RESEARCHUPDATE

Early results from growth regulatorresearch by Garner and Lovatt haveidentified strategies that significantlyretard the growth of the vegetativeshoot apex of indeterminate floralshoots as opposed to purelyvegetative shoots. This is encourag-ing, because these strategies mayimprove fruit set and assist in canopymanagement in the future.

The latest avocado thrips researchresults were presented at growermeetings in February. Spray trials byOevering, Morse, Hoddle, Faber,Phillips, Urena, and Anderson showthat helicopter treatments ofabamectin (Agri-Mek), well beforefruit set, remained remarkablyeffective at thrips control. Theresearchers conclude that abamectintreatments, if applied properly, cansuppress avocado thrips populationsfor 60-80 days. Look for a specialedition of AvoResearch with acomplete summary of these researchresults soon.

There has been a lot of discussion in our industry about the impact of importedavocados on the domestic market. Our Education Committee believes that the moreavocado growers are informed about their competition, the more likely they are tobecome involved in industry decision making, and shaping their future. The countryemerging as perhaps the most important offshore supplier of avocados is Chile. To mostof us, Chile has been somewhat of a mystery. We knew little about their productioncapacity, details of their costs of production, or how organized they were as an industry.

Following several months of research, Reuben Hofshi has written a comprehensivearticle on the Chilean avocado industry. This article follows the article on the Mexicanavocado industry by Reuben in the last issue of AvoResearch. It is important tomention that the facts and figures presented here were compiled by Reuben workingnot only with the California Avocado Commission, but also directly with key industryindividuals in Chile. These individuals also checked the article for accuracy prior to print.

Also in this issue, we have included two inserts to add to your collection. These coverour two most important disease organisms in the grove, namely root rot and collar rot,and were compiled by University of California Faculty: Lawrence Marais, John Menge,Ben Faber and Gary Bender.

• Chilean Avocado Overview

• Stem Canker/Collar Rot

• Phytophthora Root Rot

In This Issue

Guy WitneyCalifornia Avocado Commission Production Research Program Manager

Volume 2, Issue 1 A California Avocado Commission Publication April 2002

FromTheEditor

In This Issue

Watch for meeting notices in the AvoGreensheet or log onto

www.avocado.org/growers for more information.

Reuben Hofshi

Del Rey Avocado Co., Fallbrook, CA

In recent years the presence of Chileanavocados in U.S. markets has become afamiliar sight. Most California avocadogrowers’ knowledge of the Chileanavocado industry is limited, althoughthey are familiar with its impact on theU.S. market and on personal harvestingstrategies. Inventory reports by theCalifornia Avocado Commission andpackinghouse faxes are the primarysources of information on the flow of

Chilean avocados into the marketplace.This overview is an effort to answer thequestions interested growers may haveabout different aspects of the Chileanavocado industry.

Chilean avocado groves are located in arange of latitudes similar to those inCalifornia, but in the SouthernHemisphere. La Serena, the northernlimit of the Chilean industry is locatedat 29º53’S, while the southern limit atMelipilla is at 33º41’S. Contrast this

THE CHILEAN AVOCADOINDUSTRY: AN OVERVIEW

continued on page 2

with San Diego, CA at 32º45’N andCambria in San Luis Obispo county at35º33’N. Chilean fruit is mature whenCalifornia is at the transition betweenthe late and early season, from Augustonward. This unique situation gives theChilean industry a market well primedby the momentum of Californiaavocado sales. Historically, during thistime of the year, demand for Californiaavocados would exceed supplies andprices would rise dramatically. TheChileans recognized this window ofopportunity and turned the U.S. intothe focus of their avocado exportingefforts.

The first significant shipment of 6million lbs of Chilean avocadosarrived in the U.S. in 1986 as the U.S.

avocado market, thanks to the CACmerchandising efforts anddemographic changes, was in a cycleof growth (Figure 1). After some initial

attempts at exporting avocados to theU.S. through the usual producechannels, the Chilean industry quicklylearned that the most efficient

CHILEANAVOCADOScontinued from page 1

2

Propagation of avocado trees at the Huerto California Nursery near Quillota, Chile.

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

MIL

LIO

N P

OU

ND

S

YEAR

Figure 1. Avocado Exports (all varieties) from Chile to the United States from 1986 to 2000.

(Source, U.S. Census Bureau)

distribution method was by the sameorganizations that market Californiaavocados. This shift in marketingstrategy provided the Chilean industryan infrastructure and a level ofexpertise that fostered the currentexpansion and success of that industry.The close relationship betweenCalifornia and Chilean marketerslimited the flow of Chilean avocados tothe months they were most needed,from mid-September through mid-December. Constraints of fruitmaturity, on both ends of thespectrum, and a lack of dependabletransportation have kept Chileanavocados out of the U.S. marketsduring the remainder of the year. Thehigh returns for Chilean avocados inthe U.S., in most years, have beenphenomenal by any measure. Thisgolden opportunity has generated arush for continuous planting of new,predominantly Hass orchards in Chile.This season, the overall production ofall varieties in Chile is estimated to be264 million lbs, of which 176 millionlbs will be Hass. The majority of this,120 million lbs, is being exported tothe U.S., amounting to about 95% ofthe total Chilean avocado exports.Most of these shipments are receivedand distributed by California handlersassociated with one or more Chileanexporters. The exporting companiesand their percentage of export volumefor the 2001-2002 export season are:Agricom 26.2%, Propal 22.6%, SantaCruz 17.1%, CabilFrut 13.6% and Safex5.6%. The remaining 14.9% isdistributed among 20-25 otherexporters. Readers may recognizesome of these names from the PLUstickers on Chilean fruit insupermarkets.

Comité de la Palta is the equivalent ofthe California Avocado Commission(‘Palta’ is the term for ‘avocado’ inChile). It is a private organizationformed in 1991 under the sponsorshipof the National Federation of Fruit

Producers (Fedefruta). It has a Board ofDirectors composed of 7 producers, 5marketers and 2 alternates. Ninety-fivepercent of Chilean avocado exportsare made under the umbrella of thisorganization. In the last few years theComité de la Palta has been assessinggrowers approximately 1 cent per lbfor all avocados exported to the U.S.by its members. There have beenseveral attempts at joint promotionefforts between CAC and the Comitéde la Palta. The voluntary agreementbetween the two organizations topromote avocados during Fall 2001demonstrates that alliances betweencompetitors are possible. All producersbenefit from a full calendar year

perspective, as opposed to fragmented,country specific, seasonal campaignsfor promotion programs. Overall, bothindustries recognize that the existenceof the other is a fact of life. An issuethat concerns the Chilean industry isthe import duty of $1.50 per 25 lbcarton levied by the U.S. Governmenton Chilean avocados entering the U.S.(These funds, over $7 million thisseason alone, are put in the generalgovernment fund and do not helppromote avocado sales). They hopethat the new trade negotiationsbetween both countries will result inthe removal of such duties or at leastdirect some of these funds towards

3

Preparation of ridges prior to planting of new avocado grove in Chile.

Newly planted avocado trees on ridges in Chile.

continued on page 4

avocado promotion. Relations arelikely to improve as both industrieslearn to understand each other, andrecognize their mutual needs andapprehensions. With closer ties and thesimilarity of the growing conditions ofboth countries, closer cooperation onresearch, technical management,variety development and other mutualinterests, could produce a positivesynergy between both industries.

The current planted acreage ofapproximately 48,000 acres iscomprised of 30% newly planted, non-bearing trees, 40% not yet fully maturewith increasing production, 26%mature trees in full production, and 3%older trees with declining production.New trees are being planted at a rate of2,500 acres per year. It is expected thatplantings of new orchards will slowonce the industry reaches 50,000 acresof Hass. California currently has58,227 producing acres and 739 non-bearing acres, with a high percentageof trees over 15 years old and Hassaccounts for 95% of the totalproduction.

Chile has the second highest per capitaconsumption of avocados in the worldat 8.5 lbs per person. Chile’spopulation of 15.5 million willconsume approximately 130 millionlbs of the current year production of allvarieties. Due to increased productionand the proliferation of exportingcompanies, there is pressure to expandthe shipping period into January,February and even into March. Thiscould be facilitated by the adoption offaster and more efficient transportation,and better postharvest handlingtechniques. (It usually takes 10-15 daysfor the 5,435 mile voyage fromValparaiso, Chile to San Diego,California.) One solution for increasingshelf life, and thus the shipping season,

is the use of controlledatmosphere (CA) containerswhere fruit is kept in acontrolled environment ofreduced oxygen and increasedcarbon dioxide, similar to long-term apple storage. This mayadd $0.80 - $1.00 per carton intransportation costs but withoutCA it would be risky to shiplate-season avocados. February- March in Chile is equivalentto August - September inCalifornia, a period which, dueto maturity and shelf lifelimitations, is not conducive tolong-distance shipping ofavocados. Other options arebeing studied to improveshipping and storage quality.One material that is likely to beused in the future is the simpleorganic compound, 1-MCP,which is already registered foruse on floral and edibleproducts in some countries.Registration for the UnitedStates food crop sector isexpected in Summer 2002;however, rigorous detailedstudies are still required beforethis material can becommercially applied toavocado. 1-MCP, in quantitiesof less than 100 parts perbillion and under regularrefrigeration, can extendavocado shelf life. Thecompound attaches itself to theethylene receptors in theavocado fruit and blocks ethyleneaction, thus delaying fruit ripening.

Chile is not the only country thatexports avocados to the U.S. duringthis time of the year. Chile, Mexicoand New Zealand all have avocados atbasically the same time, and the daywhen supplies may exceed demand islurking on the horizon. The Chileansare industrious, learn from bothsuccess and failure and adapt quickly.

They are continually looking for newmarkets to help dampen the inevitablecompetition for the market window onwhich they have focused their efforts.The lack of available alternativemarkets is a major concern for theComité de la Palta and all Chileanmarketers. One option is thedevelopment of the European marketby the Chilean industry. Europe hasbeen neglected mainly due to thehigher prices that can be obtained in

4

CHILEANAVOCADOScontinued from page 3

CHILE

ARGENTINA

BOLIVIA

PERU

MelipillaSantiago

La SerenaCoquimbo

Melipilla

Valparaíso

Rancagua

Región deCoquimbo

Región deValparaíso

Avocado production regions of Chile.

the U.S.. Peru, which cannot exportavocados to the U.S. due to theMediterranean fruit fly, is also targetingthe European avocado market. In 1999it exported close to 2 million lbs ofquality Hass avocados to Europe. Notwithstanding the Peruvian competition,which could become significant ifincreased domestic and imported U.S.volume causes prices to decline,Europe could become a viable,alternative market. Another alternativecould be Japan, but it is a small marketand Chile would face competitionfrom New Zealand and Mexico. Thesetwo markets are marginal options forChile since the transit time to Europeand Japan is approximately 30 days.Such long transit would requireoptimum pre- and post-harvestmanagement and the use of expensiveCA containers. It is possible, but veryrisky and costly. The major foreigncompetition for Chile, particularly inthe U.S. during its traditional exportingmonths, is Mexico. With a highdomestic consumption and a tendencyfor alternate bearing, Mexico is notalways a consistent source of fruit. TheChileans, though watchful andconcerned, no longer feel threatenedby the Mexican presence. The realityis that Chile’s natural export market is

the U.S. and that it will likely remainthe principal market in the future. Inthe meanwhile the Chilean avocadoindustry is experiencing a boom.Average FOB prices for the 2000-2001season were $22 per lug. This season islikely to produce average FOB returnsgreater than $24.

In the long term, the Chilean Hassindustry is hoping to find an importantmarket alternative in South America,especially in Argentina. This optionhas been long contemplated, and testshipments have been made to thatcountry. The high prices obtained inother markets, coupled with theeconomic problems and informal wayof doing business in Argentina, havelimited the development of thismarket. Compared with Chileanavocado consumption, Argentinesconsume a little more than 0.5 lb percapita. With the population ofmetropolitan Buenos Aires andsuburbs approaching 13 million, it isobvious that the growth potential ofthis market is enormous. AlthoughArgentina, Peru and South Africa arein the same hemisphere as Chile, theiravocado harvest seasons are differentfrom Chile’s and thus theycomplement each other. Theavailability of fruit throughout the yearis a critical component in developing a

continued on page 6

5

Hass avocado trees planted on ridges sloping downhill in Chile.

Hass avocado trees planted on ridges going downhill in Chile.

new market. If suppliers such as Peru,South Africa, the small Argentineavocado industry, and Chile couldshare the marketing and developmenteffort, the potential exists for a strongmarket in Argentina.

Current returns to Chilean growers fordomestic avocado sales range from$0.36 to $0.40 per lb for fruit over 6ounces. The Chilean market, however,can absorb only a certain volume withthe current per capita consumptionrate and distribution system. TheComité de la Palta, which is currentlyonly an exporting organization, iscontemplating marketing Hassavocados in Chile. An important stepfor increasing consumption in Chile isprice moderation for consumers. Thiscould be achieved by making thesupply chain more efficient with morerational margins for all the middlemeninvolved.

During April-June the demand forHass avocados in Chile exceeds localsupplies. California avocados werepreviously prohibited from Chile.Regulations have recently changed andexport to Chile is now permitted. Thefruit must meet certain phytosanitaryrequirements prior to embarkation.

GROWING REGIONSAvocados have been grown in Chilesince the mid 1800’s with the initialseeds thought to have come from Peru.Roger Magdhal first brought the Hassavocado to Chile in 1935, three yearsafter it was patented in California. Theexpansion of Chilean avocadoplantings began, as in California, inareas where good soils, favorableclimate and quality water wereabundant. Today many new plantingsare on marginal soils, often onhillsides, with poor water quality oflimited availability, and the potentialfor occasional freezes. Prior to theinitiation of exports to the U.S., theavocado varietal composition in Chilewas diverse, with Hass, Fuerte, Negrade La Cruz, and Bacon as thedominant varieties. Today, 75% of theavocado trees in Chile are Hass.Edranol, Bacon and Zutano are used aspollinizers while Negra de La Cruz,which is a popular, late season Chileanselection, is grown for localconsumption.

There are three major avocadogrowing regions in Chile, which arepresented in order from north to south.

I. The river basins of the Petorca and La Ligua rivers.

This region is the area with the mostsignificant new plantings andrepresents 35% of the total Hass

plantings in Chile. Hass is the mainvariety grown in this region. Edranol isthe main pollinizer variety althoughZutano and Bacon are also used aspollinizers to a lesser extent. Theseriver basins, which cross Chile fromthe Andes to the Pacific Ocean, vary intheir climatic conditions as a functionof their proximity to the coast. Theareas of La Ligua and Longotoma,which have the greatest marineinfluence, have a dry, cloudy summerwith an average relative humidityaround 70% and average temperaturesof 61ºF. In the inland valleys, wherethe marine influence is reduced, theaverage temperatures are 72-74ºF, andthe average relative humidity is 45%.Average annual rainfall is 6-8 inchesfor the region.

Irrigation water comes from two riversthat flow above ground onlyintermittently. Water availability is alimiting factor since the mountainssupplying these valleys are not asextensive and are not as high as otherranges that provide water foragriculture in Chile. Therefore, 95% ofthe groves are irrigated using eithershallow or deep wells. Almost allgrowers irrigate via pressurizedirrigation with a preference formicrosprinklers. Water quality is good,with electrical conductivity (EC) of 0.4decisiemens/meter (dS/m) (ColoradoRiver water, in contrast, is 0.9 – 1.0

CHILEANAVOCADOScontinued from page 5

6

Hass avocado plantings near Quillota, Chile.

7

dS/m) with a pH slightly above neutral(7.2-7.5). Even though soil quality andclimatic conditions can be outstandingfor growing avocados, these areas areprobably near their maximumpotential for planting. In case of adrought in Chile, these valleys arelikely to be the most affected since thewater supply will deplete quickly.

There are 2 dominant soil types:

A) Light alluvial sandy alkaline soils(pH greater than 8) which are deep,poor in organic matter content andcontain large quantities of rocks. Therocks help drainage and help maintainhigh soil temperatures.

B) Marine deposits are the dominantsoils of the hillsides. They are notuniform, but are generally poor, thin,alkaline and often affected by highlevels of carbonates. They are clay soilswith low organic matter content.Generally, groves on hillsides areplanted on ridges, sometimes runningup and down the hill in a north-southdirection when possible.

II. The Aconcagua Valley.

The Aconcagua River provides goodquality irrigation water (EC 0.7 dS/m)with low sodium and chloride to thistraditional capital of avocado andcitrus growing. Like the Petorca – LaLigua basins, the Aconcagua basinrepresents 35% of the Chilean Hassplantings. Some of the well-knownlocalities for avocado growing in Chileare Panquehue, Llay-Llay, Hijuelas, LaCruz and Quillota. Many of Chile’snurseries are located in this zone,including the Magdahl family’srenowned Huerto California Nursery.This region has also experienced alarge expansion of new plantings,mainly on hillsides since the flat landwas already planted to avocado andother crops. Most of the old irrigationsystems (flood or furrow) have beenconverted to pressurized systems, withmicrosprinklers as the preferred

emitter. The valley soils are deepsedimentary of alluvial origin. Soiltexture is light clay with clay substratedeeper in the profile. There are graveland stones within the soil that hasmoderate permeability and organicmatter content of 1 – 1.25%. Hillsidesoils are granitic in origin, are poor,with mild to heavy clay, and have anorganic matter content of 0.5 – 0.75%.Average summer relative humidity is55-60% and average annual rainfall is16.9 inches. Average annualtemperatures are 60ºF with themaximum temperature around 80ºFand minimum around 42ºF.

III. The Maipo–Mapocho and Cachapoal river valleys.

This region is extensive and includesthe metropolitan region of Chile’scapital, Santiago, and the area south ofSantiago. It represents approximately15% of the total Chilean Hassplantings. Well-known localities areMallarauco, Naltagua and Melipilla bythe Maipo and Mapocho rivers andthe localities of Peumo – Las Cabrasby the Cachapoal River. New plantingsin this zone are also extensive butmore limited due to lower averagetemperatures and the high potential forfreeze. As in California, growersminimize their risk by planting onhillsides where cold air can flow tolower elevations. This area has drysummers with warm temperatures(95ºF maximum) and cold (as low as23ºF), wet winters with annual rainfallaveraging 29–31 inches. Water qualityof the Maipo and Mapocho rivers ispoor. The water is hard, alkaline, witha pH near 8 and EC greater than 1.2dS/m. There are many groves,especially in the vicinity of Mallarauco,with severe tip-burn and poorproduction. The region of theCachapoal River is less affected bysalinity (water EC is 0.6 dS/m). Thereis abundant water and drought rarelyoccurs. Many growers in this regionstill irrigate by flood irrigation although

plantings, especially on hillsides, usepressurized systems. The soils aregenerally deep, consisting of light tomoderate clay with about 1.5% organicmatter content. Hillside soils arevariable in quality, thin, poor, andshallow, with moderate to heavy claycontent. Average summer relativehumidity for both valleys is 76-77%.Average annual temperatures are 57ºF.

IV. Other regions.

In the last few years, there have beenlimited new plantings in additionallocations such as the interior portionsof the 3 regions discussed above aswell as the Ovalle and La Serenavalleys, which are located 150 to 200miles north of Santiago. These newand limited production zones, wheresummer fruit and grapes havetraditionally been grown, have highertemperatures and fruit is harvested 1 to2 months earlier than the in coastalareas. In La Serena there are dramatictemperature and humidity differencesbetween the coastal area and the nottoo-distant interior valleys. All thesemarginal areas represent about 10% ofthe total Hass plantings in Chile.

PESTS AND DISEASESChile is blessed with having only a fewpests and diseases. Red Spider mite(Oligonychus yothersi) is controlled byapplication of oil or wettable sulfur.Miticides are used only during severeinfestations. Thrips (Heliothripshaemorrhoidalis) are left alone and areonly controlled during severeinfestations by mineral oils andChlorpyrifos. A characteristic of theavocado production in Chile, whichunfortunately was lost in Californiadue to the introduction of the Perseamite (Oligonychus perseae), and theavocado thrips (Scirtothrips persea), isthe limited use of chemical pesticides.Most of the products used are oils,soaps and sulfur. Growers often leavecontrol of possible pests to natural

continued on page 8

8

predators and Integrated PestManagment (IPM) strategies. AlthoughChile is geographically isolated, therehave been several finds ofMediterranean fruit fly over the years.The source of the fruit fly infestation isthought to be either Argentina or Peru.These finds forced fruit to bequarantined in a manner similar to theevent that took place in Ventura, CA in1997 –1998.

The occurrence of root rot(Phytophthora cinnamomi) is limited andis much less severe than in California.The reason for this is thought to be thefungicidal effect of high copper contentin the soils and, to a limited extent, inthe irrigation water. This is one of thereasons clonal rootstocks are not usedin Chile. Where root rot does exist, theuse of low concentrations (less than1%) of buffered phosphorus acidapplied as a foliar and trunk spray isrecommended.

There is little to no rain during theharvesting months in Chile andpostharvest decays are substantiallylower, and often almost non-existent,when compared to growing areas withhigh rainfall such as Australia and NewZealand.

THE CHILEAN AVOCADOGROVE AND CULTURALPRACTICESThe following discussion represents themajority of the relatively youngChilean avocado orchards. Most of thetrees in Chile are grown either onMexícola seedling rootstock or, morerecently in areas of poor water quality,on Nabal, which is thought to be salttolerant. In the last few years, inresponse to pollination studiesconducted by students at the CatholicUniversity of Valparaiso, the varietyEdranol has become the preferred ‘B’type pollinizer variety. The Chilean

advisors recommend 11% of the totalplanting to be planted to pollinizers.What is unusual about Edranol is that,although a well-liked fruit, it producesvery little if any fruit but flowersprofusely in Chile, every year; it isplanted strictly for pollinationpurposes. There is a lesson to belearned by California avocado growerswho have been struggling with whichvariety of ‘B’ flower trees to plant. TheChilean argument is that Edranol issuch a good pollinizer that theincreased production of thesurrounding Hass trees more thancompensates for the Edranol’s lack ofproductivity. In California, the searchfor replacement to the traditionalpollinizer varieties by Hass-likevarieties is somewhat misdirected. Theforemost purpose of a pollinizer varietyis to do the best job providingabundant quality pollen. Zutano, andto a lesser extent Bacon, are well suitedto do the job!

To assist in pollination, honey bees areintroduced to the groves at the

recommended rate of 4 beehives peracre. A third of the colonies arebrought prior to or at the initiation ofbloom and the rest during peak bloom.Recently, a service providingbumblebees for pollination wasintroduced in Chile, but the cost-benefit remains questionable.

Planting, canopy management andproduction costs.

Land prices vary depending on thelocation and on the potential for futureresidential or commercialdevelopment. In well-suited avocadoareas, land prices can range from$2,800 to $12,000 per acre. Hillsides,where generally mostly avocados aregrown, can cost $400 to $1,800 peracre, depending on water availabilityand pumping requirements. Anirrigation system with microsprinklerscosts between $1,200 and $1,600 peracre. Non-clonal nursery grown treescost about $4 each. The irrigationsystem and the trees normallyconstitute 50 to 70% of the total cost ofplanting a new orchard. By the fourth

Fruit packing and grading utilizing HACCP standards at Safex Packinghouse near Quillota, Chile.

continued from page 7

9

year, when commercial harvestcommences, a grower with a 25-acregrove will have invested around$4,000 per acre.

The normal planting density for Hassis 20 x 20 ft with an additional tree onthe diagonal, which is later removed.Other plantings are at 10 x 20 ft. Someprogressive growers plant in a highdensity of 10 x 10 ft spacing and girdle1-2 branches in the second year. Dueto mild temperatures and appropriatefertilization regimes, trees don’t growas fast as in California and suchdensities can be maintained for a fewyears, especially when carefulirrigation and well-monitored andbalanced fertilizer regimes arepracticed. Recent hillside plantings aremostly on ridges that are 20 ft apart,approximately 6 ft wide at the base,sloped to a height of 4-5 ft, and areabout 2 ft wide at the top. The treesare planted either 13 ft or 20 ft apart.The ridges sometimes run down thehillside, preferably in a north-southorientation for better light interception,for better water and air drainage, andconcentration of the thin topsoil, whichis gathered at the top of the ridges.Pressure-compensating microsprinklers

are used to maintain a high level ofdistribution uniformity for these uniqueirrigation systems.

The production costs per acre in Chileare between $500 and $850 per year.This includes water, energy, generallabor, harvest, pruning, and all otherdirect costs. Two important factorsaffecting production costs are the sizeof the orchard and the slope of theterrain. Labor accounts for 50 to 60%of the costs, and fertilizers and energy,mainly for pumping water, account for10% each. The harvest is performed bylocal farm labor hired by the grower.Harvest cost is $0.009 (0.9 cents perlb). The minimum wage in Chile,including associated costs and benefits,is $6 per day for basic labor. Chileangrowing conditions are less stressful tothe Hass avocado than the conditionsin most growing areas in California. Ingeneral, good-quality mature orchardsproduce an average of 10-12,000 lbsper-acre, per-year. There are orchards,in areas with ideal climatic conditionsduring flowering and fruit set, withsustained average productionexceeding 20,000 lbs per acre.

Tree pruning and canopy management.

This is a new concept with whichChilean growers are experimenting.One advantage they have overCalifornia growers is the availability ofplant growth regulators (PGRs) such asSunny, Cultar and NAA, which haveproven to be extremely effective inChile and elsewhere (Australia, Israel,South Africa) in improvingproductivity and the control of canopysize and shape. These materials arevery expensive and are not usedroutinely in Chile. (The CACProduction Research Committee iscurrently funding Dr. Carol Lovatt toestablish efficacy data on new PGRssuch as Apogee, a likely candidate tobe permitted for use on avocados.)

Irrigation.

Because of the Mediterranean climateand the lack of adequate rain betweenAugust and May, irrigation is a must.Many of the older commercial groveshave converted from canal irrigation topressurized systems. Modern irrigationis managed mainly through twosystems: evaporation pans (orcomputerized weather stations thatindicate evapotranspiration) andtensiometers. Tensiometers are used tocontrol and monitor this program andto indicate the irrigation needs duringwinter. Ideally, growers try to use bothsystems. The Chilean grower prefers tovary the irrigation frequency and keepthe duration of the irrigation eventconstant. It is common, whenmicrosprinklers are used, to irrigateevery 5 to 12 days during the drysummer. Drip irrigation is sometimesused during the first year after plantingto provide better control of the amountof water and fertilizer each treereceives and for more efficient weedcontrol. Normally by the second yearthe drip system is converted tomicrosprinklers. There are someplantings that use drip irrigation, basedon the recommendation of foreign

Overview of fruit grading using HACCP guidelines at Safex Packinghousenear Quillota, Chile.

continued on page 10

10

consultants (mainly from Israel), butprolonged use of drip irrigation is notcommon. The use of microjets, whichhave a more limited and focusedthrow, has increased due to higherdensity planting and the use of ridgesfor planting on hillsides. Currently,new research is being conductedutilizing pulse irrigation systems, whichprovide several pulses of irrigationwater per day. Water requirements aremonitored by dendrometers thatmeasure the diurnal fluctuation of thegirth of the trunk, limbs and leaves.One important difference betweenavocado production expenses ofCalifornia and Chile is the cost ofirrigation water. In the Quillota area(Aconcagua basin) for example, watercost is not higher than $50 per-acre,per-year. Water availability and waterquality are much more important tothe Chilean avocado grower. In

California, although water quality hasbeen an important issue, the cost of theirrigation water is the most critical. Inareas with salinity problems theirrigation volumes are increased by 20to 30% to provide leaching and toprevent the accumulation of salts in thesoil. Soil variability and the availabilityof reliable weather data are importantissues for growers, especially whenmarginal soils and poor-quality waterare used. Francisco Gardiazabal hasbeen conducting a study to establishnew crop coefficients (Kc) for Chile.Table 1 lists the currently used cropcoefficients (as compared to those weuse in California) and his proposednew values.

Fertilization.

Fertilizer application is primarilylimited to nitrogen (N) and potassium(K), although minor amounts of boronand zinc are also applied. The generalrate of application is 100-175 lbs ofactual N per acre. The use of K iscontroversial. Some advisors,

influenced by Spanish researchers, donot recommend the addition of any K,while others recommend 35-53lbs/acre in the form of potassiumnitrate. Zinc, in the form of zinc sulfate,is applied at the rate of 18-22 lbs/acreand boron in the form of boric acid isapplied at the rate of 35-70 lbs/acre.Often, especially in alkaline soils, thetotal application of thesemicronutrients is buried in shallowholes at the four corners of the tree orin a band along the drip line. MostChilean avocado growers have leafanalyses performed annually, whilesoils are analyzed less frequently.

Organic production.

Organic production has been slow totake hold and is constrained by certainlimitations. Even though the pestpressure in avocado orchards in Chileis low and the use of pesticides islimited, the main limiting factor is theavailability of a good and reliablesource of organic nitrogen. The cost oforganic fertilizers, which are always inhigh demand for use in avocadoorchards and in other crops, inaddition to the transportation andhandling costs of large volumes ofmanures and other bulk organicproducts, limit the adoption of organicfarming.

The Chilean educational system.

The Chilean educational system issuperb, producing many professionalswith an uncanny determination towork hard, learn, and excel. TheCatholic University of Valparaiso iswhere the majority of the subtropicalfruit research is conducted. Under thewatchful eyes of FranciscoGardiazabal, their major professor,students are required to produce aftergraduating from college a significant,albeit one year in length, researchproject, and a final report in order toreceive their degree in Agronomy.These works are well designed and

CHILEANAVOCADOScontinued from page 9

MONTH

SOUTH — NORTH

PROPOSED Kc VALUES

CHILE

CURRENT Kc CROPcoefficient

ValuesCHILE— CALIFORNIA

JANUARY — JULY 0.72 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75

FEBRUARY — AUGUST 0.65 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75

MARCH — SEPTEMBER 0.58 — 0.60 0.72 — 0.75

APRIL — OCTOBER 0.58 — 0.55 0.72

MAY — NOVEMBER 0.58 — 0.55 0.72

JUNE — DECEMBER 0.52 — 0.50 0.72

JULY — JANUARY 0.52 — 0.40 0.72

AUGUST — FEBRUARY 0.52 — 0.50 0.72

SEPTEMBER — MARCH 0.58 — 0.55 0.72

OCTOBER — APRIL 0.58 — 0.55 0.72

NOVEMBER — MAY 0.65 — 0.60 0.72 — 0.75

DECEMBER — JUNE 0.72 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75

Table 1.

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executed, and include acomprehensive literature review of thesubject and statistical analysis. In thelast 10 years the research, which is verypragmatic in nature, has beenconcentrated on subjects such asavocado phenology under Chileanconditions, nutrition and fertilization,irrigation, pruning, tree manipulationwith growth regulators and girdling,the use of honey bees and otherinsects, fruit set and the selection anduse of pollinizers, and the evaluationsof new varieties from local andinternational sources. This practicalapproach to research is enhanced bythe participation of technical peopleand advisors who are close to thegrower community and to the industry.The research activities are not fundedby the industry and financial support isavailable mainly through the initiativeand vision of individuals within theindustry. An unfortunate problem withthe research performed in Chile is thatthe results are not published in anynational publication. These valuablestudies are only available in the libraryof the universities where the researchwas conducted. This author hasrequested those with access to theseworks to post summaries in Spanish orEnglish on an accessible web page.Some representative summaries of theresearch these young agronomistsconducted may be presented in futureissues of AvoResearch.

Consulting and informationdissemination.

In Chile, a system of technicalconsulting and advising has beenestablished as part of the duties of thefield personnel of the fruit exportingcompanies. The growers have acceptedthis service as an integral andimportant part of the service theexporting companies provide. Thesetechnical consultants are mostlyagronomists who have specialized asfield representatives and who alsoprovide technical assistance for each

type of exported fruit. This system isbeneficial to the growers and also helpsthe exporters, at least in theory, predictand control the volume, size, andquality of fruit they ship. In addition,and often in place of companyagronomists, many large growers useindependent consultants/farm advisors,to help them with the technical aspectsof their groves. These consultants arehighly trained, well traveled, and haveintimate knowledge of internationalavocado research and culturalpractices. Some growers who employprivate consultants believe that it isdifficult for the field representatives,although well trained, to be up-to-datein the technical management aspects oftheir orchards. The crop is valuableand an educated opinion from adifferent perspective is good insurance.There is no extension service orgovernment-sponsored farm advisorservice in Chile. (In recent years,foreign advisers have begun consultingand setting up trial plots in Chile.These arrangements are expensive andare often limited only to growersassociated with certain exportingcompanies. Sharing of experiences andspecific information dissemination ismore difficult under thesecircumstances.) The basic primer inChile has been the book titled ‘Cultivodel Palto’ (Cultivating the Avocado), byF. Gardiazabal and G. Rosenberg,1990. This book, even today, is a finecompilation of information gatheredfrom around the world but with aChilean perspective.

Growers under the umbrella of theComité de la Palta are provided withone important meeting per year inwhich political, strategic, and technicalissues are discussed. There are alsoseminars organized from time to timeby various organizations, mainlyconcentrating on the technical aspectsof growing avocados. Otherwise, thereare very few organized industry-widemeetings such as those held in

California. Some exporting companieshave held growers meetings, invitingforeign experts for well-attendedseminars, and some have takenimportant growers to visit otheravocado industries. A large number ofChilean growers attend internationalavocado events, such as the WorldAvocado Congress. The Chileanindustry is, for the most part, open andtransparent, a trait learned from theopenness and generosity of otherindustries such as Australia, Israel,South Africa, Spain and the U.S..

Quality assurance and food safety.

Walking into a modern avocadopackinghouse in Chile is an experiencein sanitary discipline we should alllearn from. Most growers andexporters in Chile are getting involvedin a program developed by theChilean Export Association (ASOEX)known as “BPA” (Buenas PrácticasAgrícolas), which means BestAgricultural Practices. This program’sobjective is to assure sanitary quality ofthe fruit, environmental conservation,product traceability, and worker safetyfor both field workers and handlingpersonnel. Additionally, most of thepackinghouses have internationalinspectors to certify quality assurancepractices. USDA-APHIS inspects theChilean avocados before embarkationand issues a phytosanitary certificate.Upon arrival at destinations in theU.S., USDA will again inspect thefruit. The inspectors use the FloridaAvocado Standards (a federal standard)to ascertain that the fruit meetsminimum quality standards. CaliforniaDepartment of Food and Agriculture(CDFA), during the early part of theexport season, tests fruit arriving inCalifornia to insure that the fruit meetsCalifornia’s minimum maturitystandards. Measuring dry mattercontent of the fruit 2 to 3 weeks afterharvest is questionable. Implementing

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a standardized testing protocol that is easy to use, similar to the onebeing developed currently in California, could entice the Chileanindustry to officially test fruit destined for export to the U.S. priorto shipment. The most popular food safety program is calledHACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point), which is aninternationally recognized food safety methodology that providesthe framework for hazard identification and control. Someprogressive companies have implemented this program and arecontemplating the implementation of an ISO (InternationalOrganization for Standardization) protocol. ISO sets out themethods that can be implemented in an organization to assure thatthe customers' requirements are fully met. The organization'srequirements will be met both internally and externally and at anoptimum cost, resulting in efficient utilization of the resourcesavailable, including material, people, and technology. The Chileanavocado industry is export-oriented and is quick to implementrequirements and standards requested by importers, especiallythose with strict standards such as Europe and Japan. Soon theCalifornia avocado industry will be called upon to do the same,and the sooner we begin working on this trek as an industry, thebetter it will be for all of us. Various packinghouses in Californiahave been experimenting with different quality assuranceprograms. Initial steps were recently taken by CAC when it createda new Quality Task Force chaired by Roger Essick. The mission ofthis taskforce is to examine all aspects of fruit quality and fruitsafety from the tree to the consumer.

One can only be amazed at the progress achieved by the Chileanavocado industry in the last 10 years, in the level of modernization,innovation, and rapid adaptability to new techniques. Everyoneparticipates in the changes that benefit the industry as a wholealthough the industry is fragmented. The Chilean growers arecapitalistic and are as secretive as any California grower, but theyhave a common denominator - they recognize and continuallywork on improving the industry in all its aspects for the benefit andprofitability of the industry as a whole.

AcknowledgementsThe following people in Chile provided valuable information and critical reviews ofthis article:

Enrique Espinosa Pavez, avocado grower

Francisco Mena, Soc. Gardiazabal y Magdahl Ltda.

Christian Magdahl, Exportadora SAFEX

Jamie Busquet, Exportadora Santa Cruz

Jaun Pablo Cerda, Cabilfruit

Editorial comments should beaddressed to Guy Witney:

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