THE CHALLENGE TOWARDS FASTER MICROPROCESSOR

ABU HASSAN SAAD 82483

NORLELAWATI ABDUL AZIZ 82494

IRENE YONG SEOK CHING 82991

RAIZATUL UMMI YUNUS 82499

Intel 4004

4-bit processor meant for a calculator.Processed data in 4 bitsInstructions were 8 bits long.Program 4KData memory 1K

There were also sixteen 4-bit (or eight 8-bit) general purpose registers.

The first single chip CPU

The 4004 had 46 instructions 2,300 transistors in a 16-pin DIP. It ran at a clock rate of 740 kHz (eight clock cycles per CPU cycle of 10.8 microseconds)

I CAN BUILT A CALCULATOR !!!!!!

WHAT CAN 4004 DO ?

4004 CAN BE PROGRAMMED !!

The 4000 family

• 4001 - 2,048-bit ROM memory

• 4002 - 320-bit RAM memory

• 4003 - 10-bit I/O shift register

• 4004 - 4-bit central processor • The 4004 housed 2300 transistors

on a 3mm x 4mm die.

CALCULATOR IS NOT GOOD ENOUGH

I WANT A BETTER CALCULATOR

8008 (1972)

• The 8008 increased the 4004's word length from four to eight bits, and doubled the volume of information that could be processed.

• It was still an invention in search of a market however, as the technology world was just beginning to view the microprocessor as a solution to many needs.

CALCULATOR IS NOT ENOUGH

I WANT SOMETHING BETTER

WHAT ABOUT 8080 ?

The 8080 was 20 times as fast as the 4004 and contained twice as many transistors (5000).

8-bit chip

Used it in a wide variety of products.

Use in the first kit computerthe Altair.

The computer is TOO SLOW

I WANT A FASTER COMPUTER

8088 (1979) Will This Satisfy You?

A 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external bus.

IBM chose it for its first PC.

The success of the IBM PC and its clones gave Intel a dominant position in the semiconductor industry.

You know, 80286 (1982) is faster.

With 16 MB of addressable memory and 1 GB of virtual memory, this 16-bit chip is referred to as the first "modern" microprocessor.

became the dominant chip of its time.

It contained 130,000 transistors and packed serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny footprint.

80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)Reduce Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

The price/performance curve continued its steep climb with the 386 and later the 486 -- 32-bit processors that brought real computing to the masses.

The 386, which became the best-selling microprocessor in history, featured 275,000 transistors; the 486 had more than a million

Pentium Starting 1993

NAME DATE MANUFACTURER SPEED (MHZ) NUMBER OF TRANSISTORS

Itanium 2000 Intel 800 and up 25.4-60 million

Pentium III 1999 Intel 500-1000(1G) 9.5-28 million

Xeon

Pentium III 1999 Intel 400-1000 (1G) 9.5 - 28 million

Celeron 1998 Intel 266-633 19 million

Pentium I 1998 Intel 400-450 7.5-27.4 million

Xeon

Athlon 1999 AMD 500-1100(1.1G) 22 million

AMD-K6-III 1999 AMD 400-450 21.3 million

AMD-K6-2 1998 AMD 366-533 9.3 million

AMD-K6 1998 AMD 300 8.8 million

Pentium II 1997 Intel 233-450 7.5 million

Pentium 1997 Intel 166-233 4.5 million

MMX

Pentium Pro 1995 Intel 150-200) 5.5 million

Pentium 1993 Intel 75-200 3.3 million

Manufacturing strategies for making faster processors is the process.

Let see processes of making microprocessors .

Silicon, the primary ingredient of beach sand, is a semiconductor of electricity.

Semiconductors are materials that can be altered to be either a conductor or an insulator.

Silicon Wafers cut from an ingot of pure silicon, are used by Intel to make microprocessors.

Some, like hexamethyldisilazane, are complex and difficult to pronounce.

Others, such as boron, are simple elements found in the Periodic Table of the Elements.

Chemicals and gases are used throughout the chip-making process.

Gold is also used to connect the actual chip to its package.

Metals, such as aluminum and copper, are used to conduct the electricity throughout the microprocessor.

Ultraviolet (UV) Light has very short wavelengths and is just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum.

UV light is used to expose patterns on the layers of the microprocessor in a process much like photography.

When used with UV light, masks create the various circuit patterns on each layer of the microprocessor.

Masks used in the chip-making process are like stencils.

FabricationMicroprocessors are built in layers on a silicon wafer through various processes using chemicals, gases, and light.

Although several microprocessors are built on a single wafer, in this example , only a small piece of a microprocessor is considered .

On the wafer, the first layer of silicon dioxide is grown by exposing it to extreme heat and gas.

This growth is similar to the way rust grows on metal when exposed to water.

The silicon dioxide on the wafer, however, grows much faster and is too thin to be seen by the naked eye.

The wafer is then coated with a substance called photoresist.

Photoresist becomes soluble when exposed to ultraviolet light.

LayeringIn a process called photolithography, ultraviolet light is then passed through a patterned mask, or stencil, onto the silicon wafer.

The light turns the exposed areas into a gooey layer of photoresist. Each layer on the microprocessor uses a mask with a different pattern.

The mask protects parts of the wafer from the light.

EtchingThe gooey photoresist is completelydissolved by a solvent. This reveals a pattern of photoresist made by the mask on the silicon dioxide.

The revealed silicon dioxide is etched away with chemicals.

The rest of the photoresist is removed. This process leaves ridges of silicon dioxide on the silicon wafer base.

Ultraviolet light is then passed through a second mask, exposing a new pattern on the photoresist..

LayersTo begin another layer, a second, thinner layer of silicon dioxide is grown over the ridges and etched areas of the wafer base.

Then, a layer of polysilicon and another layer of photoresist are applied.

The photoresist is dissolved with solvent to expose the polysilicon and silicon dioxide, which are then etched away with chemicals.

The remaining photoresist is removed, leaving ridges ofpolysilicon and silicon dioxide.

The exposed areas of the silicon wafer are bombarded with various chemical impurities called ions. .

Ion implantation (also called doping)

Ions are implanted in the silicon wafer to alter the way silicon in these areas conducts electricity.

The layering and masking processes are repeated, creating windows that allow for connections to be made between the layers. Atoms of metal are deposited on the wafer, filling the windows. Another masking and etching stage leaves strips of the metal that make the electrical connections.

Roughly 20 layers are connected to form the microprocessor's circuitry in a 3-dimensional structure. The exact number of layers on a wafer depends on the design of the microprocessor.

Layers upon Layers

So far, we've built only a tiny portion of a microprocessor. In reality, making microprocessors is much more complex, demanding more than 250 steps. Consequently, hundreds of identical microprocessors are created in batches on a single wafer.

On the wafer, the microscopic circuitry of each and every microprocessor is tested.

Then the wafer is cut with a diamond saw,separa

Multiple Processors

1 Find better materials

2. Photolithography - use “smaller” light .

3. Find better conducting metal

Processes to improve CPU speed

Silicon is the best known semiconductor today for microprocessor fabrication

Something with low diaelectric constant -

lower than silicon dioxide

Lithography :

Optical Lithography

Ultra Violet Lithography

Electron Lithograpgy

SCALPEL

SCALPEL, for "scattering with angular limitation projection

electron beam lithography", is a technology based on electron beam lithography

Copper for interconnections

1. Copper conducts electron better

2. Require less power than aluminium

3. Copper operates at faster speeds than aluminium:

The fastest CPU available in the market today is Pentium 4 , 1.8 Giga Herzt.

In august 2000, IBM demonstrated a 2GHz pentium 4 chip .

The is based on an entirely new microarchitecture design .

Nanotube ( 1999 )

Carbon nanotubes are rolled-up sheets of graphite only few angstroms in diameter (about 10 Atoms )

It is single molecul 500 times smaller than silicon .

Radiate less heat compared to siliconUses less electrical power

Megabait

IBM cipta litar komputer molekulDalam usaha mencapai sasaran yang begitu lama dicari-cari dalam penyelidikan pengkomputeran, para saintis telah erjaya mencipta litar komputer berasaskan satu molekul tunggal, yang diramalkan akan mencetuskan pembinaan cip-cip jauh lebih kecil dan pantas tetapi hanya memerlukan kuasa janaan amat kecil.

26 August 2001 ( Sunday last week . See Megabyte Utusan Malaysia 30 Ogos 2001 )

IBM anounced their scientist has fabricated a logic circuit base on micro cylindrical structure from carbon atoms 100,000 smaller than human hair .

They use nanotube to make NOT gate , the basic cuircuit for making processor

WHAT AFTER NANOTUBE ?

There are rooms for achieving higher speeds in the future. An analysts say the new chip should be able to reach speeds of 10 gigahertz or so in five years.

So if you intend to buy a new computer, wait until then.

Think about it

Does the user demand for higher speed

OR

The demand is imposed

to the user?