The biodiversity of a coral reef -...
Transcript of The biodiversity of a coral reef -...
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The biodiversity of a coral reef
Three Major Climate Zones
Tropical
Polar
Temperate
The Earth Has Many Different Climates
• Weather • Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, cloud cover• Hours to days
• Climate• Area’s general pattern of atmospheric conditions over decades and longer
Polar (ice) Subarctic (snow) Cool temperate Highland Warm ocean current River
Warm temperate Dry Tropical Major upwelling zones Cold ocean current
ArcticCircle
Tropic ofCancer
Tropic ofCapricorn
AntarcticCircle
Natural Capital: Generalized Map of the Earth’s Current Climate Zones
Moist air rises, cools, and releases moisture as rain
Cold desertsCold deserts60°N
Evergreen coniferous forestEvergreen coniferous forestThe highest solar
energy input is at the equator.
Hot desertHot desertNortheast trades
30°NTemperate deciduous forest and grasslandTemperate deciduous forest and grassland
WesterliesWesterlies
Air cools and descends at lower latitudes.
Tropical deciduous forestTropical deciduous forest Warm air rises and moves toward the poles.
Solar energyEquator 0° Tropical rain forestTropical rain forest
Tropical deciduous forestTropical deciduous forest
Southeast trades Hot desertHot desert
30°SWesterliesWesterlies
60°SCold desertsCold deserts
Temperate deciduous forest and grasslandTemperate deciduous forest and grassland
Air cools and descends at lower latitudes.
Polar capPolar cap
Polar capPolar cap
Global Air Circulation
Cool, dry air
Condensation and
precipitation
Heat released radiates to space
LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE
Falls, is compressed, warms
Rises, expands,
cools
Warm, dry air
Hot, wet airFlows toward low
pressure, picks up moisture and heat
HIGH PRESSURE Moist surface warmed by sun
LOW PRESSURE
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Connected Deep and Shallow Ocean Currents The Earth Has Many Different Climates
• El Niño‐Southern Oscillation• Every few years• Prevailing winds in tropical Pacific Ocean change direction
• Affects much of earth’s weather for 1‐2 years
• Link between air circulation, ocean currents, and biomes
Normal and El Niño Conditions Impact of El Nino‐Southern Oscillation
Greenhouse Gases Warm the Lower Atmosphere
• Greenhouse gases• H2O• CO2
• CH4
• N2O
• Natural greenhouse effect• Gases keep earth habitable
• Human‐enhanced global warming
Flow of Energy to and from the Earth
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Earth’s Surface Features Affect Local Climates
• Rain shadow effect• Most precipitation falls on the windward side of mountain ranges
• Deserts leeward (背風)
• Cities create microclimates
Prevailing winds pick up moisture from an ocean.
On the windward side of a mountain range, air rises, cools, and releases moisture.
On the leeward side of the mountain range, air descends, warms, and releases little moisture, causing rain shadow effect.
Rain Shadow Effect
Tropic of Cancer
High mountainsEquator
Polar iceArctic tundra (cold grassland)Temperate grassland Tropic of
CapricornTropical grassland (savanna)Chaparral
Coniferous forestTemperate deciduous forestTemperate rain forestTropical rain forestTropical dry forestDesert
The Earth’s Major Biomes
Elevation Mountain ice and snow
Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses)
Coniferous Forest
Deciduous ForestLatitude (south to north)
Tropical Forest
Tropical Forest
Deciduous Forest
Coniferous Forest
Tundra(herbs, lichens, mosses)
Polar ice and snow
Generalized Effects of Elevation and Latitude on Climate and Biomes
Natural Capital: Average Precipitation and Average Temperature as Limiting Factors Global Plant Biodiversity
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Climate Graphs of Three Types of Deserts Temperate Desert Ecosystem in North America
Wildflowers Bloom after Rain in Arizona Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate, and Cold Grasslands
Temperate Tall‐Grass Prairie Ecosystem in North America Monoculture Crop Replacing Biologically Diverse Temperate Grassland
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Climate Graphs of Tropical, Temperate, and Cold Forests Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem
Niche Stratification in a Tropical Rain Forest Temperate Deciduous Forest Ecosystem in North America
Evergreen Coniferous Forest Ecosystem in North America Temperate Rain Forest in Washington State
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Mount Rainier National Park in Washington StateNatural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial EcosystemsDeserts Grasslands Forests Mountains
Large desert cities Conversion to cropland
Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development
Agriculture
Destruction of soil and underground habitat by off‐road vehicles
Timber and mineral extractionRelease of CO2 to
atmosphere from burning grassland
Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations
Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs
Soil salinization from irrigation
Increasing tourismOvergrazing by livestockDepletion of
groundwaterDamage from off‐road vehicles
Air pollution blowing in from urban areas and power plants
Oil production and off‐road vehicles in arctic tundra
Soil damage from off‐road vehiclesLand disturbance and
pollution from mineral extraction
Pollution of forest streams Water supplies threatened by
glacial melting
Three Big Ideas1. Differences in climate, based mostly on long‐term
differences in average temperature and precipitation, largely determine the types and locations of the earth’s deserts, grasslands, and forests.
2. The earth’s terrestrial systems provide important ecological and economic services.
Three Big Ideas3. Human activities are degrading and disrupting
many of the ecological and economic services provided by the earth’s terrestrial ecosystems.
A Healthy Coral Reef in the Red Sea Most of the Earth Is Covered with Water
• Aquatic life zones• Saltwater life zones (marine life zones)
• Oceans and Coastlands and shorelines• Coral reefs
• Brackish water• Estuaries• Mangrove forests
• Freshwater life zones• Lakes• Rivers and streams• Inland wetlands (including swamps and marshes)
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Ocean hemisphere Land–ocean hemisphere
The Ocean Planet Aquatic Systems
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water
• Plankton: free floating• Phytoplankton
• Primary producers for most aquatic food webs• Zooplankton
• Primary and secondary consumers• Single‐celled to large invertebrates like jellyfish
• Ultraplankton • Tiny photosynthetic bacteria
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water
• Nekton • Strong swimmers: fish, turtles, whales
• Benthos• Bottom dwellers: oysters, sea stars, clams, lobsters, crabs
• Decomposers• Mostly bacteria
Four Types of Aquatic Life Forms Natural Capital
Marine Ecosystems
Ecological Services Economic Services
Climate moderation Food
CO2 absorption Animal and pet feed
PharmaceuticalsNutrient cycling
Harbors and transportation routes
Waste treatment
Reduced storm impact (mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands) Recreation
Coastal habitats for humans
Habitats and nursery areas
Employment
Genetic resources and biodiversity
Oil and natural gas
Minerals
Scientific information Building materials
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High tideLow tide
Coastal Zone Open SeaDepth in metersSea level
50Estuarine Zone
Euphotic Zone
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Photosynthesis
Continental shelf200
500Bathyal Zone
1,000
Twilight
1,500
Water temperature drops rapidly between the euphotic zone and the abyssal zone in an area called the thermocline .
Abyssal Zone 2,000
3,000
4,000
Darkn
ess
5,000
10,000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30Water temperature (°C)
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View of an Estuary from Space
Coastal Marsh Ecosystem See Grass Bed Organisms
Mangrove Forest in Australia Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are Highly Productive
• Important ecological and economic services• Coastal aquatic systems maintain water quality by filtering
• Toxic pollutants• Excess plant nutrients• Sediments
• Absorb other pollutants • Provide food, timber, fuelwood, and habitats• Reduce storm damage and coast erosion
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Rocky and Sandy Shores Host Different Types of Organisms
• Intertidal zone• Rocky shores• Sandy shores: beaches
• Organism adaptations necessary to deal with daily salinity and moisture changes
• Importance of sand dunes
Rocky Shore BeachRocky Shore BeachSea starSea star
Hermit crabHermit crabShore crabShore crab
High tideHigh tide
PeriwinklePeriwinkle
Sea urchinSea urchinMusselMussel
AnemoneAnemone
Low tideLow tide
SculpinSculpin
BarnaclesBarnaclesKelpKelpSea lettuceSea lettuce
Monterey flatwormMonterey flatwormNudibranchNudibranch
Living between the Tides
Barrier BeachBarrier BeachBeach fleaBeach flea
Peanut wormPeanut wormTiger beetleTiger beetle
Blue crabBlue crabDwarf oliveDwarf olive
ClamClam
High tideHigh tide
SandpiperSandpiperSilversidesSilversides Low tideLow tide Mole
shrimpMole shrimp
Ghost shrimpGhost shrimp
White sand macoma
White sand macoma
Sand dollarSand dollar
Moon snailMoon snail
Living between the Tides Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers of Biodiversity
• Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests
• Habitats for one‐fourth of all marine species
Gray reef sharkGray reef shark
Sea nettleSea nettle
Green sea turtle
Green sea turtle
Blue tangBlue tangFairy bassletFairy basslet
Parrot fishParrot fishBrittle starBrittle star Sergeant
majorSergeant majorHard coralsHard corals AlgaeAlgae
Banded coral shrimp
Banded coral shrimp
PhytoplanktonPhytoplankton
Symbiotic algae
Symbiotic algae
ConeyConey
ZooplanktonZooplankton Blackcap bassletBlackcap basslet
SpongesSponges
Moray eelMoray eel
BacteriaBacteria
Producer to primary consumer
Primary to secondary consumer
Secondary to higher‐level consumer
All producers and consumers to decomposers
Human Activities Are Disrupting and Degrading Marine Systems
• Major threats to marine systems • Coastal development• Overfishing• Use of fishing trawlers • Point source pollution (點源污染)
• Runoff of nonpoint source pollution (非點源污染)
• Habitat destruction• Introduction of invasive species• Climate change from human activities• Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries
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Natural Capital DegradationMajor Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems
and Coral Reefs
Marine Ecosystems Coral Reefs
Half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and urban development
Ocean warming
Over one‐fifth of mangrove forests lost to agriculture, development, and shrimp farms since 1980
Soil erosionRising ocean acidity
Beaches eroding because of coastal development and rising sea levels
BleachingAlgae growth from fertilizer runoff
Ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging (疏浚) and trawler fishing
Increased UV exposureRising sea levels
At least 20% of coral reefs severely damagedand 25–33% more threatened
Damage from anchorsDamage from fishing and diving
Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an Estuary in Trouble
• Largest estuary in the US; polluted since 1960
• Human population increased
• Point and nonpoint sources raised pollution
• Phosphate and nitrate levels too high
• Excess sediments from runoff and decreased vegetation
Chesapeake Bay Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an Estuary in Trouble
• Oysters, a keystone species, greatly reduced
• 1983: Chesapeake Bay Program• Integrated coastal management with local, state, federal (聯邦) governments and citizens’ groups
• 2008 update:• 25 years and $6 billion• Program met only 21% of goals• Water quality “very poor”
Natural Capital
Freshwater Systems
Ecological Services Economic Services
Climate moderation Food
Nutrient cyclingDrinking water
Waste treatmentIrrigation water
Flood control
Groundwater recharge
Hydroelectricity
Habitats for many species
Transportation corridors
Genetic resources and biodiversity Recreation
Scientific information Employment
Painted turtle Blue‐winged teal
Green frog
Muskrat
Pond snail
Littoral zone Plankton
Diving beetle Northern pike
Yellow perchBloodworms
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Some Lakes Have More Nutrients Than Others
• Oligotrophic lakes• Low levels of nutrients and low NPP• Very clear water
• Eutrophic lakes• High levels of nutrients and high NPP• Murky (混濁) water with high turbidity
• Mesotrophic lakes• Eutrophication of lakes from human input of nutrients
The Effect of Nutrient Enrichment on a Lake
eutrophication
Lake GlacierHeadwatersRain and snow
RapidsWaterfall
TributaryFlood plain Oxbow lake
Salt marshDelta
Deposited sediment
Source ZoneOcean
Transition Zone
SedimentWater
Floodplain Zone
Three Zones in the Downhill Flow of Water New Orleans, Louisiana Flooded by Hurricane Katrina
August 29, 2005
Projection of New Orleans if the Sea Level Rises 1 Meter Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are Vital (有生命力的) Sponges
• Marshes
• Swamps
• Prairie potholes (壺洞)
• Floodplains
• Arctic tundra in summer
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Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are Vital (有生命力的) Sponges
• Provide free ecological and economic services• Filter and degrade toxic wastes• Reduce flooding and erosion• Help to replenish streams and recharge groundwater aquifers
• Biodiversity• Food and timber• Recreation areas
Three Big Ideas
1. Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three‐fourths of the earth’s surface, and oceans dominate the planet.
2. The earth’s aquatic systems provide important ecological and economic services.
3. Human activities threaten biodiversity and disrupt ecological and economic services provided by aquatic systems.