

Contact Between Europeans and Native Americans

As I saw that they were very friendly to us, and perceived that they could be much more easily converted to our holy faith by gentle means than by force, I presented them with some red caps, and strings of beads to wear upon the neck, and many other trifles of small value, wherewith they were much delighted, and became wonderfully attached to us.

—Christopher Columbus

Thereupon the Tlaxcalan rulers went to meet them, taking along food: turkey hens, eggs, white tortillas, fine tortillas. They said to them, “Welcome, our lords.”

—Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico

These two excerpts offer distinct snapshots of contact between Europeans and Native Americans during the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The first excerpt describes the very first cross-cultural encounters from the European perspective. The second excerpt chronicles the Native American perspective of Europeans a generation later during the time of the great conquistadores.

While early contact seemed to offer hope for

peaceful and mutually beneficial exchanges, over

time Europeans obviously held an overwhelm-

ing advantage because of their immunities to

communicable diseases like small pox, which

weakened Native American civilizations. Dis-

eases were an important part of the Columbian

exchange, but food and manufactured goods

were also part of these early modern cross-

cultural encounters.

According to Christopher Columbus’s first

journal in the Americas, early contact between

Europeans and Native Americans was a mostly

positive event. Europeans believed that they could

convert indigenous peoples to Christianity and

establish a new market for European goods. Native

Americans were similarly pleased by the cross-

cultural encounter, viewing Europeans as both

a generous and exotic people with whom per-

manent beneficial alliances might be developed.

The Columbian exchange was put into immediate

effect as Spaniards introduced new manufactured

goods to the Taino, who in turn provided new

foods and other products.

A generation later, Native Americans in Mex-

ico would similarly greet Europeans with open

arms, viewing the conquistadores as great men

worthy of respect and adulation. To honor the

Europeans, the Tlaxcalan rulers brought food fit

for a feast, most likely in the hope that such be-

havior would encourage the Europeans to become

political and economic partners. It soon became

obvious that contact between European cultures

and Native American cultures was not necessarily

mutually beneficial.

Unit 6, Lesson 4 6


intheAndeswhereitwasusedbytheIncaasanimportantproteinsource,butafterbeingintroducedintoEuropeinthesixteenthcentury,therodentgainedwidespreadpopularityasahouseholdpet.

Europeansintroducedavarietyofcerealssuchaswheat,barley,andriceaswellasgrapesandolivetrees.PortugueseandSpanishimmigrantsyearnedfortheirnativefoods,andintimetheAmericanagriculturaloutputwouldallowtheseearlyimmigrantstoexporttheseplantsbacktoEurope.EuropeansalsointroducedintotheAmericasseveraltropicalAsianandAfricanplantsincludingbananas,coffee,tea,andsugarcane.ColumbushimselfintroducedsugarcaneintotheislandsoftheCaribbean,whereitwouldlaterbecometheprincipalcashcropoftheregion.SeveralindigenousAmericanplantssimilarlytransformedEurasia.Potatoes,corn,tomatoes,cocoabeans,pumpkins,avocados,pineapple,peppers,andpeanutsalloriginatedintheAmericas.TobaccoalsooriginatedintheAmericasandwasfirstintroducedintoEuropebysailorsfromColumbus’screw.

Intermsoftechnology,EuropeansweremuchmoreadvancedinmanywaysthantheirAmericancounterparts,especiallyintermsoftoolsandwarfare.By1492,Europeansmadetoolsandweaponswithavarietyofmetalsincludingcop-per,bronze,andiron.Incontrast,NativeAmericansocietiesprincipallyreliedonstone,wood,andbonefortools.Europeanweaponsincludedsteelswords,daggers,andfirearms,andsoldierswereprotectedbysteelbodyarmorandhelmets.NativeAmericanweaponsweremoreprimitive,generallylittlemorethanclubs,axes,bows,arrows,andslings.NativeAmericanwarriorsworequiltedleatherarmorwhichofferedlittleprotectionfromEuropeanweaponry.NativeAmericanwarriorswereallfootmen,whileEuropeanforcesincludedcavalry—adistinctadvantagebothphysicallyandpsychologically.EurasiansailingshipswerealsosuperiortoanyofthewatercraftsproducedbythemostadvancedAmericancivilizations.AllofthesetechnologiesandmoreweresoonintroducedintoAmericansociety.PerhapsthemostsurprisingtechnologicalexchangewastheintroductionofthewheeltotheAmericas.TheoriginofthewheelinEurasiadatesbacktotheearliestdaysofcivilization.IntheAmericas,theonlywheelsthatexistedpriorto1492havebeenfoundonMexicanceramictoys.WhytheAmericasfailedtodevelopthisbasicyettransformativetoolisunknown.

Effects of the Columbian ExchangeTheColumbianexchangetransformedtheculinary,medicinal,andotherplant-basedtraditionsofvirtuallyeveryregionintheworld.NewWorldcropssuchassweetpotatoeswereeagerlyincorporatedintoChinesecuisine,whilemaize(corn)becameastapleinmanypartsofAfrica.OldWorldplantslikecoffeeandcottongreweasilyintheNewWorldandsoonemergedascashcropsthatdroveentireeconomies.Manyrumorscirculatedaboutthenewplants,includingafewwhichsuggestedthattheywere“miracle”drugscapableofcuringanydisease.Forexample,in1571,aSpanishdoctor,NicolasMonardes,wroteabookonmedicinalherbs,whichclaimedthattobaccocouldcure36distinctdiseases.Asaresult,manyEuropeansconsideredsmokingtobaccotobeahealthyhabitformorethantwocenturiesafterward.

coffee a plant native to Ethiopia that grows well in many regions in Central and South America

2SELf-ChECK

Which animals were

domesticated in the

Americas prior to 1492?

maize a plant native to the Americas that stimulated a population boom in Africa

cotton a plant native to Eurasia that became an important cash crop in the Americas

Unit 6, Lesson 4 7


Otherplantswererumoredtocarrytheplagueorexasperateotherdiseases.Onesuchplantwasthehumblepotato.AlthoughitwasintroducedtoEuropebytheSpanisharound1550,morethanacenturypassedbeforeEuropeanfarmersbegantoactivelycultivateit.Bythe1680s,however,friedpotatoeswerebeingsoldonthestreetsofParis;theveryfirst“Frenchfries.”AsEuropeansdiscoveredthepotato’snutritionalcontentandabilitytogrowinrockysoils,pota-toessoonspreadrapidly,eventuallybecomingthedominantcropofIreland.Unfortunately,theIrishpracticedmonocultureandgrewonlyonespeciesofpotato.Thislackofgeneticvaria-tionassistedthespreadofaplantdisease,whichinturnresultedinthedevastatingnineteenth-centuryIrishfamine.

Animals were also introduced to newregions during the Columbian exchange.RelativelyfewNewWorldanimalswereintro-ducedtoEurasia.RaccoonandminkarebothnativetoNorthAmericaandwerebroughttoEuropefortheirfur,butwildpopulationssoonemerged.OneofthefewNewWorldanimalsthatactivelythreatsOldWorldecosystemsistheGraySquirrel,whichhasdisplacednativesquirrelsinBritain,Ireland,Italy,andotherregionsinEurope.Otherwise,mostAmericananimalswereregardedasmerecuriosities.Bycontrast, numerous Eurasian animalswereintroducedintheAmericas,whichhaveleftadramaticimpactonthecontinents’ecosystemsandhistory.

Europeananimalshadfewnaturalpreda-torsintheNewWorldandmultipliedrapidly,particularlywhentheyescapedfromEuropeansettlementsandwereallowedtoroamfreely.Forexample,in1587,approximatelyonehundredcattlewereabandonedontheplainsofBrazilandwithintwentyyearshadincreasedtoover100,000.Herdsofwildhorsesandsheepalsoexisted,voraciouslyeatingthenativeplantsandposingasignificantenvironmentalthreat.Rab-bitswereintroducedbyEuropeanspurposefully,whilerats,whichstowedawayonships,wereintroducedaccidently.Bothoftheserodentsbredrapidly,threateningnativespecies.Themaraudinglivestockandrodentsalsoaffected

potato a plant native to the Americas that became an important food source in Eurasia

The cacoa plant, used to make chocolate, was indigenous to South America. It quickly became popular among Europeans who reveled in its sweetness and were tantalized by its exotic origins.

Unit 6, Lesson 4 8


thelivesoftheindigenouspeoples.Amongagriculturalists,thearrivaloftheEuro-peananimalswasoftendestructivesincetheanimalsdestroyedoratetheircrops,whichconcernedmanycolonialofficials.InalettertotheSpanishmonarch,thefirstviceroyofMexico,AntoniodeMendoza,wrote,“Mayyourlordshiprealizethatifcattleareallowed,theIndianswillbedestroyed.”

Inreality,however,manyNativeAmericanswerequicktoadapttothenewanimals.Thewildcattlewerehuntedformeatandhideswhilesheepherdingandhorseswereincorporatedintotraditionalculture.Forexample,theNavahotribeinthesouthwesternUnitedStatescametorelyonsheepbothforfoodandwooltomaketheirdistinctiverugs.SeveralNorthAmericantribes,particularlythoselivingontheGreatPlains,usedhorsestohuntbuffaloandengageinfrequentbattles.HorsebackridingwasalsoadoptedinSouthAmericabytribesliketheMapuche,whosewar-riorsreliedonastrongcavalryforcetorepelSpanishinvadersforalmost300years.

Environmental and Demographic ChangesTheColumbianexchangedramaticallytransformedtheecosystemsoftheNewWorld.Grazinganimalslikehorses,cattle,andsheepvoraciouslyatenativeplants,whileburrowinganimalslikerabbitsandbrownratsdisruptedthesoil.Sometimesformerlydomesticatedanimalsbecamewild;forexample,mustangsareatypeofNorthAmericanwildhorsewhoseancestorsdatebacktotheColumbianexchange.Sometimesintroductionswereaccidental,includingtumbleweedsandwildoats,twoweedswhichsoonsignificantlyout-competednativeplants.Zebramusselswereanotheraccidentalintroduction.ThisfreshwatershellfishisnativetolakesinsouthernRussia.ItgraduallyspreadacrossEurope,andfromtheretotheAmericas,bycling-ingtothebottomofboats.ManyhundredsofplantsandanimalswereintroducedtotheAmericasfromEurasiaandAfricaduringtheoriginalColumbianexchange.

TheColumbianexchangealsoinvolvedthetransmissionofinfectiousdiseases.Europeanshaddevelopeddisease-resistantimmunitiestogermscausing:smallpox,measles,influenza,bubonicplague,typhus,andtuberculosis.AfricandiseasesincludingmalariaandyellowfeverwerealsotransmittedtotheAmericas,wheretheyaffectedNativeAmericansandEuropeansalike.Mostofthegermsresponsibleforinfectiousdiseasesevolvedfromdiseasesthataffectdomesticatedanimals.BecauseEurasiaandAfricahavesomanydomesticanimalspeciesandbecausepeoplecommonlylivedveryclosetotheiranimals,diseaseandtheirantibodiesdevelopedaccordingly.IndigenousAmericans,bycontrast,hadfeweropportuni-tiestodevelopeitherdiseasesorthesubsequentimmunities.Asaresult,infectiousdiseasewasthesinglegreatestkillerofnativepopulations.TheonlyinfectiousdiseasebelievedtohaveoriginatedintheAmericasissyphilis.ArrivinginEuropeasearlyas1493,syphilisspreadrapidlyacrosstheEuropeancontinentduringthesixteenthcentury.ItalsoaffectedmanySpanishandPortugueseimmigrantswhoengagedinsexualrelationswithindigenousAmericans,themostfamousexamplebeingtheconquistadorHernandezCortez.

Becauseofthisexchangeofdiseases,themostnotoriousresultoftheColum-bianexchangewasthevirtualeliminationofalmostallNativeAmericansocieties.Bytheendofthesixteenthcentury,thethrivingpopulationoftheAmericashad

3SELf-ChECK

How did Europeans view

American plants like

tobacco and potatoes?

Unit 6, Lesson 4 9


beenreducedby5,090percent,thoughhistoriansdisagreesharplyonthepre-1492populationlevels(estimatesrangeanywherefrom20to70million).In1519thepopulationofMexicowasapproximately25.3million,butitfellto1millionoverthecourseofthenextcentury.InPeru,apopulationof1.3millionin1570hadfallento600,000by1620.OntheislandofHispaniola,athrivingpopulationof100,000nativesin1492wasreducedtoonly300nativesby1570.AsEuropeanscontinuedtospreadthroughouttheAmericas,manynativesocietiesweredeci-matedwithoutanymilitaryaction.TherapidspreadofEuropeandiseasesdestroyedadvancedNorthAmericancivilizations,includingthoseintheU.S.SoutheastandtheMississippiRiversystem.Today,only5percentoftheoriginalnativepopula-tionofNorthAmericastillexists,andindigenoustribesliveonreservations,thoselandsdeemedundesirabletothelargerEuropean-basedpopulation.InpartsofCentralAmericaandtheAndes,NativeAmericanpopulationsweremorenumer-ous,sodespitewarfareandepidemicsalargerpopulationremains,whichiseitherNativeAmericanormixed.ThisisparticularlytrueathighaltitudesintheAndes.Intotal,theseepidemicscausedtheworstdemographiccatastropheinhumanhistory.Between1500and1800,morethan100millionpeoplediedasaresultofEurasianandAfricandiseasesimportedintotheAmericasandthePacificIslands.

WhiletheColumbianexchangedecimatedthenativepopulationsintheAmeri-cas,itsimultaneouslytriggeredpopulationboomsinEurasia.In1492,Eurasianpopulationswerestillrecoveringfromthebubonicplague,andtheglobalhumanpopulationwasapproximately425million.Withinacentury,itrose25percenttoapproximately545millionduringthesameperiodthatinfectiousdiseaseswereravishingNativeAmericanpopulations.OneofthemainreasonsfortheEurasianpopulationgrowthwasthatnewcropsandagriculturaltechniquesintroducedbytheColumbianexchangeincreasedtheglobalfoodproduction.Morethan30percentofallfoodseatentodayareofAmericanorigin,andtheyincludesomeofthemostreadilyavailableandwidelygrowncrops.Withmorefoodavailable,morebirthsoccurred,andthepopulationgrewaccordingly.By1800,theglobalpopulationroseabove900million,morethandoublingthepre-conquestnumbers.

SummaryTheColumbianexchangeisconsideredtobeoneofthemostimportantecologi-calandculturaleventsinworldhistory.Itinvolvedatrans-Atlantictransferenceofplants,animals,diseases,humanpopulations,andtraditionsbetweenEurasia,Africa,andtheAmericas.Newcropsandlivestockchangedculinaryandmedici-naltraditionsaswellasculturalnormsacrosstheglobe.TheramificationsofthisexchangewouldbedecidedlypositiveforEuropebutoverwhelminglynegativefortheindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericasandAfrica.EurasianpopulationsbenefitedfromthenewfoodsandsourcesofwealththatcamefromtheAmericancoloniesencouragingapopulationboomandanincreasinglyurbanpopulation.EurasiandiseasesannihilatedNativeAmericanpopulations:somehistoriansestimatethatasmuchas90percentofthepre-contactpopulationultimatelydiedasaresultofEur-asiandiseases.Withindigenouspopulationscrippled,EuropeanscouldmoreeasilyconquertheAmericasandestablishsocietiesthatmimickedEuropeaninstitutions

4SELf-ChECK

Which disease

transmitted during the

Columbian exchange

was native to

the Americas?

Unit 6, Lesson 4 10


andtraditions.WhilesomeAfricansbenefitedfromnewfoodsintroducedfromtheAmericas,therisingslavetradewasasignificantfactorintheColumbianexchange.NotonlyweremillionsofAfricansforcedtoimmigratetotheAmericas,butthegenderbalancewasupsetinAfrica,significantlyalteringAfricansociety.

Looking AheadTheAmericaswerenottheonlyregionaffectedbytheriseofEuropeanimperial-ism.AustraliaandOceaniawerealsoexplored,colonized,andtransformedbyEuropeans.TheecosystemsandhumanpopulationsofthePacifichadevolvedindependentlyfromtherestoftheworld.SocontactbetweenPacificIslandersorAustralianAboriginalsandEuropeansresultedinaculturalandbiologicalexchangesimilartotheColumbianexchangebetweenEurasiaandtheAmericas.However,thisexchangetendedtobemoreone-sidedwithEurasiananimals,plants,diseases,andculturaltraditionsbeingintroducedtoOceania,whileindigenousspeciesandnativepopulationsweresubjugated,ignored,ortreatedasmerecuriosities.ManyofthePacificIslandsretainactivenativecultures,afactorwhichislikelyduetotheirsizeandlocation.Becauseofthesmallsizeofmostislands,therewastypi-callylittleinterestincreatingpermanentcolonialsettlements,sonativecultureswereallowedtocontinuewithlimiteddisturbance.Australia,bycontrast,waslargeenoughtoattractpermanentEuropean-basedsettlementsandhadaweakpopula-tionthatwasunabletosuccessfullydefendtheterritoryfromwavesofinvaders.

1. The VOC imported cowry shells from India because they were used as a form of currency in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and could be used to purchase slaves.

2. The llama, alpaca, and dog were the three native animals domesticated in the Americas.

3. Americans thought that tobacco had important health benefits. Potatoes were suspected of carrying diseases, and over a century passed before they would be commonly eaten.

4. Syphilis is the only disease native to the Americas that was transmitted to Europeans during the Columbian exchange.

SELf-ChECK AnSwErS

Unit 6, Lesson 4 11


Unit 6, Lesson 4All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1 Terraces on Taquile Island, Peru. © Sean Sprague/The Image Works 3 Spanish galleon. © Bettmann/Corbis 4 Ter-races on Taquile Island, Peru. © Sean Sprague/The Image Works 6 Christopher Columbus, Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to America: from a manu-script recently discovered in Spain, trans. Samuel Kettell (Boston: T. B. Wait and Son, 1827) 35. 6 James Lockhart and Bernardino de Sahagún, Historia de la conquista de México (University of California Press, 1993) 92. 8 New World native and Cacao. © Bettmann/Corbis


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