TheBuddha’sTeachingsA n I n t r o d u c t i o n

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu

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Istheresuchathingasadeathlesshappinessthatcanbringsufferingandstresstoatotalend?Ifthereis,canthishappinessbefoundthroughhumaneffort?Ifso,canitbefoundinaharmlessandblamelessway?Thesearethequestionsthat,2,600yearsago,ledayoungmaninnorthern

Indiatoleavehisfamily,gointothewilderness,andsearchfortheanswerwithinhimself.EventuallyheawakenedtothefactthattheanswertoallthreequestionswasYes:Yes,thereisadeathlesshappinessthatbringssufferingtoatotalend.Yes,itcanbefoundthroughhumaneffort.AndYes,thateffortisharmlessandwithoutblame.Inawakeningtothesefacts,hebecametheBuddha:theAwakenedOne.Devotingtherestofhislifetoteachingothershowtofindthesamehappinessforthemselves,heestablishedanapprenticeshipofpracticeandthoughtthathasbranchedintothemanyformsofBuddhismweknowtoday.Thewaytheyoungbodhisatta,orBuddha-to-be,wentaboutfindingan

answertothesequestionsplayedamajorroleinshapingthepathofpracticethathetaughttoothers.Sotounderstandhisteachings,it’sgoodtoseehowhecametolearntheminhisownquest.Whatfollowsisabriefaccountofhislife,interspersedwiththelessonsthathelaterdrewfromhisownexperienceandtaughttoothers.

Bornintoaprincelyfamily—theSakyanbranchoftheGotamaclanofthenoblewarriorcaste—thebodhisattahadaveryluxuriousupbringing.Hisfatherbuilthimthreemansionstolivein—oneeachfortherainyseason,thecoldseason,andthehotseason—andeventheservantsinthemansionswerefedthebestoffoods,tosaynothingofthebodhisatta’sownfare.Yetatonepoint,thebodhisattarealizedthatallthethingsinwhichhe

searchedforhappinessweresubjecttoaging,illness,anddeath.Eventhoughhewasyoung,healthy,andalive,he,too,wouldnotescapegrowingold,fallingill,anddying.Ponderingthesefacts,helosthisintoxicationwithhisyouth,health,andlife.Hesawtheworldasadwindlingpuddle,swarmingwithfishfightingoneanotherovertheirlastgulpofwater.Thisfilledhimwithasenseofsaṁvega,ordismayatthepointlessnessoflifeasit’snormallylived.Hedecidedthattheonlynoble,honorablepurposeinlifewouldbetosearchforsomethingfreefromaging,illness,anddeath:thedeathless—inotherwords,ahappinessthat

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wouldn’tend,ahappinessthatdidn’trequirestrugglingwithothers,ahappinessthatcausednooneanyharm.Healsorealizedthatthesearchforthishappinesswouldbeimpossibleifhestayedentangledintheresponsibilitiesofthehouseholdlife.So—inatraditionwithlongrootsinIndianculture—heshavedoffhishairandbeard,putonthebrownrobesofawanderingreligiousmendicant(someonewholivesoffthealmsofferedbyothers),lefthisfamily,andwentintothewilderness.Heapproachedthepathtothedeathlessasaskilltobemastered.Hisefforts

tofindandmasterthatskilltooksixyears,involvingseveralfalsestarts.Oneofthekeystohissuccesswasthathewasabletorecognizethefalsestartsasfalse,andtocorrectcourse,repeatedly.Ineachcase,thismeantgaugingtheresultshewasgettingfromhisactions,seeingthattheyfellshortofhisgoal,andthen—insteadofeitherresigninghimselftohissituationorblamingoutsidefactorsforit—tryingtoimagineanewcourseofaction.Thenheputthat,too,tothetest.Anotherkeytohissuccesswasthathekepttoahighstandard:Hewouldn’t

lethimselfgetdiscouraged,andhewouldn’trestcontent,untilhehadfoundahappinesstrulydeathless.Afterstudyingwithtwomasterswhotaughtrefinedmeditativestates—

absorptioninnothingnessandastateofneitherperceptionnornon-perception—herealizedthateventheserefinedstateswerenotdeathless.Sohewentoffonhisownandpracticedself-inflictedtormentforsixyears,virtuallystarvinghimselfinhopesthatintensepainwouldpurifyhismind.Hereachedthepointwhere,ifherubbedhisstomach,hecouldfeelhisspine;wheneverherelievedhimself,hewouldfalloverinafaint.Butheneverallowedhisphysicalpainsandweaknesstoovercomehismind.Ultimately,though,herealizedthatthispath,too,didn’tleadtothenoblegoalhesought.Herecalledatimefromhischildhoodwhen,sittingaloneunderatree,he

hadenteredanabsorbedandpleasantstateofconcentration,calledjhāna,focusedonhisbreath.Hewondered:Mightthatbethewaytothedeathless?Decidingtogiveitatry,heabandonedhisprogramofself-starvationsoastoregainthebodilystrengthhewouldneedtoattainthatconcentration.Healsorealizedthathewouldhavetotrainhismindtobanishunskillfulthoughts—thosethatwouldformobstaclestothepracticeofjhāna—andtoallowonlythoughtsthatwereconducivetosettlingthemind.Aftermasteringtheseskills,hefoundthattheydidformtheheartofthepathtothedeathlesshesought.

Thiswayofapproachingandfindingthepathtothedeathlesstaughthimmanylessonsnotonlyabouttheskillsofthepath,butalsoaboutthequalitiesofthecharacterthatthoseskillsrequired.Andittaughthimmanylessonsabout

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whatthemindcando.•Themindcantrainitselftoabandonunskillfulqualities—such

defilementsasgreed,aversion,anddelusion;sensuality,ill-will,andharmfulness—andtodevelopskillfulqualities,freeofthesedefilements,intheirplace.•Thistrainingrequiresyoutolookcarefullyatyourownactions,in

thought,word,anddeed.Beforeacting,askyourself:WhatresultsdoIexpectfromthisaction?Ifyouexpectharmforyourselforothers,don’tdoit.Ifyoudon’texpectharm,goaheadanddoit.Whiledoingit,checktoseeifit’scausinganyimmediateharmfulresults.Ifitis,stop.Ifnot,continue.Afterit’sdone,checktoseethelong-termresultsoftheaction.Ifyouseethatitwasharmfulinspiteofyourintentions,resolvenottorepeatthemistake.Ifyouseenoharmfulresults,takejoyinyourprogressandresolvetokeepprogressing.•Theprimarymotivationfortakingonthistrainingisheedfulness:the

realizationthatyouractionsmakeadifferencebetweensufferingandhappiness,harmandno-harm,andthatyouhavetowatchoverthemcarefully.Heedfulness,inturn,hastobepairedwithanattitudethatisnoteasilycontentedwiththeresultsyou’regettingfromyouractions.Ifyoucanseethathigherlevelsofhappinessarepossible,theneventhoughtheymayrequiremoreeffort,you’rewillingtomakethateffortuntilyou’vereachedthehighestpossiblelevelsofskill.•Tosucceedatthisskillrequirestwofurtherqualities:truthfulnessabout

youractionsandtheirresults,andstrongpowersofobservation.Ifyou’renottruthfultoothersintellingthemaboutyouractions,you’llbeunlikelytoobservethemtrulyyourself.Sothesetwoqualitiesformanindivisiblepair.Withoutthem,thereisnoreliablewaytotestwhathumaneffort—yourhumaneffort—canactuallyattain.

Onthenightofhisawakening,thebodhisattasatunderatree—whichlaterbecameknownastheBodhi(awakening)tree—andfocusedonhisbreathing.Hewasabletoattainnotonlythelevelofjhānahehadattainedasachild,butalsothreehigherlevelsofabsorption.Onreachingthefourthlevelofjhāna,inwhichhisbreathingwasnaturallystill,andhismindwasradiantandequanimous,heappliedthatlevelofconcentrationtogainthreeknowledges:•knowledgeofhisownpastlives;•knowledgeofhowallbeingsdieandarereborninlinewiththeirkamma(a

wordmeaning“action,”betterknownnowinitsSanskritform,karma);and•knowledgeofhowtoendthementalqualitiesthathecalledāsavas,or

effluents:tendenciesthat“bubbleup”inthemindandleadtofurtherrebirth.

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Whentheseeffluents,whichtiethemindnotonlytorebirthbutalsotospaceandtime,weregonefromhismind,thebodhisatta—nowtheBuddha—experiencedthedeathless,whichhelatercallednibbāna(betterknownnowinitsSanskritform,nirvāṇa):unbinding.Thiswashisawakening.Forsevenweeks,hestayedinthevicinityoftheBodhitree,experiencingthe

blissofrelease.Onlythendidhedecidetoteach.Ashesaidatalatertime,whathelearnedinthecourseofhisawakeningwasliketheleavesinaforest;whathetaught,likeahandfulofleaves.Hechosetoteachjustwhatwouldbeusefulforotherstoputintopracticetofindthedeathlessthemselves.Thisinvolvedputtingasidequestionsthatwereirrelevanttoattainingthe

deathless,orthat—ifyouacceptedtheirterms—actuallygotintheway.AmongthequestionsthattheBuddhadeliberatelyputasidearethese:Istheuniversefiniteorinfinite?Isiteternalornot?IseverythingOne?Orisitapluralityofthings?Whatisaperson?Dowehaveaselfordowenot?Inplaceofthesequestions,theBuddhaadvisedfocusingonlyonquestions

dealingwiththepowerofhumanaction,andhowactionscanbebroughttothelevelofskillnecessaryforawakening.ThesewerethelessonsofhisDhamma:theteachingsthatformedhishandfulofleaves.

Manyoftheselessonswereshapedbyhisfinalapproachtoawakening,andbyaspectsoftheawakeningitself.

Mindfulnessofbreathing

Themeditationtechniquethatthebodhisattausedtoattainjhānaonthenightofhisawakening,keepinghisbreathinmind,wasthetechniquethathetaughtmostoften,andinmostdetail,toothers.Hedividedhisinstructionsintofoursets,calledtetradsbecausetheyconsistoffourstepseach.Eachtetraddealswithadifferentaspectofgettingthemindtosettledownwiththebreath,butthoseaspectsarecloselyrelatedtooneanother.1)Thefirsttetradfocusesonthebreathitself:(a)discerninglongbreathing,

(b)discerningshortbreathing,(c)trainingyourselftobreatheconsciousoftheentirebody,and(d)calmingthein-and-outbreathstothepointwhere,withoutforcingthem,theyeventuallyfallstillontheirown.2)Thesecondtetradfocusesonfeelingtonesinthebodyandmind.You

trainyourself(a)tobreathewithasenseofraptureorrefreshment,(b)tobreathewithasenseofpleasureorease,(c)tobreathewhileatthesametimebeingawareofhowfeeling-tonesandperceptions—thelabelsthemindplacesonthings—haveaneffectonthemind,and(d)tofocusondevelopingfeelingsandperceptionswhichcalmthateffectandeventuallygrowcalmthemselves.

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3)Thethirdtetradfocusesonmindstates.Youtrainyourself(a)tobreathesensitivetothestateofyourmindandthen,dependingonthestate,(b)tobreathegladdeningthemindwhenit’sconstricted,(c)steadyingthemindwhenit’sunstableorscattered,and(d)releasingthemindwhenit’sburdenedortrappedinanunskillfulstate.4)Thefourthtetradfocusesonstepsinreleasingthemindfromproblems:

eitherdistractionsfromconcentration,orproblemswithintheconcentrationitself.Thestepsarethese:(a)focusingontheinconstancyandundependabilityofwhateveristroublingthemind,(b)focusingontheresultingsenseofdispassionyoufeeltowardit,(c)focusingonwatchingitceasebecauseofyourdispassion,andthen(d)focusingonrelinquishingtheentireissue.AstheBuddhasaid,these16stepsfostertwoqualitiesnecessaryingaining

jhāna—tranquility(samatha)andinsight(vipassanā)—andtheycantakethemindallthewaytoawakening.

Kamma&rebirth

TwoofthetopicsmostfiercelydebatedamongIndianthinkersintheBuddha’stimeconcernedkamma(action)andrebirth.Dopeoplehavefreedomofchoiceintheiractions?Dotheiractionsactuallyinfluencetheirexperienceofpleasureorpain?Aretheyrebornafterdeath?Ifso,where?Dotheiractionsinthislifetimehaveanyeffectonwherethey’rereborn?Thefirsttwoknowledgeshegainedonthenightofhisawakeningprovided

theBuddhawithanswerstothesequestions.Whentheseanswerswerecombinedwiththeinsightshegainedfromhisthirdknowledge—theendingoftheeffluents,whichputanendtokammaandrebirth—heendedupteachingkammaandrebirthinwaysthattheyhadneverbeentaughtbefore.First,kamma:Theessenceofactionistheintentionthatdrivesit.

Intentionscanbeeitherunskillful—leadingtopain;orskillful—leadingtopleasure.AstheBuddhadiscovered,unskillfulintentionsarerootedingreed,aversion,ordelusion;skillfulintentionsarerootedinstatesofmindfreefromgreed,aversion,anddelusion.Skillfulintentionsareaspecialclassofgoodintentions,inthatwell-meaningintentionsinspiredbydelusioncanleadtopain.Inotherwords,notallgoodintentionsareskillful,butallskillfulintentionsaregood.Agoodintentionhastobefreefromdelusioninordertobetrulyskillful.Theeffectsofactioncanbeexperiencedbothnow,intheimmediatepresent,

andintothefuture.Asaresult,yourpresentexperienceiscomposedofthreethings:theresultsofpastintentionswithlong-termeffects,presentintentions,andtheimmediateresultsofpresentintentions.Pastintentionsprovidetherawmaterialfromwhichpresentintentionsshapeyouractualexperienceofthe

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presentmoment.Becauseyouareactingonintentionsallthetime,andbecausemanydifferent

pastactionscanbeatworkinprovidingtherawmaterialforeachpresentmoment,theworkingsofkammacanbequitecomplex.TheBuddha’simageisofafieldwithmanyseeds.Someoftheseedsareripeandreadytosproutifgivenalittlemoisture;somewillsproutonlylaternomatterhowmuchyouwaterthemnow;andsomewillgetcrowdedoutbyotherseedsanddiewithoutsprouting.Presentintentionsprovidethewaterthatenablestheripeningseeds,whethergoodorbad,tosprout.Inthisway,pastkammaplacessomelimitationsonwhatyoumight

experienceinthepresent—iftheseedforaparticulartypeofexperienceisnotreadytoripen,noamountofwaterwillmakeitsprout—butthereisthepossibilityoffreechoiceinthepresentmomentastowhichseedstowater.Thismeansthatpastactionsdon’tentirelyshapethepresent.Withoutsomemeasureoffreedomofchoicetoshapethepresent,theideaofapathofpracticewouldmakenosense,becauseyouwouldn’tbefreetodecidewhethertofollowitornot.Infact,thechoicesyoumakeinthepresentdeterminewhetheryouwill

sufferinthepresentfromtheripeningseedsofpastkamma.Unskillfulchoicesinthepresentcanmakeyousufferevenfromthepleasuresmadepossiblebypastskillfulactions.Skillfulchoicesinthepresentcanprotectyoufromsufferingevenfromthepainsmadepossiblebypastunskillfulactions.Asforrebirth:TheBuddha,whendiscussingthetopicofrebirth,tendedto

describeitasaformofbecoming(bhava),awordthatmeanstheactoftakingonanidentityinaparticularworldofexperience.Hechosethiswordapparentlybecause,inhisdescription,becomingisaprocessthathappensbothonthelarge-scalelevel—whentheprocessofconsciousnessmovestoanewworldandnewidentityatthedeathofthebody—andthesmall-scalelevel,whenathought-worldappearsinthemind,centeredonaparticulardesire,andyouinhabitthatworldinyourimagination.Small-scalebecomingsfueltheprocessonbothscales.Theybegintomove

outofyourimaginationintotheworldwhenyoufastenonadesiretothepointofactingonit.Saythatyouhaveadesireforchocolateicecream.Yourworldthenbecomesdefinedbythedesire:Itconsistsofanythingthateitherhelpsyouobtaintheicecreamorgetsintheway.Anythingoranypeopleirrelevanttothedesirefallintothebackgroundofyourworldatthattime.Asforyouridentityinthisworld,ithastwosides:the“you”thatwillfind

pleasureinfeedingontheicecream—thisisyourselfasconsumer—andthe“you”thateitherhastheabilitiestoobtaintheicecreamornot:yourselfas

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producer.Whenyouabandonthedesireforicecream—eitherbecauseyou’veobtained

itandeatenit,you’vegivenupontryingtogetit,oryou’vesimplylostinterestinit—youusuallyfindyourselfmovingontoadifferentdesire,aroundwhichyoudevelopadifferentsenseoftheworldandadifferentsenseofwhoyouare:anewbecoming.If,asoftenhappens,youhaveseveralcompetingdesiresatanyonetime,they

willleadyoutoexperiencecompetinginnerworldsandcompetingsensesofwhoyouare.Thisiswhyyoucanfeeldividedagainstyourselfandunsureofyourplaceintheworld.Thisisoneofthemostcommonwaysinwhichbecomingleadstosuffering.Theprocessofreplacingonebecomingwithanothercancontinuewithout

end,whichishowsmall-scalebecomingscarryonrepeatedly.Whenyouactonthedesiresthatshapesmall-scalebecomings,youshape

large-scalebecomings,bothinthislifetimeandcarryingoverintofuturelifetimes.Thisishowtheprocessofrebirthafterthedeathofthebodyisdirectedbyeventsinthemind.Unlikethethinkersofhisday,theBuddhafocusednotonwhatgetsreborn,

butonhowtheprocesshappens.That’sbecausediscussionsofwhatgetsreborngonowhere,buttheabilitytounderstandthestepsintheprocesscanhelpyounegotiateitskillfully,eithertotakeonanewbecominginagoodworld,ortogobeyondtheprocessofbecomingentirely.Theprocessdependsoncraving.Consciousness,whichisalsoaprocess,does

notneedabodytocontinuefunctioning.Itcanclingtocraving,andcravingwilltakeittoanewbecoming.Thisishowconsciousnesssurvivesthedeathofthebody.Ifthecravingisrelativelyskillful,itwillleadtoagooddestination;ifnot,itwillleadtoabadone.TheBuddha’sfirstknowledgeshowedhimthatthecosmoscontainsmany

possibleworldsinwhichtobereborn.Theseworldsfallintothreemainlevels.Thefirstlevelcontainsthesensualworlds,whichrangefromhellsofintensesuffering,upthroughtheworldofghosts,theanimalworld,thehumanworld,andontomanyheavenlyworldsofintensesensualpleasure.Thesecondlevelcontainshigherheavensinwhichtheinhabitantsfeedonthemorerefinedpleasuresofpure“form,”suchasthesenseofinhabitingtheinnersenseofapleasurablerefinedbody.Thethirdlevelcontainsevenhigherlevelsofpureformlessness,inwhichtheinhabitantsexperiencesuchdimensionsasinfinitespace,infiniteconsciousness,ornothingness.TheBuddhaalsosawthatalltheselevelsareimpermanentandunstable.The

inhabitantsofhell,forinstance,willeventuallyleavehellandbereborn

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elsewhere;eventheinhabitantsofthehighestheavenswilleventuallyfallbacktolowerworlds.Theselevelsareimpermanentbecause,tostaythere,allthebeingswithinthemhavetofeed.Insomecasesthefoodispurelyphysical;inothers,itcanbetheemotional/physicalfoodoftryingtotakesatisfactioninpleasures,wealth,power,status,orrelationships.Butregardlessofthetypeoffood,nosourceoffoodiseternal.TheBuddha’sfirstknowledgealsoshowedhimthatthereisnoguaranteeof

upwardmovementfromlifetolifethroughthecosmos.Beingsriseandfall,andriseandfall,againandagain.Thisiswhyhecalledtheprocessofgoingfromlifetimetolifetimesaṁsāra:wandering-on.Hissecondknowledgeshowedhimthatthecourseofbeingsastheywander

onisshapedbytheiractions:Justaspastkammaprovidestherawmaterialforthepresentmomentinthislife,italsoprovidestherawmaterialforyournextbecomingafterdeath.Skillfulkammamakesgooddestinationspossible;unskillfulkammaopensthewaytobaddestinations.Becausebeingsingooddestinationscangetsoenthralledbytheirpleasuresthattheybecomeheedlessandcomplacent,theyoftenforgettokeepcreatingfurtherskillfulkamma.Thisiswhytheycanfallwhentheresultsoftheirpastskillfulkammarunout.Becauseconsciousnessandcravingcancontinuefeedingoffeachother

indefinitely,theprocessofrepeatedbecomingisendlessunlessyoumastertheskillthatbringsittoanend.Becausethisprocessofwandering-onsimplyrisesandfalls,againandagain,itispointlessandmeaningless.Becauseitrequiresconstantfeeding,itisnotonlyprecariousbutalsostressfulandpainful,inthatitisdrivenbyhungeranduncertaintyoveryournextsourceoffood.Italsoplacesaburdenonotherswhoprovideyourfoodorwhowanttolayclaimtothesamesourcesoffoodthatyoudo.Realizingthesefacts,theBuddhasawthatthehappinesshesoughtcouldnot

befoundanywhereinthecosmosofbecoming,eventhehighestlevels.However,themeaninglessnessofsaṁsāragavehimthefreedomtogivehisownmeaningtohislife.Forbothofthesereasons,hesawthattheonlywaytofindhappinessandmeaningwouldbetodiscoverthewaytobringbecomingtoanend.Thatwaswhy,ontheeveningofhisawakening,heturnedhismindtothethirdknowledge:thewaytoendtheeffluentsthat“flowout”ofthemindandflooditwithcravingandbecoming.Thesolutiontotheproblem,hesaw,wasnotoutthereinthecosmos,butinhere,inthemind.

Thefournobletruths

Theinsightthatputanendtocravingwastolookatpresentexperienceanddivideitintofourcategories:dukkha(suffering,stress),thecauseofsuffering,thecessationofsuffering,andthepathtothecessationofsuffering.Eachof

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thesecategoriesentailedaduty,inthesensethattheBuddhasawthatifanyonewantedtoputanendtosuffering,thiswaswhatheorshehadtodo:comprehendsuffering,abandonitscause,realizeitscessation,anddevelopthepathtoitscessation.Whenhehadcompletedallfouroftheseduties,theBuddhaexperiencedunbinding.Andthatwashisawakening.Whenhebeganteaching,hetermedthesefourcategoriesthefournoble

truths—nobleinthesensethattheyennobledthemindandledtothenoblegoalforwhichhehadbeensearching.Thesetruthstakeaproblem-solvingapproachtotheissueofsuffering,andaresimilartothewayaskilleddoctorcuresadisease:Identifythesymptoms,trackdownthecauseofthesymptoms,affirmthatthediseasecanbecuredbygettingridofthecause,andprescribeacourseoftreatmenttogetridofthecause.ThesetruthsformtheframeworkforalloftheBuddha’sotherteachings,so

it’sgoodtoknowtheminsomedetail.

Thefirstnobletruth.Contrarytopopularbelief,theBuddhadidnotteachthatlifeissuffering.Instead,helistedmanyaspectsoflifethatareobviouslypainful—suchasaging,illness,anddeath—andpointedoutthatthesufferingineachcasecomesfromclingingtofiveactivitiesthathecalledkhandhas.Thewordkhandhameans“heap”or“pile”inPāli,thelanguageoftheearliestBuddhisttexts.Butit’snormallytranslatedas“aggregate”toconveythepointthattheseactivitiestendtoberandomanddisorganized.Eventhoughwetrytoforcesomeorderonthem,inordertosatisfyourdesires,theyultimatelyresistcomingunderourtotalcontrol.Eachoftheseactivitiesisassociatedwiththeactoffeeding,bothphysically

andemotionally.ThisisinlinewiththeBuddha’sinsightthatfeeding—althoughitmayseempleasant—isactuallystressful,andthattheneedtokeepfeedingendlesslyentailssuffering.Theactivitiesarethese:

•Asenseofform:boththeformofthebodythatneedstobenourished(andthatwillbeusedtolookforfood),aswellasthephysicalobjectsthatwillbeusedasfood.(TheBuddharegardedtheformofthebodyasatypeofactivityinthatit’salwaysgoingthroughtheprocessofdeteriorating.)Whenfeedingtakesplaceintheimagination,“form”appliestowhateverformyouassumeforyourselfintheimagination,andtotheimaginaryformsfromwhichyoutakepleasure.•Feeling:thepainfulfeelingofhungerorlackthatdrivesyoutolook

forfood;thepleasantfeelingofsatisfactionthatcomeswhenyou’vefoundsomethingtoeat;andtheaddedpleasurewhenyouactuallyeatit.Thesefeelings,too,areactivitiesinthatyoucanfeelthemonlythroughtheact

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ofattention.•Perception:theabilitytoidentifythetypeofhungeryoufeel,andto

identifywhichofthethingsinyourworldofexperiencewillsatisfythathunger.Perceptionalsoplaysacentralroleinidentifyingwhatisandisn’tfood.•Fabrication:Thisisatechnicaltermthatmeans,“puttingtogether,”

anditrefersprimarilytointentionalattemptstoshapeyourexperience.Inthecontextoffeeding,itmeansthewayyouhavetothinkaboutandevaluatestrategiesforfindingfood,fortakingpossessionofitwhenyoufindit,andforfixingitifit’snotedibleinitsrawstate.•Consciousness:theactofbeingawareofalltheseactivities.

Theseactivities,ontheirown,arenotnecessarilypainful,butclingingtothemmakesthemsuffering.ThePāliwordforclinging,upādāna,alsomeanstheactoftakingsustenance—aswhenatreetakessustenancefromsoil,orafirefromitsfuel.Thisshowsthatsufferingcomesfromadoubleleveloffeeding:feedingemotionallyofftheactivitiesthatgointoeasingourphysicalandemotionalhunger.Therearefourwaysinwhichweclingtotheaggregates:

•Throughsensuality:afascinationwiththoughtsabouthowtogainandenjoysensualpleasures.Inthecontextoffeeding,thisreferstoourfascinationwithplanninghowwe’regoingtofeed,whetheronphysicalfoodortheenjoymentofothersensualpleasures.Infact,weclingmoretoourfantasiesaboutsensualpleasuresthanwedotothepleasuresthemselves.•Throughhabitsandpractices:aninsistencethatthingshavetobe

doneacertainway,regardlessofwhetherthatwayisreallyeffective.Inthecontextoffeeding,thisreferstoourinsistenceonfindingphysicalandemotionalfoodinparticularways.Inmoreextremecontexts,itreferstoafixationonritualbehavior:thateverythingdependsondoingacertainritualright.•Throughviews:aninsistencethatcertainviewsareright,regardless

oftheeffectsofholdingtothem;orabeliefthatsimplyholdingtoaparticularviewwillmakeuspureorbetterthanotherpeople.Inthecontextoffeeding,thiswouldapplytoourviewsaboutwhatcanandcannotbeeaten,butthiscanrefertothewaypeoplefeedoffofpolitical,religious,orphilosophicalviewsaswell.•Throughdoctrinesoftheself:beliefsaboutwhoweare,andwhatkind

ofpersonwebecomebyfeeding—physicallyoremotionally—ina

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particularway.Thiscanalsoextendtobeliefsaboutwhetherornotwehaveatrueselfand,ifso,whatthatselfis.

Becausetheseformsofclingingnecessarilyentailsuffering,theyarethemainproblemthattheBuddha’steachingaimsatsolving.

Thesecondnobletruth.Clingingiscausedbythreetypesofcravingthatleadtofurtherbecoming—bothonthesmallscaleandonthelargescale.JustasthePāliwordforclingingisrelatedtofeeding,thewordforcraving—taṇhā—literallymeans“thirst.”Wefeedbecausewefeelhungerandthirst.Toputanendtotheneedtofeed,wehavetoputanendtohungerandthirst.Thethreetypesofthirstare:

•Cravingforsensuality.•Cravingforbecoming.•Cravingfornot-becoming.

Thelasttypeofcravingisthemostcounterintuitive,inthatitwouldseemthatcravingtoputanendtobecomingwouldbeahelpfulmotivationforputtinganendtosuffering.Butactually,whenthemindtakesonthedesiretoendaparticulartypeofbecoming—eitheronthelarge-scale,inadesiretoendarelationshiportocommitsuicide;oronthesmall-scale,inadesiretoendtheimaginingsaroundaparticulardesire—ittakesonanewidentity,asadestroyer,andthatbecomesitsnewbecoming.Thismeansthatthepathtoputanendtosufferinghastobestrategicintwo

ways:One,ithastoattackstatesofbecomingindirectly.Insteadoffocusingdirectlyonthem,ithastofocusondevelopingdispassionfortheircauses.Two,ithastofocusitsmotivation,notondestroyingbecoming,butonabandoningunskillfulqualitiesinthemindanddevelopingskillfulqualitiesthatwillallowbecomingtorunoutonitsown.Becausethesethreetypesofcravingcausetheclingingthatconstitutes

suffering—andthatleadstobecoming—theyarethemaintargetthatthepathtotheendofsufferingwillhavetoattack.SotheBuddhaprovidedaverydetaileddescriptionnotonlyofthestepsbywhichthethreecravingsleadtoclinging,butalsoofthestepsthatleaduptothesecravings.Thecompletelistofstepsiscalleddependentco-arising,ordependentorigination(paṭiccasamuppāda),andalthoughthelistislong(seethebox),fourfeaturesstandout:

1)Althoughsomeofthenamesofthestepsmayseemstrange,theyareallthingsthatyoudirectlyexperienceinyourbodyandmind.Justassufferingissomethingyouexperiencedirectly,inapartofyourawareness

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thatyoudon’tandcan’tsharewithanyoneelse,thecausesofsufferingarethingsthatyoudoonthesamelevelofexperience.2)Manyofthesteps,includingtheintentionthatcountsaskamma,

comepriortocontactatthesixsenses.Thismeansthatyoucanprimeyourselfunconsciously—bythewayyouthink,evenbythewayyoubreathe—tosufferevenfrompleasantsensoryexperiences.3)Thelistcontainsmanyfeedbackloops,withfactorsatonestepin

thelist(suchasfeeling)alsoappearinglateratothersteps.Thismeansthattherelationshipsamongthefactorsinthelistareverycomplex.4)Theentiresequencedependsonignoranceofthefournobletruths.

Thisdoesn’tmeansimplynotknowingthefourtruths.Instead,itmeansnotlookingatexperienceintermsofthosetruths—aswhenyoulookatanexperienceintermsof“me”and“mine,”or“notme”and“notmine.”

Butifknowledgeofthefournobletruthsisappliedtoanyofthestepsinthesequence,thatturnsthatparticularstepfromacauseofsufferingintopartofthepathtotheendofsuffering.Forexample,ifknowledgeisappliedtothein-and-outbreath(underthestepoffabrication),thebreathbecomespartofthepath.Inthiswayyoucantrainyourselfnottosufferevenfromunpleasantinputfromthesenses.Whenknowledgebecomescompletetothepointwhereitdevelopstotaldispassionforanyofthesteps,itallowsthatsteptodisbandandcease.Theeffectofthiscessationripplesthroughthemanyfeedbackloops,allowingthewholesequencetocease.Cravingisabandoned,andthereisnomoresufferingforthemind.Thisishowtheknowledgeintermsofthefournobletruths,thefirstfactorinpathtotheendofsuffering(thefourthnobletruth)leadstothecessationofsuffering(thethirdnobletruth).Justassufferingiscausedfromwithin,itcanbeendedfromwithin.

Thethirdnobletruth.Sufferingceaseswhenthethreetypesofcravingcease,andthathappenswhen,throughtheendingofignorance,thelasttraceofpassionforthoseformsofcravingisgonefromthemind.

Thefourthnobletruth.ThepathtothecessationofsufferingisalsocalledtheMiddleWaybecauseitavoidstwoextremes:(1)indulgenceinthepleasuresofsensualityand(2)devotiontothepainofself-torment.Yetthisdoesnotmeanthatthepathpursuesacourseofmiddlingpleasuresandmiddlingpains.Instead,ittreatsthepleasureofconcentration,alongwithinsightintothepainofclinging,notasendsinthemselvesbutastoolstoachieveahigherend:thedeathless.Thepath,however,doesnotcausethedeathless.Afterall,ifanythingcaused

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thedeathless,itwouldn’tbeunconditioned.Instead,thepathleadstothedeathless—inthesamewaythataroadtoamountaindoesn’tcausethemountain,butfollowingtheroadcantakeyoutothemountain.Thepathiscomposedofeightfactors.Becausethesefactorsachievethegoal

ofthenoblesearch,thepathasawholeiscalledthenobleeightfoldpath.Thefactorsareallsaidtobe“right”inthattheyareeffectiveinreachingthegoalofawakening.Likesufferinganditscauses,thefactorsarethingsthatyoucandirectlyexperience,althoughyouneedsometrainingintheDhammabeforeyoucanbringthemabout.Thefactorsarethese:•Rightview:seeingexperienceintermsofthenobletruths.•Rightresolve:beingresolvedonabandoningthoughtsofsensuality,

thoughtsofillwill,andthoughtsofharm.•Rightspeech:abstainingfromtellinglies(intentionallymisrepresentingthe

truth),speakingdivisively(tobreakupfriendshipsbetweenotherpeople,ortopreventsuchfriendshipsfromdeveloping),speakingharshly(withthepurposeofhurtinganotherperson’sfeelings),andengaginginidlechatter(speakingwithnoclearintentioninmind).•Rightaction:abstainingfromkilling,stealing,andengaginginillicitsex.•Rightlivelihood:abstainingfromanywaysofmakingalivingthatare

dishonestorharmful,orthataimdeliberatelyatgivingrisetopassion,aversion,ordelusionwithinoneselforothers.•Righteffort:generatingthedesireandcarryingthroughwiththeeffortto

preventunskillfulstatesfromarisinginthemind;toabandonanyunskillfulstatesthathavealreadyarisen;togiverisetoskillfulstatesinthemind;andtobringtofulldevelopmentanyskillfulstatesthathavealreadyarisen.ThereisacommonmisunderstandingthattheBuddhaidentifiedallformsofdesireascausesofsuffering,butthatisnotthecase.Righteffortismotivatedbydesiresthatbringanendtoclinging,whichiswhytheyarepartofthepathtotheendofsuffering.•Rightmindfulness:Anothercommonmisunderstandingisthat

“mindfulness”meansanon-reactiveawarenessofwhateverarises.Actually,mindfulnessmeanskeepingsomethinginmind.Inthemostgeneralterms,rightmindfulnessmeanskeepinginmindtheneedtoabandonunskillfulqualitiesandtodevelopskillfulqualities.Italsokeepsinmindthemosteffectivewaystocompletetheworkofabandoninganddeveloping.Formindfulnesstobeestablished,itneedsaframeofreference,andthereare

four:thebodyinandofitself,feelingsinandofthemselves,themindinandofitself,andmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.The“inandofitself”here

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meansobservingthesethingsinthepresentmomentwithoutreferencetotheirmeaninginthecontextoftheoutsideworld.Forinstance,tostayfocusedonthebreath,withoutthinkingofissuesoutsideofthebreath,isonewayofstayingfocusedonthebodyinandofitself.Tonoticethefeelingsthatarisefromstayingfocusedonthebreath,astheyhappen,wouldbeawayofstayingwithfeelingsinandofthemselves,andsoforth.Tostayestablishedintheseframesofreference,mindfulnessneedsthehelp

oftwootherqualities:alertnessandardency.Alertnesskeepsyouawareofwhatyou’redoinginthepresentmomentandoftheresultsofwhatyou’redoing.Mindfulnessrecognizesyouractionsaseitherskillfulorunskillful,andremembershowtorespondappropriatelyineithercase.Ardencyisessentiallythesamethingasrighteffort:thewhole-heartedefforttodowhatisskillfulinlinewiththedirectionsgivenbymindfulness.Whenmindfulnessiswellestablishedinthisway,itformsthethemeofthe

lastfactorofthepath:•Rightconcentration:Thisisidenticalwithallfourlevelsofjhānathatthe

bodhisattapracticedonthenightofhisawakening.Thefirstjhānaiscomposedofasenseofpleasureandrapturethatcomefrom

temporarilyabandoningsensualityandotherunskillfulqualities,anddirectingthemind’sthoughtstoasingleobject—suchasthebreath.Atthesametime,youevaluatehowtoadjustthemindandtheobjectsothattheyfitsnuglyandsmoothlytogether.Theresultingfeelingsofpleasureandrapturearethenallowedtospreadthroughouttheentirebody.Thesecondjhānaiscomposedofastrongersenseofpleasureandrapture

thatcomeswhenthemindnolongerhastodirectitsthoughtstotheobjectortoevaluateit,andcansimplyenterintoasenseofonenesswiththeobject.Again,thepleasureandraptureareallowedtopermeateandtofilltheentirebody.Thethirdjhānaiscomposedofasenseofamorerefinedphysicalpleasure

andmentalequanimitythatcomewhenthemindnolongerneedstofeedoffthesenseofrapture.Thispleasure,again,isallowedtofilltheentirebody.Thefourthjhānaiscomposedofasenseofequanimityandpurified

mindfulness,comingfromtheabilitytoletgoofpleasureandthesubtlestressthatevenrefinedpleasureentails.Thein-and-outbreathgrowsstill,asthebody’soxygenneedsarereduced,andthebodyisfilledwithabright,clearawareness.Aswenotedabove,rightviewiswhatdoestheworkofactuallygetting

cravingtoceasebydevelopingdispassionforthestepsintheprocessesleadinguptocraving.However,todothiswork,rightviewneedstobestrengthenedbyalltheotherfactorsofthepath,andinparticularbyrightconcentration.Inthe

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Buddha’sanalogy,thepleasureofrightconcentrationprovidesthefoodtonourishtheotherfactorsindoingtheirwork.Theeightfactorsofthenoblepathfallunderthreeheadings.Thefirsttwo

factors—rightviewandrightresolve—comeundertheheadingofdiscernment;thenextthree—rightspeech,rightaction,andrightlivelihood—comeundertheheadingofvirtue;andthelastthree—righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration—undertheheadingofconcentration.Forthisreason,thepathissometimescalledtheTripleTraining:inheightenedvirtue,heightenedmind(concentration),andheighteneddiscernment.

Thethreecharacteristics

Asnotedabove,eachofthefournobletruthsentailsaduty:Sufferingistobecomprehended,itscauseabandoned,itscessationrealized,andthepathtoitscessationdeveloped.TheBuddhaprovidedmanytoolstohelpcarryouttheseduties.Amongthe

mostimportantisasetofperceptionsthatareoftencalledthethreecharacteristics,butaremoreaccuratelycalledthethreeperceptions.Thesearetheperceptionsofinconstancy(anicca),stress(dukkha),andnot-

self(anattā).Theperceptionofinconstancycallsattentiontohowthingschangeinwaysthatmakethemunreliablesourcesforsteadyhappiness.Theperceptionofstresscallsattentiontothefactthatunreliablesourcesofhappinessmakeyourhappinessstressfulaswell.Theperceptionofnot-selfcallsattentiontothefactthatanythinginconstantorstressfulisnotworthclaimingas“you”or“yours.”You’rebetterofflettingitgo.Theseperceptionsplayaroleinfulfillingthedutiesofeachofthenoble

truths.Forexample,withthefirstnobletruth,theBuddharecommendsapplyingeachoftheseperceptionstoeachoftheaggregates:Toperceive,forinstance,thatfeelingisinconstantmeansfocusingonthefactthatfeelingskeepchanging.Thisdrawsyourattentiontothefactthatnofeelingcanprovideasecuresourceofhappinessandwellbeing.Becauseeveryfeelingisinconstantandunstable,itisstressful.Andbecauseit’sstressful,itdoesn’tliefullyunderyourcontrolanddoesn’tdeservetobeclaimedasyourownbelonging.Thusitisnot-self:inotherwords,notworthclingingto.Somepeoplehavemisinterpretedtheteachingonnot-selftomeanthatthere

isnoself,buttheBuddhaidentifiedboththeview,“Ihaveaself,”andtheview,“Ihavenoself,”aswrongviews.Instead,“not-self”isavaluejudgment,sayingsimplythattheobjectyouperceiveasnot-selfisn’tworthclaimingas“me,”“myself,”or“whatIam,”becausesuchaclaimautomaticallyentailssuffering.Thisperceptionhelpstoundercutanydesireyoumighthavetofastenontoanyoftheaggregatesthroughanyofthefourtypesofclinging,andinparticularthe

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fourth:clingingthroughdoctrinesoftheself.Appliedtothesecondnobletruth,thesethreeperceptionscanbeappliedina

similarwaytothethreetypesofcraving,andtotheprocessesleadinguptothem,todrawattentiontothefactthatthey,too,arenotworthclingingto.Asforthethirdnobletruth,theperceptionsofinconstancyandstressdonot

applytothecessationofsuffering,asittouchesthedeathless,whichdoesnotchangeandisfreefromstress.However,itispossible,ontouchingthedeathless,tofeelpassionfortheperceptionofthedeathless,andtodevelopasubtlesenseofidentityandbecomingaroundit.Thiswouldgetinthewayoftotalrelease.Sotheperceptionofnot-selfisoftenneededatthisstagetocutthroughthatpassionsothatcessationcanbefullyrealized.Asforthefourthnobletruth,allthreeperceptionsplaytwodistinctrolesinthe

practiceofmindfulnessandconcentration.Atthebeginningofthepractice,theycanbeappliedtoanythoughtorobjectthatwoulddisturbtheconcentration,showingthatsuchthingsarenotworthyofinterest.Atthefinallevelofthepractice—afterclingingstoallthingsoutsideofthepathhavebeenuprooted—theseperceptionsareappliedtoallthefactorsofthepathitself.Forinstance,youbegintorecognizethatevenjhānaiscomposedof

aggregates:theformofthebreath,thefeelingsofpleasureandrapture,theperceptionofthebreaththatholdsthemindinplace,thefabricationsofdirectedthoughtandevaluation,andtheconsciousnessawareofallthesethings.Youalsocometorecognizethatevendiscernmentdoesitsworkthroughthought-fabricationsandperceptions.Whenthemindreachesthepointwherethesepathfactorshavedonetheirwork,itcanapplythethreeperceptionstothem.Thisgivesrisetoasenseofdispassionevenforthepath,whichthenceases.Themindcanthenrelinquisheventhesethreeperceptionsandgainfullrelease.Inthisway,thedutiesofthefournobletruthsarecompletedinlinewiththe

stepsofthefinaltetradinbreathmeditationmentionedabove:contemplationofinconstancy(alongwithstressandnot-self),dispassion,cessation,andrelinquishment.

Unbinding

TheBuddhahadmanynamesfortotalrelease,toshowhowitsolvedmanyoftheproblemsinvolvedinwandering-on,butthenamehemostfrequentlyusedwasnibbāna,whichliterallymeans“unbinding.”Ineverydayusage,thePāliwordnibbānadescribedthegoing-outofafire.PeopleintheBuddha’stimebelievedthatfirewascausedbytheagitationofthefire-property,apotentialthatexistedinalatentstateeverywhereinthephysicalworld.Whenagitated,thefire-propertywouldbeignitedandthenclingtoitsfuel,whichwashowaburningfirewassustained.Thefirewouldgooutwhenitletgoofitsfuel,and

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thefire-property—freed—wouldreturntoitsearlierunagitatedstate.TheBuddhausedtheanalogybetweenthefreedfireandthereleasedmind

tomakeseveralpointsabouttotalrelease:•Itisacoolstateofcalmandpeace.•Itcomesfromlettinggoofclinging.Justasaburningfireistrapped,not

bythefuel,butbyitsownclingingtothefuel,themindistrappednotbytheaggregatesofexperience,butbyitsclingingtotheaggregates.Thisiswhy,whenitletsgo,theaggregatescan’tkeepitfromgainingrelease.•Justasafire,whenithasgoneout,can’tbesaidtohavegoneeast,west,

north,orsouth,similarly,apersonfullyreleasedcan’tbedescribedasexisting,notexisting,both,orneither.Thispointrelatestothefactthat,inthecontextofbecoming,youdefineyourselfbythedesiresyouclingto.Becausethereleasedmindisfreeofclinging,itcannotbedefinedandsocan’tbedescribed.Andjustastheworldofanybecomingisalsodefinedbythedesiresyouclingto,areleasedmindcannotbelocatedinanyworld.However,theanalogybetweenareleasedfireandareleasedmindisnot

perfect.Unlikethefire,areleasedminddoesnotreturntoapreviouslatentstateanditcannotbeprovokedtoleaveitsreleasedstateeveragain.Nibbānaexiststotallyseparatefromthewandering-onofsaṁsāra:outsideofspaceandtime,theprocessofbecoming,andtheworldsofthesixsenses.Itisnotcausedbyanythinganddoesnotactasthecauseofanything.Thisiswhyitbringsallsufferingtoanend.ManyoftheBuddha’stermsfordescribingnibbānatellwhatitisnot,to

showthatitisnotlikeanythinginthesixsenses.Forexample,hecallsitadimensionwithnohunger,noattachments,noeffluents,andnoaffliction.Buthedoesmakethreepositivepointsaboutwhatitis:•Itistotalfreedom.•Itistheultimatehappiness,althoughthishappinessdoesnotcomeunder

theaggregatesasapleasantfeeling.Instead,itisapleasurethatistotallyunconditionedanddoesnotdependonthesixsenses.•Itisatypeofconsciousness,althoughagainitdoesnotcomeunderthe

aggregateofconsciousness,anddoesnotdependonthesenses.TheBuddha’stermforthisconsciousnessis“consciousnesswithoutsurface.”Theimageisofalightbeamthatdoesnotstrikeagainstanything:Eventhoughitisbrightinandofitself,itdoesnotappearinanylocation.Apersonwhohasreachednibbānainthislifetimestillexperiencespleasure

andpainatthesenses,buthisorhermindisonceandforallfreedfrompassion,aversion,anddelusion.Atdeath,allexperienceoftheworldsofthesixsensesgrowscold,andnibbānaistotal.Again,thetextsprovideanimage:Nibbānain

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thislifetimeislikeafirethathasdieddownbutwhoseembersarestillwarm.Afterthislifetime,itislikeafiresototallyoutthatitsembershavegrowncold.TheBuddharealizedthatnibbānamightsoundunpleasantorevenscaryto

peoplestilladdictedtofeeding,butheassuredhislistenersthattheconsciousnessandhappinessofunbindingareactuallythehighesthappinesspossible,thehighestsafetyfromhunger,andcontainnottheslightesttraceofregretornostalgiaforwhathasbeenleftbehind.

Thestagesofawakening

Awakeningtonibbānaoccursinstages,althoughthetimebetweenthestagescanbecountedinmomentsorinentirelifetimes,dependingonthediscernmentoftheindividualmeditator.Therearefourstagesinall:•Thefirstlevelisstream-entry,whenthemindgainsitsfirstexperienceof

thedeathless.Thisiscalledstream-entrybyanalogy:Onceyouattainthislevelofawakening,youwillinevitablyreachtotalunbindinginatmostsevenmorelifetimes,justasthewaterinastreamdrainingintotheoceanwillinevitablyreachthesea.Inthemeantime,ifyourawakeningdoestakemorethanthislifetime,youwillneverfallbelowthehumanlevel.•Thesecondlevelisonce-return,whichguaranteesthatyouwillreturnonly

oncemoretothehumanworldandthengainfullawakening.•Thethirdlevelisnon-return,whichguaranteesthatyouwillneverreturnto

thisworld.Instead,youwillbereborninaveryhighlevelofheaven,inasetofbrahmāworldscalledthePureAbodes,andgainfullawakeningthere.Thesethreelevelsfallshortoffullawakeningbecausethemind,on

experiencingthedeathless,developsapassionforit.Thatpassionthencausesasubtlelevelofbecoming.ThisiswhytheBuddharecommendsapplyingtheperceptionofnot-selfnotonlytoconditionedthingsliketheaggregates,butalsotothedeathless,soastopreventthemindfromdevelopingpassionforit.Whenthatpassioniscut,theperceptionofnot-selfcanberelinquished,andthemindattains—•thefourthlevelofawakening,arahantship,whichfreesthemindfrombirth

anddeathandtheprocessesofbecomingentirely.Thedifferentlevelshavedifferentresultsbecausetheycutthroughdifferent

levelsofdefilement,called“fetters,”thatbindthemindtotheprocessesofbirth,death,andwandering-on.Streamentrycutsthroughthefettersofself-identityviews,doubt,andattachmenttohabitsandpractices.Once-returnweakenspassion,aversion,anddelusion,butdoesn’tcutthroughthem.Non-returncutsthroughthefettersofsensualpassionandirritation.Arahantship

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cutsthroughthefettersofpassionforform,passionforformlessness—thesetworefertopassionforthedifferentlevelsofjhāna—restlessness,conceit,andignorance.Whenthesefettersaregone,themindhascompleteditsdutieswithregardtothefournobletruthsandgainsfullreleasefromthewandering-onoffurtherbecoming.

Afterhisawakening,theBuddhaspenttheremaining45yearsofhislifeteachingothers—humanbeingsandheavenlybeings;men,women,andevenchildren;peoplefromallwalksoflife—togainthevariouslevelsofawakeningforthemselves.Amonghisearlieststudentsweremembersofhisownfamily,manyofwhomwereabletogainawakeningafterlisteningtohisteachings.Manyofthepeoplehetaught,however,didnotgainawakening,either

becausetheywerenotreadyforit,orbecausetheirhouseholddutiesgavethemlittletimetopracticethepathinfull.Forthesepeople,theBuddhagaveinstructionsinhowtofindalastingandbeneficialhappinessintheirdailylives.Forinstance,herecommendedthattheybeindustriousintheirwork,takegoodcareoftheirbelongings,associatewithadmirablefriends,andliveinlinewiththeirmeans.Hewarnedespeciallyagainstgettingintodebt.Healsotaughtapathofpracticeforfosteringalevelofintegritythat,even

thoughitdidn’tbringfullawakening,wouldprovideforcomfortablerebirthsinthecycleofbirthanddeath,andwouldprovideconditionsconduciveforawakeninginfuturelives.Aqualityfundamentaltointegrityisrespectforpeopledeservingrespect:

thosewhohaveconvictionintheprincipleofkamma,whoaregenerous,virtuous,andwise.Whenyoushowrespecttopeoplelikethis,theyaremorelikelytoteachyouthefinerpointsofhowtodevelopthesegoodqualitiesinyourself,andyouaremorelikelytoabsorbnotonlytheirwordsbutalsotheexampleoftheirbehavior.AnotherqualitybasictointegrityisconvictionintheBuddha’sawakening

andintheteachingsonkammaandrebirth.TheBuddhaknewthathecouldn’tprovehisawakeningtoothers.Theymightbeimpressedbytheoutwardresultsofhisawakening—suchashiswisdom,compassion,andsteadfastnessinthefaceofdifficulties—butnoneofthosequalitieswereactualproofthathewasawakened.Onlyiftheyfollowedthenobleeightfoldpathforthemselvesandtastedthefirstlevelofawakeningforthemselveswouldtheyknowthathisawakeningwastrue.Similarlywiththeprinciplesofkammaandrebirth:TheBuddhacouldn’t

provetoothersthattheyhadfreedomofchoice,orthattheresultsoftheirchoiceswouldcarryoverintofuturelifetimes.Onlywiththeattainmentof

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stream-entry,whenthemindstepsoutsideoftime,space,andtheworkingsofintentions,wouldpeopleknowthattheseprinciplesweretrue.Buttofollowapathofactionrequiresthatyouassumetheprinciplethatyou

dohavefreedomofchoice.Tomakesacrificesnowthatwillresultinfuturehappinessrequires,again,thatyouassumetheprinciplethattheresultsofactionsdon’tendwithdeath.Afterall,lookaroundyou.You’llseemanypeoplewhodoevilandyetseemtoescapetheresultsofevilinthislifetime.Andtosetyoursightsoneventuallyreachingawakening,youhavetoassumethatawakeningispossiblethroughhumaneffort.Alloftheseassumptionsareamatterofconviction.Notice,though,thatthis

convictionisnotamatterofblindfaithinunknowablethings.Instead,itfunctionsasaworkinghypothesisthatgetsmoreandmoreconfirmedasyouactonitovertime.Athirdqualitybasictointegrityisgratitude—inparticular,gratitudeto

yourparents.Eveniftheyweren’tthebestofparents,theyattheveryleastgaveyoutheopportunitytobecomeahumanbeing.Ifyoudon’tappreciatethehardshipsthatthisrequiredofthem,it’sunlikelythatyouwillbeabletoendurethehardshipsthatsomeoftheformsofgoodnessrequire.Furtherstagesindevelopingintegrityinvolveactsofpuñña,whichis

commonlytranslatedas“merit”butmightbetterbetranslatedas“goodness.”Thisgoodnessincludesthreemajorcomponents:generosity,virtue,andthedevelopmentofuniversalgoodwill.

Generosity

Generosityisthevoluntarygivingofagift.Thisincludesnotonlymaterialgifts,butalsogiftsofyourtime,energy,knowledge,orforgiveness.WhentheBuddhawasaskedwhereagiftshouldbegiven,herepliedsimply,“Wherevertheheartfeelsinspired.”Inotherwords,generosityshouldbeanactoffreeandvoluntarysharing,withnoexternalconstraints.Thegivingofsuchagiftisasimpleanddirectlessoninoneofthemostimportantprinciplesofkamma:thatwecanexercisefreedomofchoiceinthepresentmomentandnotbeslavestoourstinginess.ButeventhoughtheBuddhaplacednoconstraintsonwhereagiftshouldbe

given,hewasmorespecificinhisadvicewhenaskedhowandwheretogiveagiftsoastogainthebestresults.Amonghisrecommendations:

•Giveagiftsothatitharmsnoone—inotherwords,youdon’tharmtherecipient,andyoudon’tharmyourselfinthegiving.•Choosethegiftandtherecipientsothatyoufeeljoyandsatisfaction,

before,while,andaftergivingthegift.

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•Showrespectandempathyfortherecipient,andnurtureasenseofconvictionthattheactofgivingisworthwhile.•Givetoapersonfreefrompassion,aversion,anddelusion,orto

someonewhoispracticingtoabandonpassion,aversion,anddelusion.

Thegoodnessthatcomesfromthissortofgift,theBuddhasaid,cannotbemeasured.However,eventhegoodnessofthissortofgenerosityisasmallthingcomparedtothegoodnessofvirtue.

Virtue

Virtueisthevoluntaryintentiontobehaveharmlessly.Traininginvirtuestartsbytakingonandfollowingthefiveprecepts.Thismeansthatyouresolvenottointentionallyengagein:

1)killinganyhumanbeing,oranyanimallargeenoughtobeseenwiththenakedeye;2)stealing,i.e.,takingpossessionofsomethingbelongingtosomeone

elsewithoutthatperson’spermission;3)havingillicitsex,i.e.,withaminororwithanadultwhoisalready

inanotherrelationshiporwhenyouarealreadyinanotherrelationship;4)tellingfalsehoods,i.e.,knowinglymisrepresentingthetruth;and5)takingintoxicants.

AstheBuddhasaid,whenyouobservethesepreceptsinallsituations,youaregivingsafety—atleastfromyourquarter—toalllivingbeings,andyougainashareinthatuniversalsafetyaswell.Infact,hestatesthatyouaretheprimarybeneficiaryofyourownvirtue.Oneofthebestwaystobenefitothersistogetthemtoobservetheprecepts,too.Insayingthis,he’sshowingthatyoutreatothersnotsimplyasobjectsofyourownactions;youalsogivethemthedignityofbeingagentsintheirownlivesaswell.Atthesametime,thepracticeofobservingthepreceptsdevelops

mindfulnessandalertness,qualitiesneededinmeditation.Italsodevelopsdiscernment,asyoufigureoutwaystokeeptothepreceptsindifficultsituationswithoutputtingyourselforothersatadisadvantage.(Anexamplewouldbeknowinghow,withoutlying,tokeepinformationfrompeoplewhowouldusethatinformationtocauseharm.)Butjustasthegoodnessofgenerosityisnomatchforthegoodnessofvirtue,thegoodnessofvirtueisnomatchforthegoodnessthatcomesfromdevelopinganattitudeofuniversalgoodwill.

Goodwill

Goodwill(mettā)isawishfortruehappiness.Asameditativeexercise,you

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spreadthoughtsofgoodwilltoyourselfandtolivingbeingsinalldirections,onallthemanylevelsofthecosmos.TheBuddharecommendedthiswayofexpressingthiswish:‘Maythesebeingsbefreefromanimosity,freefromoppression,freefromtrouble,andmaytheylookafterthemselveswithease!’Tobetrulypowerful,thisgoodwillhastobeuniversal.Inotherwords,you

havetoextenditeventopeopleyoudon’tlikeorwhoareactinginharmfulways.Rememberthat,inlinewiththeprinciplesofkamma,peopleandotherlivingbeingswillfindhappinessnotsimplybecauseyouwishitforthem.Theirhappinesshastobebasedontheirownactions.Thismeansthatwhenyouextendgoodwilltothosewhoareactingharmfully,youareexpressingthewishthattheywillunderstandthecausesoftruehappinessandactaccordingly.Whenyouthinkinthisway,youcanmakeyourgoodwilluniversalwithoutanysenseofhypocrisy.Thedevelopmentofgoodwill,however,isnotjustameditativeexercise.Itis

alsomeanttoinformyourchoiceofwhattodo,say,andthinkinallsituations.TheBuddhacallsthispracticeatypeofrestraint,inthatitplacesrestraintonyourlikesanddislikes,yourlovesandhatreds,sothattheseemotionsdon’tmakeyoupartialorunfairinyourdealingswithothers.Youwanttoactinawaythatpromotesthewellbeingofall,regardlessofhowmuchyoulikeanyoftheindividualsinthat“all.”Inthisway,goodwillmakesyouamorereliablepersoninyourdealingswithotherpeople,andyoucanputmoretrustinyourselfaswell:thatwhensituationsgetdifficult,you’llbemorelikelytoactinwaysthatareharmlessall-around.Limitlessgoodwillisthefirstoffourattitudesthatarecalledthe

brahmavihāras,orsublimeattitudes.Thesearetheattitudesthatcanturnpeopleintobrahmās—inhabitantsofthehighestheavensofformandformlessness.Andtheymakeyoulikeabrahmāinthislife.Theotherthreeare:•limitlesscompassion,wantingallthosewhoaresufferingtoberelievedof

theirsuffering,andallthosewhoareactinginwaysthatcausesufferingtostop;thisisanantidotetotakingjoyinthesufferingofothers;•limitlessempatheticjoy,wantingallthosewhoarehappytocontinuebeing

happy,andallthosewhoareactinginwaysthatleadtohappinesstocontinueinthoseactions;thisisanantidotetoenvyandresentment;•limitlessequanimity,realizingthattherearetimeswhenthewishesof

goodwill,compassion,andempatheticjoycannotcometrue,andsofocusingyourattentiononareaswhereyoucanbeofhelp;thisisanantidotetopassion.Althoughthesefourattitudescanmakeyoumoretrustworthyinyour

actions,theydon’tmakeyoufullyreliable.Thehumanmindisverychangeable;thedefilementsofgreed,aversion,anddelusioncaneasilymakeyourenounce

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yourconvictionintheprinciplesofkammaandintegrity.Thatlackofconvictionwilltheninterferewithyourdoinggood,andevenreceivingthegoodresultsofyourskillfulactions,leadingyoutofeelevenlessconviction,andsoon,inadownwardspiral.OnlywhenyourconvictionintheBuddha’sawakeningisconfirmedbyyourownfirstexperienceofthedeathlesswillyoubecomeatrulyreliableperson.ThisiswhytheBuddhastatedthatthehighestformofgoodnessistheattainmentofstream-entry,andwhyheencouragedallofhislistenerstoaimforawakening.

ManyoftheBuddha’slisteners,onhearinghisteachingsorseeinghisexample,wantedtotakeupthelifeofamendicant,justashehad.Soheinstitutedtwomonasticcommunities,orSaṅghas,oneformenandoneforwomen.ThustheBuddha’sfollowingfallsintofourgroups:whatiscalledthe

fourfoldparisāofmonks(bhikkhus),nuns(bhikkhunīs),laymen(upāsakas),andlaywomen(upāsikās).LifeintheSaṅghawasdesignedtobeanapprenticeship,withstudents

requiredtolivewithmoreseniormonasticsforaperiodofseveralyears.Thisway,theywouldbeabletopickupnotonlythewordsoftheDhamma,butalsolivingexamplesofhowtheDhammaistobeappliedineveryaspectoflife.Themembersofthemonasticordersliveonthegiftsoflaypeople.Thisfrees

themtodevotetheirlivesentirelytolearningtheBuddha’steachingsindetailandputtingthemfullyintopractice.TheBuddhaencouragedhismonkstoliveinthewilderness,ashehad,totraintheirpowersofenduranceandtotakeadvantageofthesolitudethere,allowingthemtofocusdirectlyontrainingtheirmindswithaminimumofdistraction.However,evenduringtheBuddha’slifetime,bothSaṅghasquicklyreceivedgiftsofland,whicheventuallygrewintomonasteries.Inthisway,themonksandnunshadthechoiceofsplittingtheirtimebetweentwowaysoflife:settledlifeincommunities,andtimesofwandering,sometimesalone,inthewilderness.AstheSaṅghasgrewduringtheBuddha’slifetime,manypeoplewhowere

nottrulyinterestedinthepracticebegantoordainaswell.SotheBuddhawasforcedtoestablishacodeofdisciplinetosetthestandardsforhowhismonksandnunsshouldbehave.ThefullsetofdisciplinaryrulesiscalledtheVinaya.CentraltotheVinayaforeachoftheordersisacodeofimportantrules,calledthePāṭimokkha,whichthemembersofeachSaṅghashouldlistentoeverytwoweeks.TheBuddhaestablishedtheVinayarulestoservethreepurposes:

•tomaintainthegoodfaithofthelaity,

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•topromoteharmonywithintheSaṅghas,and•tohelpindividualmonksandnunsbecomesensitivetotheeffluents

intheirminds,andsobeabletocleansethoseeffluentsaway.

Arecurringthemeintherulesisthatthemonksandnunsshouldbehaveinawayworthyofthegiftsoftheirlaysupporters.Thisprovidesanidealenvironmentforthelaitytotakegenuinejoyinthepracticeofgenerosity.Torepaythelaityfortheirsupport,themonksandnunsshouldpracticetheDhammasincerelyandsharetheirknowledgeoftheDhammafreely.ThisisoneofthereasonswhyBuddhistmonastics,eventhoughtheyareencouragedtoseeksolitude,donotliveincloisterscutofffromthelaity.Attheveryleast,evenwheninthewilderness,theyshouldhavedailycontactwiththelaitybygoingforalms.Inthiswaytheycanextendtheirlivingexamplebeyondtheconfinesofthemonasticorderintosocietyatlarge.

TheTripleGem

TheBuddhausedtheterm“Saṅgha”tomean,notonlymonasticcommunities,butalsothecommunityofallthose,whetherlayorordained,whohadreachedstream-entry.Sotheword“Saṅgha”hastwolevelsofmeaning:theconventionalSaṅgha,whichreferstothemonasticcommunities,andthenobleSaṅgha,whichreferstothecommunityofallthosewhohavereachedatleasttheirfirstexperienceofthedeathless.TheconventionalSaṅgha,eventhoughitisimperfect,actsasthemain

carrieroftheBuddha’steachings,theDhamma,onhowtofindtruehappiness.ThenobleSaṅghabringsthoseteachingstolifebyprovidinglivingexamplesofhowtogetthemostuseoutoftheDhamma.Forthisreason,theSaṅghainbothsensesofthetermrankswiththeBuddhaandDhammaasanexampleandaprimesourceofknowledgeforhowtofindahappinessthat’sreliableandharmless:avaluabletreasurefortheentireworld.ThisiswhytheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghaarecalledtheTripleGem.Becausetheexamplesetbyallthreeissosafe,theyarealsocalledtheThreeRefuges.

Afterteachingfor45years,theBuddhasawthathehadestablishedhisDhammaandVinaya—hisownnameforhisteaching—onafirmfoundation.Eachofthefourgroupsinhisparisācontainedpeoplewhohadtastedatleastsomeofthelevelsofawakening,andsocouldembodytheDhammaandVinayaintheirwordsandactions.Soherelinquishedthewilltolivefurther.Thatevening,hecalledthemonkstogetherandinformedthemofhisdecision,sayingthathistotalunbindingwouldtakeplaceinthreemonths’time.Thenhesummarizedhislifetimeofteachingintosevensetsofprinciples,which

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eventuallybecameknownastheWingstoAwakening(bodhi-pakkhiya-dhamma).Wehavealreadydiscussedthreeofthesesets:thenobleeightfoldpath,the

fourrightexertions(=righteffort),andthefourestablishingsofmindfulness(=rightmindfulness).Theotherfoursetsare:

•thefourbasesofsuccess:concentrationbasedondesire,persistence,intentness,andcircumspection;•thefivestrengths:convictionintheBuddha’sawakening,

persistence,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment;•thefivefaculties(strongerversionsofthefivestrengths);and•thesevenfactorsforawakening:mindfulness,analysisofqualitiesof

themind,persistence,rapture,calm,concentration,andequanimity.

Aslongasthemonkswereharmoniousintheirunderstandingoftheseprinciplesandputthemintopractice,theBuddhasaid,theDhammawouldendure.Onthemorningofthedayofhistotalunbinding,hesufferedanattackof

dysentery,butthencontinuedwalkingalldayuntilhereachedapairoftreesfloweringoutofseasoninaparknearasmalltown.Therehelaydownandgavehisfinalinstructions.Hetaughtonelastdisciple,andtoldthemonkstoinformthemanwhohadgiventhemealthatbroughtonhisdysenterynottoregrethisgift:Thatmealwasoneofthemostmeritoriousgiftsoffoodthatanyonewouldevermake.Insteadofappointingasuccessor,theBuddhatoldthemonksthatthey

shouldregardtheDhammahehadtaughtandtheVinayahehadformulatedastheirteacherinhisstead.HeopenedtheopportunityforthemonkstoaskhimquestionsonanydoubtstheystillmighthaveconcerningtheBuddha,Dhamma,orSaṅgha,orthepathofpractice.Whennooneaskedanyquestions,hespokehisfinalwords:“Reachconsummationthroughheedfulness.”Asafinalinstructionforthosewhocouldreadhismind,hethenwent

throughtheentirerangeofhisconcentrationattainments,inforwardandreverseorder,andthen—afterreturningtothefourthjhānaandimmediatelyonleavingit—hewastotallyunbound.

ThetraditionestablishedbytheBuddhaisnolongerasinglereligion—or,inhiswords,asingleDhammaandVinaya.Buddhismisnowafamilyofreligions,muchlikethevariousformsofmonotheismintheWest.AlthoughthevariousBuddhistreligionscentertheirteachingsontheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅgha,themeaningstheygivetoallthreeoftheserefuges,alongwiththetextsexplainingthesemeanings,differfromonereligiontothenext.

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ThisshortintroductionhasbeenbasedonthePāliCanon,theoldestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings,andthefoundationaltextoftheTheravāda,ortheTeachingsoftheElders.ThisistheBuddhistreligioncommoninThailand,Myanmar,SriLanka,Cambodia,andLaos.Ofcourse,thefactthatthePāliCanonistheoldestrecordisnoguaranteethatitisaccurate,butastheCanonitselfsays,thetruetestofateachingliesnotintheclaimsoftradition,butintheresultsitgiveswhenputintopractice.Tobefair,thetestmustinvolvefourthings:

•associatingwithpeopleofintegrity;•listeningtothetrueDhamma;•applyingappropriateattention—i.e.,questioningtheDhammain

linewiththefournobletruths,toseehowitsexplanationofsufferingandtheendofsufferingcanbeappliedinyourlife;and•practicingtheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma—i.e.,

practicingtogiverisetodispassionforsufferinganditscause.

TheCanonalsolistseightqualitiesforjudgingwhetherateachingistrueDhammaornot:Ifputtingitintopracticeleadstodispassion,tobeingunfettered,tosheddingconceit,tomodesty,tocontentment,todisentanglement,topersistence,andtobeingunburdensome,thenit’sgenuineDhamma.Ifitleadstotheoppositequalities,it’snot.Peoplearefreetotakeonthistest,ornot,astheyseefit.Butthefactof

sufferingmakesthetesturgent.It’sfurthermadeurgentbythefactthatteachingsoftheDhammawillnotbe

availableforever.BecausethetrainingoftheSaṅgharequiresalivingapprenticeship,theBuddhamadenoprovisionforitsrevivalintheeventthatitdiedout.TheTheravādaSaṅghaofnunsdiedoutinthethirteenthcentury,andsocannotberevived.SomedaytheSaṅghaofmonkswilldieoutaswell,andtheDhammawillbeforgottenuntilthetimeofthenextBuddha,manymillenniafromnow.Butfornow,theBuddha’steachingsareavailable,offeringbotharefuge—a

placeofsafety—andachallenge.Therefugetheyofferisthepossibilityofatrueandreliablehappiness,one

thatharmsnoone.Ifyoufollowtheteachings,youprotectyourselffromtheresultsoftheunskillfulactionsyouotherwisemighttake.Instead,youractionswillreachalevelofskillleadingtoahappinessyoucantrust.Thesafetyofthathappiness,bothforyourselfandforothers,isyourrefuge.Asforthechallenge:TheBuddhasaidthathesimplypointsoutthepathto

truehappiness.You,yourself,havetofollowthepath.Theresultsyougetwill

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havetodependontheeffortyouputintomasteringtheBuddha’sskills.Themoreskillfulyouractions,themorereliableandharmlessthehappinesstheybringyou—allthewaytoahappinesstotallyfreefromconditions,beyondthedimensionsofthecosmos,ahappinessthattotallyendssuffering.It’suptoyoutodecideifyourhappinessisimportantenoughtotestthese

claims,andifyouarewillingtotrainyourselfintheskillsrequiredtomakeyourselfareliablejudgeofthetest.

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Dependentco-arisingcontainstwelvesteps,withcravingastheeighthstep.Thestepsleadingfromcravingtosufferingarethese:8)Thethreetypesofcravingcondition…9)thefourtypesofclinging,whichcondition…10)thethreelevelsofbecoming.Becomingprovidesthe

conditionforthe…11)birthofanidentitywithinbecoming.Thisbirththen

leadsinevitablyto…12)aging,illness,anddeath,alongwithsorrow,pain,despair,

andsuffering.Tracingfromcravingbacktoitscauses,thestepsare

these:8)Cravingisconditionedby…7)feelingsofpleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain.

Thesefeelingsdependon…6)contactat…5)thesixsenses(theeyes,ears,nose,tongue,body,and

mind).Thesesensesareconditionedby…4)theinternalsenseofthebodyanditsmentalevents(suchas

attention,intention,feeling,andperception).These,inturn,areconditionedby…3)consciousnessatthesixsenses,whichisconditionedby…2)threetypesoffabrication:bodily(thein-and-outbreath),

verbal(themind’sinnerconversationofthinkingandevaluating),andmental(feelingsandperceptions).Thesefabrications,inturn,areconditionedby…1)ignorance:notseeingthingsintermsofthefournoble

truths.Itmayseemstrange,insteps2and3,tospeakof

fabricationshappeningpriortosensoryconsciousness,butwehavetorememberthattheBuddhawasdescribingexperienceasitappearsfromtheperspectiveofsomeonewhohasgonebeyondsensoryconsciousnessandthenreturnedtoitwhile

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fullyalert.Sohewasabletoseehowthesefabricationsinfluenceyourfullconsciousnessofbodyandmind.Evenforsomeonewhohasnothadthatdirectexperience,

it’susefultoreflectonhowconsciousnessisaffectedbytheseactivitiesevenbeforeitengagesfullywiththebody,withmentalactivities,andwithinputfromthesenses.Thatwayyoucanbealerttohowyouareprimingyourconsciousnesstoleadeithertowardsufferingorawayfromit.OneofthereasonstheBuddhataughtmindfulnessof

breathingisthatitfocusesattentionrightatstep2.Byusingamentallabel,orperception,todirectyourthoughtstothebreath,atthesametimeevaluatingthebreath,adjustingittogiverisetoafeelingofpleasure,mindfulnessofbreathingbringsknowledgetoallthreetypesoffabrication.Inthatway,itturnsthemfromcausesofcravingandsufferingintofactorsofthepathleadingtothecessationofsuffering.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Mindfulnessofbreathing 7Kamma&rebirth 8Thefournobletruths 11Thethreecharacteristics 18Unbinding 19Thestagesofawakening 21Generosity 23Virtue 24Goodwill 24TheTripleGem 27Dependentco-arising 31

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