The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML ...The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning...
Transcript of The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML ...The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning...
ELearning Principles and Practice
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)
Interaction Design
1 Nina Bresnihan MTL16
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Learning (CTML)
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Multimedia learning is a cognitive theory of learning
which has been popularized by the work of Richard E.
Mayer and others.
Multimedia learning happens when we build mental
representations from words and pictures.
Generally, the theory tries to address the issue of how to
structure multimedia instructional practices and employ
more effective cognitive strategies to help people learn
efficiently.
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Learning
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The argument is that multimedia supports the way that
the human brain learns.
People learn more deeply from words and pictures than
from words alone. This is referred to as the multimedia
principle (Mayer 2005a).
Learning
Graphics
Words
The Multimedia Principle
Use words and graphics rather than words alone
Text means either spoken or written form
Graphics must be explanative, not decorative
Why?
Relevant graphics promote active learning
i.e. Learners make connections between the text and the graphics
Attempt to use cognitive
research to combine words
and pictures in ways that
maximize learning
effectiveness.
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Learning
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Based on three assumptions:
1. The dual-channel assumption
2. The limited capacity assumption
3. The active processing assumption
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Learning
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The dual-channel assumption is that working memory has auditory and visual channels (Pavio, 1971)
The limited capacity assumption is based on cognitive load theory and states that each subsystem of working memory has a limited capacity.
The active processing assumption suggests that people construct knowledge in meaningful ways when they
(a) pay attention to the relevant material,
(b) organize it into a coherent mental structure, and
(c) integrate it with their prior knowledge
Meaningful Learning
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Meaningful learning from words and pictures happens
when the learner engages in five cognitive processes:
1. selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working
memory
2. selecting relevant images for processing in visual working
memory
3. organizing selected words into a verbal model
4. organizing selected images into a pictorial model
5. integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with each
other and with prior knowledge
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
The capacity of working memory is low!
Multimedia Learning - Second Edition, Mayer (2009)
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Dual channels
(auditory and visual)
Memory has
•Limited capacity
•Location of learning
Encoding
Once actively processed
Retrieval
Transfer of learning
The Triarchic model of Cognitive Load
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Essential processing (intrinsic load) relates to the
essential material or information to be learned.
Extraneous processing (extrinsic load) does not serve the
instructional goal or purpose and reduces the chances
that transfer of learning will occur.
Generative processing (germane cognitive load) is aimed
at making sense of the presented material. It is the activity
of organizing and integrating information in working
memory
Cognitive Load
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Mayer (2009) made this model the organizing framework
for the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
He stated that a major goal of multimedia learning and
instruction is to “manage essential processing, reduce
extraneous processing and foster generative processing” (
p. 57).
He identifies the following twelve multimedia
instructional principles which were developed from nearly
100 studies:
• Coherence Principle
• Signaling Principle
• Redundancy Principle
• Spatial Contiguity Principle
• Temporal Contiguity Principle
• Segmenting Principle
12 Practical Principles
• Pre‐training Principle
• Modality Principle
• Multimedia Principle
• Personalization Principle
• Voice Principle
• Image Principle
The Spatial Contiguity Principle
Place corresponding words and graphics near each other
Why?
The learner does not need to search for the relevant words
and can therefore focus on understanding
A rabbit
The Temporal Contiguity Principle
The sequencing of words and pictures
Words and pictures should be presented simultaneously
Why?
The simultaneous presentation of the two stimuli helps to
form an association in the mind of the learner
A tiger
The Coherence Principle
People learn better when extraneous material is excluded
rather than included
Adding interesting material can hurt learning
Why?
Distraction: it guides attention away from the relevant material
Disruption: it prevents the learner building links between
relevant material (due to the presence of irrelevant material
Seduction: it can raise inappropriate prior knowledge
The Coherence Principle
Visual coherence
Remove unnecessary words and pictures, however interesting
you or the learner deems them to be
Sound coherence
Remove unnecessary sounds from a presentation, however
interesting you or the learner deems them to be
Word coherence
Eliminate unnecessary words
Be wary of cognitive overload!
The Modality Principle
Present words as audio narration rather than onscreen
text
Images/video with audio narration is better for learning
than images/video with text
Why?
It splits the information across two cognitive channels
(auditory and visual) rather than all through a single channel
(visual)
The Personalization Principle
Use conversational style and virtual coaches
Why?
Allows the learner to engage with the learning as a social
conversation
Nina says
“Use a virtual
coach!”
• However: Image Principle -
People do not necessarily
learn more deeply from a
multimedia presentation
when the speaker’s image is
on the screen rather than
not on the screen.
Other Principles
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Signaling Principle – People learn better when cues that
highlight the organization of the essential material are
added.
Segmenting Principal – People learn better when a
multimedia lesson is presented in user-paced segments
rather than as a continuous unit.
Other Principles
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Pre-training Principle – People learn more deeply from a
multimedia message when they receive pre-training in the
names and characteristics of key components.
Voice Principle – People learn better when the words in a
multimedia message are spoken by a friendly human voice
rather than a machine voice.
Framework
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These twelve principles are grouped in a framework
based on the three types of cognitive load (Mayer 2009):
reducing extraneous processing - coherence, signaling,
redundancy, spatial contiguity, temporal contiguity
managing essential processing - segmenting, pre-training,
modality
fostering generative processing - multimedia,
personalization, voice, image
Boundary Conditions (the Individual
Differences Principle)
“... multimedia effects, contiguity effects, and split-
attention effects depend on individual differences in the
learner.”
“students who lack prior knowledge tended to show
stronger multimedia effects and contiguity effects than
students who possessed high levels of prior knowledge”
“students who scored high on tests of spatial ability
showed greater multimedia effects than did students who
scored low on spatial ability” A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Principles
Richard E. Mayer and Roxana Moreno
University of California, Santa Barbara
The Locus of Control
Learner control versus program control
This principle has more variables than the others
For example, for most students, a higher level of program control results in better learning outcomes
There are exceptions:
Adult learners prefer a greater sense of control especially over the pace of learning
Consider having more learner control for more advanced courses and more program control for basic courses
Regardless of the context, navigation should be simple, clear and intuitive. Avoid complicated paths through the content where a user could get lost.
How applicable are results in a non‐didactic, immersive learning environment?Gall, J.E. (2004). Reviewed work(s): Multimedia Learning by Richard E. Mayer and The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint byEdward R. Tufte. Educational Technology Research and Development. 52(3), pp. 87-‐90.
Has its critics…
Research trials too narrowBallantyne, N. (2008). Multimedia learning and social work education. Social Work Education, 27(6), 613-‐622.
But ……… 3 decades plus 00’s ofexperiments, mean it should stay as a robust, evolving theory
References
Richard Mayer (2001). Multi-Media
Learning. Cambridge University Press
Clark, Ruth and Richard Mayer (2002). E-Learning and
the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for
Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning.
Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer
Clark, Ruth and Chopeta Lyons (2004). Graphics for
Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning,
Designing and Evaluating Visuals in Training
Materials. Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer
Interaction Design
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In practice
the divisions
are more
blurred
Interaction Design
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“Interaction Design refers to the shaping of interactive products and services with a specific focus on their use." Lowgren (2013)
Interaction Design Association (IXDA) Definition:
“Interaction Design (IXD) defines the structure and behaviour of interactive systems.
Interaction Designers strive to create meaningful relationships between people and the products and services that they use, from computers to mobile devices to appliances and beyond.”
Interaction Design
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Interaction design is not about the behaviour
of the interface, it is about the behaviour of
people.
Interaction Design and Instructional Design
(IxD and ID)
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Sound pedagogical design for a learning experience does
not by itself guarantee success.
For technology-based learning, interaction design is a
necessary function of a positive outcome.
Interaction Design and Instructional Design
(IxD and ID)
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Poor usability distracts the learners from the
goals and objectives of the instructional experience, thus
poor IxD directly influences the success of ID.
The last thing we should want is for our students to have
to learn a difficult interface before they can learn a
difficult concept.
IxD is paramount to learner success in interacting with
the instructional interface.
Five Essential Principles
Consistency Feedback
Visibility Predictability
Learnability
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Five Essential Principles – 1. Consistency
People are Sensitive to change
Differences can cause distraction.
When learners start asking why it is the way it is or why it is different they are focused on the interface and not the content or the experience.
Consistency
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We should be very careful about how we design
components so that people can begin to recognise them.
Elements that have similar behaviour should have similar
appearance.
Consistency
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Consistency
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• Components with different behaviours should have different appearances.
• learners will recognise when there are different
interactions available when components use different
indicators and structure.
Consistency
Consistency
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Changes in appearance and behaviour can attract
unwanted attention.
Pay attention to details because sloppy design can be
distracting, and inattention to detail reduces credibility
and trust.
Consistency goes unnoticed
We only really notice when things differ or fail.
Consistency: It’s all in the details...
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Strive for consistency in both appearance and behaviour:
Colour, pattern and texture
Size, proportion and rotation
Shape
Alignment (use grids and guides)
Typography
Visibility
Transitions and motion graphics
Rollovers / mouseovers
Tooltips
Layers and pop-ups
Five Essential Principles – 2. Visibility
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/UscitaQuincinetto.JPG
Visibility
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You cannot invite interaction and engage learners with
your material if they are not aware that the opportunity
to interact exists.
Hidden interactions decrease usability and efficiency
Do not make your learners search for interactions when
they need to complete their task.
Visibility
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Discoverability should not involve luck or chance
People should be able to presume, deduce or infer that an
opportunity to interact exists.
Rollovers/mouseovers work best when people realise
they are present or assume they are available.
Visibility
Visibility
Visibility
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Try to avoid situations where learners falsely believe that
they have reached the end of content or of an experience
Use hinting and “false bottoms” when more content and
interactivity exists below the fold, farther down the
screen, or beyond the visible area.
Visibility
Visibility
Visibility
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Signal the availability of interaction with visual indicators
that invite people to touch or click.
People are ‘click happy’. They will attempt to interact with
anything that could possibly be clickable or touchable.
Standard interface components such as hyperlinks,
buttons, thumbnails, scrollbars and form elements are
understood to be interactive.
Different text colour and decoration, 3D and depth cues,
icons, and textures invite interaction.
Things that say “interact with me”
Now that you have completed Your lesson, take our on-‐linequiz
Visibility
Five Essential Principles – 3.
Learnability
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-‐u3Hn6kL4Iw4/UlcPRaZEy-‐I/AAAAAAAAAEw/ro3snk4katg/s1600/Baby+Bella+Shaping.PNG
Learnability
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Interactions should be easy to learn AND easy to
remember.
Ideally: use it once, learn it, and remember it forever.
Practically: use it a few times, learn it, and hope to remember it
for the next visit or use.
Learnability
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Learning theories from psychology can help us better
understand how people acquire and retain knowledge and
skills.
Operant Conditioning: Getting a reward or positive feedback
increases the probability that people with engage in that
behaviour again. Getting a punishment or making an error
decreases the probability that people with engage in that
behaviour again.
Observational Learning: Seeing someone else model or
demonstrate the behaviour and then imitating or repeating
what we have seen. Video tutorials are good examples of
observational learning.
Learnability
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Learnability is often equated with ‘ease of use’, but even
interfaces that are easy to use may require learning
The more we use an interface (and the more we learn), the
easier it becomes.
Practice leads to habits, and extensive practice leads to
automaticity.
“Intuitive” really means “single trial learning”.
Time ++Errors ++
Practice ++
Novice
More Practice = Less Errors Less Time = Expert
As quick as possible
Learnability: The Effects of Practice
Learnability
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People learn behaviours from experiences across the web
and devices and even from real-world places and objects.
Transfer of Learning: We take our experiences with us and
attempt to apply them in similar situations.
Perceived affordances: When the affordances of real objects
are represented metaphorically or analogously in digital form.
Take advantage of what people already know.
Author Rob-‐nowman This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-‐Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Author Leo-‐setä. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic licenseAuthor Avidemux Wiki community.This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-‐Share Alike 3.0 Unported license Author liz west from Boxborough, MA.This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license
Buttons
Tabs
Sliders
Learnability
Five Essential Principles – 4.
Predictability
Predictability
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The design should set accurate expectations about what
will happen before the interaction has occurred.
Learner behaviour can reveal whether or not they are
able to accurately predict what will happen:
When they do not know what they can do or what will
happen, they will attempt interacting with anything that could
possibly be clickable or touchable.
When they know what they can do and can predict what will
happen, they will interact with only what is necessary to
complete their task and accomplish their goal.
Predictability
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Use previews to set expectations and define constraints
for new or complex interactions.
Show what can be done while the interface loads.
Show a high-level view of the organisational system or
structure to provide context (e.g. A map)
Predictability
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Labels, instructions, icons and images can all be used to
set expectations about:
1. What to do
2. What will happen.
3. Where the learner will go.
4. How the interface will respond.
Five Essential Principles – 5. Feedback
http://www.amazon.com/Lightning-‐Reaction-‐Electric-‐Shock-‐Game/dp/B003Y3LSIS
Feedback
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Feedback can provide information about:
1. Location
2. Status or progress
3. Future events of possibilities
4. Completion or closure
Five Essential Principles – 5. Feedback
Feedback
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Minimise interruption of the learner’s experience or
actions
Feedback should complement the experience, not
complicate it.
Allow “undo” to reverse choices and correct mistakes.
Mistakes are incorrect choices, but they do not always result in
errors.
Undo can be used to revert to prior states to recover from a
mistake or from an error that may not be understood.
Feedback
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Every interaction should produce a noticeable and
understandable reaction.
Acknowledge interactions. Let people know they have
been heard (or felt or seen).
Failing to acknowledge an interaction can lead to
unnecessary repetition of actions and possibly errors or
mistakes.
Five Essential Principles – 5. Feedback
DefiniteIndefinite
Step by step
Thank you please wait while we deal with your request
Progress Indicators
Summary
As long as the interfaces are consistent within themselves and across related or similar experiences, people will be able to apply what they have
learned and interact more efficiently and effectively.
Consistency
When interactions are visible and noticed, and when their outcomes can be accuratelypredicted people will interact with the interface.
Visibility
Predictability
Once people have learned how an interface works, they are able to transfer that knowledge and skill to other, similar interfaces.
Learnability
The five principles are interrelated:
When meaningful feedback is provided after an interaction, people will understand how their actions led to theoutcomes. With practice their learning becomes stronger.
Feedback
Summary
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Professional design is important to establish credibility and trust.
Nuance and polish often make the difference between average and excellent.
Do not be different just to be different, and do not keep reinventing the wheel.
Leverage design patterns
A reusable solution to a recurring problem.
The content may change, but the interaction and process remains the same.
Interactions and outcomes become consistent and predictable.
Summary
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Prototype!
Sometimes the design in our head is a better idea than the
actual experience.
Solicit feedback from others, and do not take constructive
criticism personally.
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“You are not designing for yourself”
In-class Exercise - Analyse an Interactive
Device or Service
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In groups of 3 or 4, choose an interactive device or service to analyse. This could be an ATM, or a ticketing machine, a remote control, a mobile app or website.
Use the following questions (if relevant) to generate a blog post analysing the service/device:
1. What do I recognise when I inspect the device/service initially?
2. Do I perceive feedback when I use the device/service (interface change, sound, clicks, weight, surface texture etc)?
3. What is the device’s or service’s context for use?
4. Is anything missing?
Analyse an Interactive Device or Service
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5. What goals does the device /service address?
6. I have a goal; does the device/service facilitate it or get in the
way?
7. Consider other modalities for achieving the same goal (e.g.
talking, landline, mobile phone, Skype).
8. What is explicit and what is implicit?
9. What is usable (or conversely unusable)?
10. Do I need further explanation to understand some aspect?
11. How can I learn about what something does?
12. How do I know where I am (in the system)?
13. Where am I in the process?
Analyse an Interactive Device or Service
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14. What do I feel about using this device/service?
15. What are my impressions about this device/service?
16. Who can work with this device/service? Easily?
17. Is it easy to make a mistake?
18. What are the consequences of making a mistake?
19. Can I recover from the mistake easily?
20. Do I feel comfortable experimenting with the device/service?
21. What happens if it breaks?
References
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Lowgren, Jonas (2013): Interaction Design - brief intro. In: Soegaard, Mads
and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer
Interaction, 2nd Ed.". Aarhus, Denmark: The Interaction Design Foundation.
Available online at http://www.interaction-
design.org/encyclopedia/interaction_design.html
Moggridge, B. (2006) Designing Interactions, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT
Press.
Sharp, H., Rogers, Y. & Preece, J. (2007) Interaction Design: Beyond Human-
Computer Interaction, Wiley.