THE BIG HANDBOOK OFhomeschoolfreebies.s3.amazonaws.com/HandbookOfNatureStudy...THE BIG HANDBOOK OF...

THE BIG HANDBOOK OFNATURE STUDY

by Anna Botsford Comstock

This is one of a six ebook set serializing this classicbook, brought to you by

HomeschoolFreebieOfTheDay.com

Visit us every weekday for another free homeschool / family resource!

http://www.homeschoolfreebie.wholesomechildhood.com/

Batrachian Study i8i

III. BATRACHIAN STUDY

THE COMMON TOAD

Teacher's Story

"The toad hopped by its with jolting spri)igs."—Akbrs.

HOEVER has not had a pet toad has missed a mostentertaining experience. Toad actions are surpris-

ingly interesting; one of my safeguards against the

blues is the memory.of the thoughtful way one ofmypet toads rubbed and patted its stomach with its little

hands after it had swallowed a June-bug. Toads donot make warts upon attacking hands, neither do theyrain down nor are they found in the bed-rock of

quarries; but they do have a most interesting history of their own,which is not at all legendary, and which is very like a life with two in-

carnations.

The mother toad lays her eggs in May and June in ponds, or in the still

pools, along streams; the eggs are laid in long strings of jellylike sub-stance, and are dropped upon the pond bottom or attached to waterweeds; when first deposited, the jelly is transparent and the little blackeggs can be plainly seen; but after a day or two, bits of dirt accumulateupon the jelly, obscuring the eggs. At first the eggs are spherical, like

tiny black pills, but as they begin to develop, they elongate and finally

the tadpoles may be seen wriggling in the jelly mass, which affords themefficient protection. After four or five days, the tadpoles usually

work their way out and swim away; at this stage, the only way to detect

the head, is by the direction of the tadpole's progress, since it naturally

goes head first. However, the head soon becomes decidedly larger,

although at first it is not provided with a mouth; it has instead, aV-shaped elevation where the mouth should be, which forms a suckersecreting a sticky substance by means of which the tadpole attachesitself to water weeds, resting head up. When two or three days old, wecan detect little tassels on either side of the throat, which are the gills

by which the little creature breathes; the blood passes through thesegills, and is purified by coming in contact with the air which is mixed in

the water. About ten days later, these gills disappear beneath a mem-brane which grows down over them; but they are still used for breathing,

simply having changed position from the outside to the inside of thethroat. The water enters the nostrils to the mouth, passes through anopening in the throat and flows over the gills and out through a little

opening at the left side of the body; this opening or breathing-pore, canbe easily seen in the larger tadpoles; and when the left arm develops, it is

pushed out through this convenient orifice.

When about ten days old, the tadpole has developed a small, roundmouth which is constantly in search of something to eat, and at the sametime constantly opening and shutting to take in air for the gills; themouth is provided with homy jaws for biting off pieces of plants. As the

l82 Handbook of Nature-Study

tadpole develops, its mouth gets larger and wider and extends backbeneath the eyes, with a truly toadlike expansiveness.

At first, the tadpole's eyes are even with the surface of the head andcan scarcely be seen, but later they become more prominent and bulgelike the eyes of the adult toad.

The tail of the tadpole is long and flat, surrounded by a fin, thusmaking an organ for swimming. It strikes the water, first this side andthen that, making most graceful curves, which seem to originate near the

Batrachian Study 183

As the tadpole grows older, not only does its tail become shorter butits actions change. It now comes often to the surface of the water in

order to get more air for its gills, although it lacks the frog tadpole's

nice adjustment of the growing lungs and the disappearing gills. Atlast some fine rainy day, the little creature feels that it is finally fitted

to live the life of a land animal. It may not be a half inch in

length, with big head, attenuated body and stumpy tail, but it swims to

the shore, lifts itself on its front legs, which are scarcely larger than pins,

and walks off, toeing in, with a very grown up air, and at this moment, the

tadpole attains toadship. Numbers of them come out of the water

together, hopping hither and thither with all of the eagerness and vim of

untried youth. It is when issuing thus in hordes from the water and seen

by the ignorant, that they gain the reputation of being rained down, whenthey really were rained up. It is quite impossible for a beginner to detect

the difference between the toad and the frog tadpole; usually those of the

toads are black, while those of the frogs are otherwise colored, though this

is not an invariable distinction. The best way to distinguish the two is

to get the eggs and develop the two families separately.

The general color of the common American toad is extremely variable.

It may be yellowish-brown, with spots of lighter color, and with reddish or

yellow warts. There are likely to be four irregular spots of dark color

along each side of the middle of the back, and the under parts are light

colored, often somewhat spotted. The throat of the male toad is black

and he is not so bright m color as is the female. The warts upon the backare glands, which secrete a substance disagreeable for the animal seeking

toad dinners. This is especially true of the glands in the elongated

swelling or wart, above and just back of the ear, which is Called the

parotid gland; these give forth a milky, poisonous substance when the

toad is seized by an enemy, although the snakes do not seem to mind it.

Some people have an idea that the toad is slimy, but this is not true; the

skin is perfectly dry. The toad feels cold to the hand because it is a cold-

blooded animal, which means an animal with blood the temperature of

the surrounding atmosphere; while the blood of the warm-bloodedanimal, has a temperature of its own, which it maintains whether thesurrounding air is cold or hot.

The toad's face is well worth

study; its eyes are elevated

and very pretty, the pupil being

oval and the surrounding iris

shining like gold. The toad

winks in a wholesale fashion, the

eyes being pulled down into the

head; the eyes are provided with

nictitating lids, which rise from

below, and are similar to those

found in birds. When a toad is

sleeping, its eyes do not bulge

but are drawn in, so as to lie even

with the surface of the head.

The two tiny nostrils are black

and are easily seen ; the ear is a

fiat, oval spot behind the eye

After a hard winter.

Photo by Cyrus Crosby,

1 84 Handbook of Nature-Study

and a little lower down; in the common species it is not quite so large

as the eye; this is really the ear-drum, since there is no external ear like

ours. The toad's mouth is wide and its jaws are homy; it does not needteeth since it swallows its prey whole.

The toad is a jumper, as may be seen from its long, strong hind legs,

the feet of which are also long and strong and armed with five toes

that are somewhat webbed. The "arms" are shorter and there are

four "fingers" to each "hand;" when the toad is resting, its front

feet toe-in, in a comical fashion. If a toad is removed from anearth or moss garden, and put into a white wash-bowl, in a few hours it

will change to a lighter hue, and vice versa. This is part of its pro-

tective color, making it inconspicuous to the eyes of its enemy. It

prefers to live in cool, damp places, beneath sidewalks or piazzas, etc.,

and its warty upper surface resembles the surrounding earth. If it is

disturbed, it will seek to escape by long leaps and acts frightened; butif very much frightened, it flattens out on the ground, and looks so

nearly like a clod of earth that it may escape even the keen eyes of its

pursuer. When seized by the enemy, it will sometimes "play possum,"acting as if it were dead; but when actually in the mouth of the foe, it

emits terrified and heart-rending cries.

The toad's tongue is attached to the lower jaw, at the front edge of themouth; it can thus be thrust far out, and since it secretes a sticky sub-stance over its surface, any insects which it touches adhere, and are drawnback into the mouth and swallowed. It takes a quick eye to see this

tongue fly out and make its catch. The tadpole feeds mostly uponvegetable matter, but the toad lives entirely upon small animals, usuallyinsects; it is not particular as to what kind of insects; but because of thesituations which it haunts, it usually feeds upon those which are injuriousto grass and plants. Indeed, the toad is really the friend of the gardenerand farmer, and has been most ungratefully treated by those whom it

has befriended. If you doubt that a toad is an animal of judgment,watch it when it finds an earthworm and set your doubts at rest ! It willwalk around the squirming worm, until it can seize it by the head,apparently knowing well that the horny hooks extending backward fromthe segments of the worm, are likely to rasp the throat if swallowed thewrong way. If the worm prove a too large mouthful, the toad promptlyuses its hands in an amusing fashion to stuff the wriggling morsel downits throat. When swallowing a large mouthful, it closes its eyes; butwhether this aids the process, or is merely an expression of bliss, we havenot determined. The toad never drinks by taking in water through themouth, but absorbs it through the skin; when it wishes to drink, it

stretches itself out in shallow water and thus satisfies its thirst; it willwaste away and die in a short time, if kept in a dry atmosphere.

The toad burrows in the earth by a method of its own, hard to describe.It kicks backward with its strong hind legs, and in some mysterious way,the earth soon covers all excepting its head; then, if an enemy comesalong, back goes the head, the earth caves in around it, and where is yourtoad ! It remains in its burrow or hiding place usually during the day,and comes out at night to feed. This habit is an advantage, becausesnakes are then safely at home and, too, there are many more insects tobe found at night. The sagacious toads have discovered that thevicinity of street lights is swarming with insects, and there they gather in


numbers. In winter they burrow deeply in the ground and go to sleep,

remaining dormant until the warmth of spring awakens them; then, theycome out, and the mother toads seek their native ponds there to lay eggs

for the coming generation. They are excellent swimmers; when swim-ming rapidly, the front legs are laid backward along the sides of the body,so as to offer no resistance to the water; but when moving slowly, the

front legs are used for balancing and for keeping afloat.

The song of the toad is a pleasant, crooning sound, a sort of gutteral

trill; it is made when the throat is puffed out almost globular, thus form-ing a vocal sac; the sound is made by the air drawn in at the nostrils andpassed back and forth from the lungs to the mouth over the vocal chords,

the puffed-out throat acting as a resonator.

The toad has no ribs by which to inflate the chest, and thus draw air

into the lungs, as we do when we breathe; it is obliged to swallow the air

instead and thus force it into the lungs. This movement is shown in theconstant pulsation, in and out, of the membrane of the throat.

As the toad grows, it sheds its homy skin, which it swallows; as this

process is usually done strictly in private, the ordinary observer sees it

but seldom. One of the toad's nice common qualities is its enjoyment in

having its back scratched gently.

The toad has many enemies; chief among these is the snake and in

only a lesser degree, crows and also birds of prey.

Reference—The Frog Book, Dickerson; Familiar Life in Field andForest, Mathews; The Usefulness of the American Toad, U. S. Dept.Agr., Farmers Bulletin, No. 196.

LESSON XLIV

The Tadpole Aquarium

Leading thought—The children

should understand how to makethe tadpoles comfortable andthus be able to rear them.

Materials—A tin or agate panor a deep earthenware wash-bowl.

Things to be done— i . Go to

some pond where tadpoles live.

2. Take some of the small

stones on the bottom and at the

sides of the pond lifting themvery gently so as not to disturb

what is growing on their surface.

Place these stones on the bottomof the pan, building up one side

higher than the other, so that

the water will be more shallow

on one side than on the other;

a stone or two should project

above the water.

3. Take some of the mud and leaves from the bottom of the pond,being careful not to disturb them and place upon the stones.


4. Take some of the plants found growing under water in the pondand plant them among the stones.

5. Carry the pan thus prepared back to the schoolhouse and place it

where the sun will not shine directly upon it.

6. Bring a pail of water from the pond and pour it very gently in at

one side of the pan, so as not to disarrange the plants; fill the pan nearlyto the brim.

7

.

After the mud has settled and the water is perfectly clear, removesome of the tadpoles, which have hatched in the glass aquarium, and placein the "pond." Not more than a dozen should be put in a pan of this

size, since the amount of food and microscopic plants which are on thestones in the mud, will afford food for only a few tadpoles.

8. Every week add a little more mud from the bottom of the pond oranother stone covered with slime, which is probably some plant growth.More water from the pond should be added to replace that evaporated.

9. Care should be taken that the tadpole aquarium be kept where thesun will not shine directly upon it for any length of time, because if thewater gets too warm the tadpoles will die.

10. Remove the "skin" from one side of a tulip leaf, so as to exposethe pulp of the leaf, and give to the tadpoles every day or two. Bits ofhard-boiled egg should be given now and then.

Toads' Eggs and Tadpoles

Leading thought—The toad's eggs are laid in strings of jelly in ponds.The eggs hatch into tadpoles which are creatures of the water, breathingby gills, and swimming with a long fin. The tadpoles gradually change totoads, which are air-breathing creatures, fitted for life on dry land.

Method—The eggs of toads may be found in almost any pond about thefirst of May and may be scraped up from the bottom in a scoop-net. Theyshould be placed in the aquarium where the children can watch the stagesof development. Soon after they are hatched, a dozen or so should beselected and placed in the tadpole aquarium and the others put back intothe stream. The children should observe the tadpoles every day, watch-ing carefully all the changes of structure and habit which take place. If

properly fed, the tadpoles will be ready to leave the water in July, as tinytoads.

Observations— i. Where were the toads' eggs found and on whatdate ? Were they attached to anything in the water or were they floatingfree? Are the eggs in long strings? Do you find any eggs laid in jelly-like masses? If so, what are they? How can you tell the eggs of toadsfrom those of frogs?

2. Is the jellyHke substance in which the eggs are placed clear ordiscolored? What is the shape and the size of the eggs? A little laterhow do they look? Do the young tadpoles move about while they arestill in the jelly mass?

3. Describe how the little tadpole works its way out from the jellycovering. Can you distinguish then which is head and which is tail?How does it act at first? Where and how does it rest?

4. Can you see with the aid of a lens the little fringes on each side ofthe neck? What are these? Do these fringes disappear a little later?Do they disappear on both sides of the neck at once ? What becomes of


Toad development in a single season {1Q03).

1-18, Changes and growth from April to November 9-14. Different sizes, July 30, 1903

1-13 Development Vn 25 to 60 days 15-18 Different sizes, October 21, 1903

10, 11. The same tadpole, 11 is 47 hours olderthan 10

12, 13, The same tadpole, 13 is 47 hours older than 12

Photo by S. H. Gage.

i88 Handbook of Nature-Study

them? How does the tadpole breathe? Can you see the little hole onthe left side, through which the water used for breathing passes?

5. How does the tail look and how is it used? How long is it in

proportion to the body? Describe the act of swimming.6. Which pair of legs appears first? How do they look? When they

get a little larger are they used as a help in swimming ? Describe the hindlegs and feet.

7. How long after the hind legs appear before the front legs or armsappear ? What happens to the breathing-pore when the left arm is pushedthrough?

8. After both pairs of legs are developed what happens to the tail?

What becomes of it ?

9. When the tadpole is very young can you see its eyes? How dothey look as it grows older? Do they ever bulge out like toads' eyes?

10. As the tadpole gains its legs and loses its tail how does it changein its actions? How does it swim now? Does it come oftener to thesurface ? Why ?

11. Describe the difference between the front and the hind legs andthe front and the hind feet on the fully grown tadpole. If the tail ora leg is bitten off by some other creature will it grow again ?

LESSON XLVThe Toad

Leading thought—The toad is colored so that it resembles the soil andthus escapes the observation of its enemies. It lives in damp places andeats insects, usually hunting them at night. It has powerful hind legs

and is a vigorous jumper.Metliod—Make a moss garden in a glass aquarium jar thus: Place

some stones or gravel in the bottom of the jar and cover with moss.Cover the jar with a wire screen. The moss should be deluged withwater at least once a day and the jar should be placed where the directsunlight will not reach it. In this jar, place the toad for study.

Observations— i. Describe the general color of the toad above andbelow. How does the toad's back look? Of what use are the warts onits back?

2

.

Where is the toad usually found ? Does it feel warm or cold to thehand? Is it slimy or dry? The toad is a cold-blooded animal, what doesthis mean ?

3. Describe the eyes and explain how their situation is of specialadvantage to the toad. Do you think it can see in front and behind andabove all at the same time. Does the bulge of the eyes help in this?Note the shape and color of the pupil and iris. How does the toad wink?

4. Find and describe the nostrils. Find and describe the ear.

Note the swelling above and just back of the ear. Do you know the useof this?

5. What is the shape of the toad's mouth? Has it any teeth? Isthe toad's tongue attached to the front or the back part of the mouth?How is it used to catch insects?

6. Describe the "arms and hands." How many "fingers" on the"hand?" Which way do the fingers point when the toad is sitting down?

Batrachian Stiidy 189

7. Describe the legs and feet. How many toes are there? What is

the relative length of the toes and how are they connected? What is this

web between the toes for? Why are the hind legs so much larger thanthe front legs?

8. Will a toad change color if placed upon different colored objects?

How long does it take it to do this? Of what advantage is this to thetoad?

9. Where does the toad live? When it is disturbed how does it act?

How far can it jump? If very frightened does it flatten out and lie still?

Why is this?

10. At what time does the toad come out to hunt insects? How does

it catch the insect? Does it swallow an earthworm head or tail first?.

When swallowing an earthworm or large insect, how does it use its

hands? How does it act when swallowing a large mouthful?11. How does the toad drink? Where does it remain during the day?

Describe how it burrows into the earth.

12. What happens to the toad in the winter? What does it do in

the spring? Is it a good swimmer? How does it use its legs in swimming?13. How does the toad look when croaking? What sort of a noise

does it make?14. Describe the action of the toad's throat when breathing. Did

you ever see a toad shed its skin?

15. What are the toad's enemies? How does it act when caught bya snake? Does it make any noise? Is it swallowed head or tail first?

What means has it of escaping or defending itself from its enemies ?

16. How is the toad of great use to the farmer and gardener?References—"The Life History of the Toad," by S. H. Gage, Cornell

Nature-Study Volume; The Frog Book, Dickerson.Supplementary reading—"Yi' Annk, the fat one," A Little Brother to

the Bear, Long.

"In the early years we are not to teach nature as science, ive are not to teach it

primarily for method or for drill: we are to teach it for loving—and this is nature-

study. On these points I make no compromise."

—L. H. Bailey,

190 Handbook of Nalure-Study

THE TREE-FROG, OR TREE-TOAD

Teacher's Story

"Ere yet the earliest warbler wakes, of coming spring to tell.

From every marsh a chorus breaks, a choir invisible,

As if the blossoms underground, a breath of utterance had found."—Tabb.

SSOCIATED with the first songs of robin and bluebird,is the equally delightful chorus of the spring peepers,yet how infrequently do most of us see a member ofthis invisible choir! There are some creatures whichare the quintessence of the slang word "cute" which,interpreted, means the pefection of Lilliputian pro-portions, permeated with undaunted spirit. Thechickadee is one of these, and the tree-frog is another.

I confess to a thrill of delight when the Picker-ing's hyla lifts itself on its tiny front feet, twistsits head knowingly, and turns on me the full

gaze of its bronze-rimmed eyes. This is thetiniest froglet of them all, being little more thanan inch long when fully grown; it wears theGreek cross in darker color upon its back, withsome stripes across its long hind legs which join

the pattern on the back when the frog is "shutup," as the boys say.

The reason we see so little of tree-frogs, is

because they are protected from discovery bytheir color. They have the chameleon powerof changing color to match their background.The Pickering's hyla will effect this change in

twenty minutes; in this species, the darkerlines forming the cross change first, giving am.ottled appearance which is at once protective.

I have taken three of these peepers, all of thempale yellowish brown with gray markings, andhave placed one upon a fern, one on dark soil

and one on the purple bud of a flower. Withinhalf an hour, each matched its surroundings so

closely, that the casual eye would not detectthem. The song of the Pickering's hyla is aresonant chirp, very stirring when heard nearby;it sounds somewhat like the note of a water bird.

How such a small creature can make such a loudnoise, is a mystery. The process, however, maybe watched at night by the light of a lamp, as

none of the tree-frogs seem to pay any atten-

tion to an artificial light; the thin' membranebeneath the throat swells out until it seemsalmost large enough to balloon the little chap off

his perch. No wonder that, with such a sound- „. . , , .

ing-sac. the note is stirring. There are several ^ pYckering'T'^da!''^^species of tree-frogs that trill in the branches Photo by Gyrus Crosby.


above our heads all summer, and their songs are sometimes mistaken for

those of the cicada, which is far more shrill.

The tree-frogs have toes and fingers ending in little round discs whichsecrete at will a substance by means of which they can cling to vertical

surfaces, even to glass. In fact, the way to study these wonderful feet is

when the frog is climbing up the sides of the glass jar. The fingers are

arranged, two short inside ones, a long one, and another short one outside.

The hind feet have three shorter inside toes quite far apart, along one at the tip of the foot and a shorter one outside. When climbing

a smooth surface like glass, the toes are spread wide apart, and there

are other little clinging discs on their lower sides, although not so

large as those at the tips. It is by means of these sticky, disc-like toes

that the tree-frogs hold themselves upon the tree trunks.

The whole body of the tree-frog is covered with little tubercles,

which give it a roughened appearance. The eyes are black with the iris

of reddish color. The tongue is like that of other frogs, hinged to thefront of the lower jaw; it is sticky and can be thrust far out to captureinsects, of which the tree-frogs eat vast numbers.

The hylas breathe by the rapid pulsation of the membrane of

the throat, which makes the whole body tremble. The nostrils aretwo tiny holes on either side of the tip of the snout. The ears are alittle below and just behind the eyes, and are in the form of a circular

slit.

The eggs of the spring peepers are laid in ponds during April; each

egg has a little globe of jelly about it and is fastened to a stone

or a water plant. The tadpoles are small and delicate; the under side

of the body is reddish and shines with metallic lustre. These tad-

poles differ from those of other frogs in that they often

leave the water while yetthe tail is still quite long.

In summer, they may befound among the leaves andmoss around the banksof ponds. They are in-

defatigable in hunting for

gnats, mosquitoes and ants;

their destruction of mosqui-toes, as pollywogs and as

grown up frogs, renders themof great use to us. The voice

of this peeper may be heardamong the shrubs and vines

or in trees during late sum-mer and until November.The little creatures sleep be-neath moss and leavesduring the winter, waking togive us the earliest news of

spring. Wree-frog tadpoles.

192 Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON XLVI

The Tree-frog or Tree-toad

Leading thought—The prettiest part of the spring chorus of the frog

ponds is sung by the tree-frogs. These little frogs have the tips of

their toes specially fitted for climbing up the sides of trees.

Metlwd—Make a moss garden in an aquarium jar or a two-quart can.

Place stones in the bottom and moss at one side, leaving a place onthe other side for a tiny pond of water. In this garden place a tree-

frog and cover the jar with mosquito netting and place in the shade.

The frogs may be found by searching the banks of a pond at nightwith a lantern. However, this lesson is usually given when byaccident the tree-frog is discovered. Any species of tree-frog will do; butthe Pickering's hyla, known everywhere as the spring peeper, is the mostinteresting species to study.

Observations— i. How large is the tree-frog? What is its color?

Describe the markings.2. Place the tree-frog on some light-colored surface like a piece of

white blotting paper. Note if it changes color after a half hour. Laterplace it upon some dark surface. Note if it changes color again. Howdoes this power of changing color benefit the tree-frog? Place a tree-frog

on a piece of bark. After a time is it noticeable?

3. Describe the eyes. Note how little the tree-frog turns its headto see anything behind it. Describe its actions if its attention is attractedto anything. What color is the pupil? The iris?

4. Note the movement of breathing. Where does this show the most?Examine the delicate membrane beneath the throat. What has this todo with the breathing?

5. What is the tree-frog's note? At what time of day does it peep?At what time of year? Describe how the frog looks when peeping.

6. How does the tree-frog climb? When it is climbing up a verticalsurface study its toes. How many on the front foot? How are theyarranged ? How many toes on the hind foot ? Sketch the front and hindfeet. How do the toe-discs look when pressed against the glass? Howdoes it manage to make the discs cling and then let go? Are there anymore discs on the under side of the toes ? Is there a web between the toesof the hind feet ? Of the front feet ?

7. Look at a tree-frog very closely and describe its nostrils and its ears.8. Are the tree-frogs good jumpers? What is the size and length of

the hind legs as compared with the body?9. When and where are the eggs of the tree-frog laid? How do they

look?

10. How do the tree-frog tadpoles differ from other tadpoles?Describe them if you have ever seen them. In what situations do theylive?

11. Of what use are the tree-frogs to us?References—"The Life History of' the Toad," Cornell Nature Study

Volume, S. H. Gage; The Frog Book, Dickerson; Familiar Life of Fieldand Forest, Mathews; American Natural History, Homaday; Elemen-tary Zoology, V. L. Kellogg; From River Ooze to Tree-top, Sharp.

Bairachian Study 193

Bullfrog.

THE FROG

Teacher's Story

\

HE stroller along brooksides, is likely to be surprised

some day, at seeing a bit of moss and earth suddenly

make a high leap and a far one, without apparentprovocation. An investigation resolves the clump of

moss into a brilliantly green and yellow, striped frog,

and then the stroller wonders how he could have over-

looked such an obvious creature. But the leopard

frog is only obvious when it is out of its environment.The common green frog is quite as well protected since its color is exactlythat of green pools. Most frogs spend their lives in or about water, andif caught on land, they make great leaps to reach their native element;the leopard frog and a few other species sometimes wander far afield.

In form, the frog is more slim than the toad, and is not covered withgreat warts; it is cold and slippery to the touch. The frog's only chanceof escaping its enemies, is through the slipperiness of its body and bymaking long, rapid leaps. As a jumper, the frog is much more powerfulthan the toad because its hind legs are so much larger and more muscular,in comparison with its size. The first toe in the front feet of the leopardfrog is much swollen, making a fat thumb ; the mechanics of the hind legs

make it possible for the frog to feather the webbed feet as it swims. Onthe bottom of the toes are hardened places at the joints, and sometimesothers besides, which give the foot a strong hold when pushing for the

jump. The toe tips, when they are pressed against the glass, resembleslightly the tree-toads' discs. The hind foot is very long, while on thefront foot the toes radiate almost in a circle. The foot and leg are

colored like the back of the body above, and on the under side resemblethe under parts.


The frog is likely to be much more brightly colored than the toad, andusually has much of green and yellow in its dress. But the frog lives

among green things, while it is to the toad's advantage to be the color of

the soil. Frogs also have the chameleon power of changing color, to

harmonize with their environment. I have seen a very green leopard

frog change to a slate-gray when placed upon slate-colored rock. Thechange took place in the green portions. The common green frog will

likewise change to slate-color, in a similar situation. A leopard frog

changed quickly from dark green to pale olive, when it was placed in the

water after having been on the soil.

The eyes of frogs are very prominent, and are beautiful when observedclosely. The green frog has a dark bronze iris with a gleaming gold edgearound the pupil, and around the outer margin. The eye of the leopard

frog is darker; the iris seems to be black, with specks of ruddy gold

scattered through it, and there is an outer band of red-gold around the

margin. When the frog winks, the nictitating membrane rises frombelow and covers the whole eye; and when the frog makes a special effort

of any sort, it has a comical way of drawing its eyes back into its head.

When trying to hide at the bottom of the aquarium, the leopard species

lets the eye-lids fall over the eyes, so that they do not shine up and attract

pursuers.

The ear is in a similar position to that of the toad, and in the bullfrog,

is larger than the eye. In the green frog, it is a dull grayish disc, almostas large as the eye. In the leopard frog, it is not so large as the eye, andhas a giltish spot at the center.

The nostrils are small and are closed when below the water, as may beeasily seen by a lens. The mouth opens widely, the comers extendingback under the eye. The jaws are homy and are armed with teeth,

which are for the purpose of biting off food rather than for chewing it.

When above water, the throat keeps up a rythmic motion which is theprocess of breathing; but when below water this motion ceases. Thefood of frogs is largely composed of insects, that frequent damp places

or that live in the water.

The sound-sacs of the frogs, instead of being beneath the throat, as is

the case with toads and tree-frogs, are at the side of the throat; and wheninflated, may extend from just back of the eyes, out above the front legs.

The song is characteristic, and pleasant to listen to, if not too close by.Perhaps exception should be made to the lay of the bullfrog, which like

the song of some noted opera singers, is more wonderful than musical;the boom of the bullfrog makes the earth fairly quake. If we seize thefrog by the hind leg, it will usually croak and thus demonstrate for us,

the position of its sound-sacs.

In addition to the snakes, the frogs have inveterate enemies in theherons which frequent shallow water, and eat them in great numbers.The frogs hibernate in mud and about ponds, burrowing deep enough toescape freezing. In the spring, they come up and sing their spring songsand the mother frogs lay their eggs in masses of jelly on the bottom of thepond, usually where the water is deeper than in the situations where thetoads' eggs are laid. The eggs of the two can always be distinguished,since the toads' are laid in strings of jelly, while the frogs' are laid in masses.

It is amusing to watch with a lens, the frog tadpoles seeking tor theirmicroscopic food along the glass of the aquarium. There are horny


upper and lower jaws, the latter being below and back of the former. Theupper jaw moves back and forth slightly and rythmically, but the drop-ping of the lower jaw opens the mouth. There are three rows of tiny

black teeth below the mouth and one row above; at the sides and belowthese teeth are little, finger-like fringes. Fringes, rows of teeth and jawsall work together, up and down, out and in, in the process of breathing.

The nostrils, although minute, are present in the tadpole in its early

stages. The pupil of the eye is almost circular and the iris is usually

yellow or copper-bronze, with black mottling. The eyes do not wink norwithdraw. The breathing-pore on the left side, is a hole in a slight

protuberance.At first, the tadpoles of the frogs and toads are very much alike ; but

later, most of the frog tadpoles are lighter in color, usually being olive-

green, mottled with specks of black and white. The frog tadpoles usually

remain much longer than the toads in the tadpole stage, and when finally

they change to adults, they are far larger in size than the toads are, whenthey attain their jumping legs.

Frog's eggs.

LESSON XLVII

The Frog

Leading thought—The frog lives near or in ponds or streams. It is apowerful jumper and has a slippery body. Its eggs are laid in masses of

jelly at the bottom of ponds.Method—The frog may be studied in its native situation by the pupils

or it may be brought to the school and placed in an aquarium; however,to make a frog aquarium there needs to be a stick or stone projectingabove the water, for the frog likes to spend part of the time entirely

out of water or only partially submerged.Observations— i . Where is the frog found ? Does it live all its life in

the water? When found on land how and where does it seek to escape?2. Compare the form of the frog with that of the toad. Describe

the skin, its color and texture. Compare the skin of the two.

3. Describe the colors and markings of the frog on the upper andon the under side. How do these protect it from observation from above ?

From below? How do we usually discover that we are in the vicinity of afrog?

4. Describe the frog's ears, eyes, nostrils and mouth.5. Compare its "hands and feet" with those of the toad. Why the

difference in the hind legs and feet?


6. How does the frog feel to your hand? Is it easy to hold him?How does this sHpperiness of the frog benefit it?

7. On what does the frog feed? What feeds on it? How does it

escape its enemies?8. What sounds does the frog make? Where are its sound sacs

located ? How do they look when they are inflated ?

9. Is the frog a good swimmer? Is it a better jumper than the toad?Why?

10. Where are the frog's eggs laid? How do they look?

11. Can you tell the frog tadpoles from those of the toad? Whichremains longer in the tadpole stage? Study the frog tadpoles, following

the questions given in Lesson XLIV.12. What happens to the frog in winter?

FESTINA LENTEOnce on a time there wa'! a poolFringed all about with flag-leaves cool

And spotted with cow-lilies garish.

Of frogs and pouts the ancient parish.

Alders the creaking redwings sink on.

Tussocks that house blithe Bob 0' Lincoln,Hedged round the unassailed seclusion.

Where muskrats piled their cells Carthu-sian;

And many a tnoss-enibroidered log.

The watering-place of summer frog.

Slept and decayed with patient skill.

As watering-places sometimes will.

Now in this Abbey of Theleme,Which realized the fairest dreamThat ever dozing bull-frog had.Sunned, on a half-sunk lily pad.There rose a party with a missionTo mend the polliwog's condition.

Who notified the selectmenTo call a meeting there and then.

"Some kind of steps," they said, "areneeded;

They don't come on so fast as we did:

Let' s dock their tails; if that don't make'em

Frogs by brevet, the Old One take 'em!That boy, that came the other dayTo dig some flag-root down this way.His jack-knife left, and 'tis a signThat Heaven approves of our design:' T were wicked not to urge the step on.

When Providence has sent the weapon.".Old croakers, deacons of the mire,That led the deep batrachian choir,

"Ukl Uk! CaronkI" with bass that mightHave left Lablache's out of sight.

Shook nobby heads, and said "No, go!

You'd better let 'em try to grow:Old Doctor Time is slow, but still

He does know how to make a pill."

But vain was all their hoarsest bass,

Their old experience out of place,

And spite of croaking and entreating

The vote was carried in marsh-meeting."Lord knows, "protest the polliwogs,"We're anxious to be grown-up frogs;But don't push in to do the workOf Nature till she prove a shirk;

'Tis not by jumps that she advances.But wins her way by circumstances;Pray, wait awhile, until you knowWe're so contrived as not to grow;Let Nature take her own direction.

And she'll absorb our imperfection;You mightn't like 'em to appear with.But we must have the things to steer with.""No," piped the party of reform,"All great results are ta'en by storm;Fate holds her best gifts till we showWe've strength to make her let them go;The Providence that works in history.

And seems to some folks such a mystery,Does not creep slowly on, incog..

But moves by jumps, a mighty frog;No more reject the Age's chrism.Your queues are an anachronism;No more the future's promise mock.But lay your tails upon the block.

Thankful that we the means have votedTo have you thus to frogs promoted."The thing was done, the tails were cropped.And home each philotadpole hopped.In faith rewarded to exult.

And wait the beautiful result.

Too soon it caine; our pool, so longThe theme of patriot hull-frog' s song.Next day was reeking, fit to smother.With heads and tails that missed each

other,—Here snoutless tails, there tailless snouts;The only gainers were the pouts.

MORALFrom lower to tJie higher next.

Not to the top is Nature's text;

And embryo Good, to reach full stature.

Absorbs the Evil in its nature.

—Lowell


THE NEWT, EFT, OR SALAMANDER

Teacher's Story

FTER a rain in spring or summer, we see these little orange-red

creatures sprawling along roads or woodland paths, andsince they are rarely seen except after rain, the wise people

of old, declared they rained down, which was an easy wayfor explaining their presence. But the newts do not rain

down, they rain up instead, since if they have journeys to make theymust needs go forth when the ground is wet, otherwise they would dry

up and die. Thus, the newts make a practice of never going out except

when it rainS; A closer view of the eft shows plenty of peculiarities

in its appearance to interest us. Its colors are decidedly gay, the bodycolor being orange, ornamented with vermilion dots along each side of

the back, each red dot margined with tiny black specks; but the eft is

careless about these decorations and may have more spots on one side

than on the other. Besides these vermilion dots, it is also adornedwith black specks here and there, and especially along its sides looks as

if it had been peppered. The newt's greatest beauty lies in its eyes;

these are black, with elongated pupils, almost parallel with the length of

the head, and bordered above and below with bands of golden, shining iris

which give the eyes a fascinating brilliancy. The nostrils are mere pin-

holes in the end of the snout.

The legs and feet look queerly inadequate for such a long body, since

they are short and far apart. There are four toes on the front feet andfive on the hind feet, the latter being decidedly pudgy. The legs are

thinner where they join the body and wider toward the feet. The eft

can move very rapidly with its scant equipment of legs. It has a mis-leading way of remaining motionless for a long time and then dartingforward like a flash, its long body falling into graceful curves as it moves.But it can go very slowly when exploring; it then places its little handscautiously and lifts its head as high as its short arms will allow, in order to

take observations. Although it can see quite well, yet on an unusualsurface, like glass, it seems to feel the way by touching its lower lip to thesurface as if to test it. The tail is flattened at the sides and is used to

twine around objects in time of need ; and I am sure it is also used to pushthe eft while crawling, for it curves this way and that vigorously, as thefeet progress, and obviously pushes against the ground. Then, too, thetail is an aid when, by some chance, the eft is turned over on its back, for

with its help, it can right itself speedily. The eft's method of walking is

interesting; it moves forward one front foot and then the hind foot onthe other side; after a stop for rest, it begins just where it left off whenit again starts on. Its beautiful eyes seem to serve the newt well indeed,for I find that, when it sees my face approaching the moss jar, it climbspromptly over to the other side. There are no eyelids for the goldeneyes, but the eft can pull them back into its head and close the slit afterthem, thus making them very safe.

The eft with whose acquaintance I was most favored, was not yetmature and was afraid of earthworms ; but he was very fond of plant-liceand it was fun to see the little creature stalking them. A big rose plant-louse would be squirming with satisfaction as it sucked the juice of theleaf, when the eft would catch sight of it and become greatly


excited, evidently holding his breath since the pulsating throat

would become rigid. There was a particularly alert attitude of the

whole front part of

the body and espec-

ially of the eyes andthe head; then theneck would stretch

out long and thin,

the orange snout ap-

p r o a c h stealthily

within half an inch

of the smug aphid,

and then there was a

flash as of lightning,

something too swift

to see coming out of

the eft's mouth andswooping up the un-

Red-spotted newt stalking plant-lice. q^, ^.1.^ IH V.

'

a gulp or two and all would be over. If the aphid happened to be a bigone, the eft made visible effort to swallow it. Sometimes his eftship

would become greatly excited when he first saw the plant-louse, and hewould sneeze and snort in a very comical way, like a dog, when eagerfor game.

The following is the history of this species as summarized from Mrs. S.

H. Gage's charming "Story of Little Red Spot." The egg was laid in somefresh water pond or the still borders of some stream where there is agrowth of water weed. The egg, which is about the size of a small pea,is fastened to a water plant. It is covered with a tough but translucentenvelope, and has at the center a little yellowish globule. In a little less

than a month the eft hatches, but it looks very different from the formwith which we are most familiar. It has gray stripes upon its sides andthree tiny bunches of red gills on each side, just back of its broad head.The tail is long and very thin, surrounded by a fin; it is an expert swim-mer and breathes water as does a fish. After a time, it becomes greenishabove and buff below, and by the middle of August it develops legs andhas changed its form so that it is able to live upon land; it no longer hasgills or fin ; soon the coat changes to the bright orange hue which makesthe little creature so conspicuous.

The newt usually keeps hidden among moss, or under leaves, or indecaying wood, or other damp and shady places; but after a rain, whenthe whole world is damp, it feels confidence enough to go out in the open,and hunt for food. For two and a half years it lives upon land and thenreturns to the water. When this impulse comes upon it, it may be farfrom any stream; but it seems to know instinctively where to go. Soonafter it enters the water, it is again transformed in color, becoming olive-

green above and buff below, although it still retains the red spots alongthe back, as mementos of its land life; and it also retains its pepper-likedots. Its tail develops a fin which extends along its back and is some-what ruffled. In some mysterious way it develops the power to againbreathe the air which is mixed with water.


The male has the hind legs very large and fiat; the female is lighter

in color and has more delicate and smaller legs. It is here in the waterthat the efts find their mates and finish careers which must have surely

been hazardous. During its long and varied life, the eft often sheds its

skin like the snake; it has a strange habit of swallowing its cast-ofE coat.

LESSON XLVIII

The Newt, Eft, or "Salamander"

Leading thought—The newts change their form three

times to fit different modes of life. They are born in the

water and at first have fins and gills like fishes. They then

Hve on land, and have lungs for breathing air and lose

their fins; later they go back to the water and again

develop the power of breathing the oxygen contained in

water, and also a fin.

Method—The little, orange eft or red-spotted salaman-

der may be kept in an aquarium which has in it anobject, as a stone or a clump of moss which projects above 1; )fi

the water. For food it should be given small earthworms Early stage of

or leaves covered with plant lice. In this way it may be vermil ion-

studied at leisure._ Te!sofZ7wt

Observations— i. Look at the eft closely. Is it all the attached to

same color? How many spots upon its back and what water plant.

colors are they? Are there the same number of spots on Drawn by Anna

both sides? Are there any spots or dots besides these""^

larger ones? How does the eft resemble a toad?

2. Is the head the widest part of the body? Describe the eyes, the

shape and color of the pupil and of the iris. How does the eft wink?Do you think it can see well ?

3. Can you see the nostrils? How does the throat move and why?4. Are iDoth pairs of legs the same size ? How many toes on the front

feet? How many toes on the hind feet? Does the eft toe-in with its

front feet like a toad?

5. Does it move more than one foot at a time when walking ? Does it

use the feet on the same side in two consecutive steps? After putting for-

ward the right front foot what foot follows next ? Can it move backward ?

6. Is the tail as long as the head and body together? Is the tail

round or flat at the sides? How is it used to help the eft when traveling?

Does the tail drag or is it lifted, or does it push by squirming?

7. How does the eft act when startled? Does it examine its sur-

roundings ? Do you think it can see and is afraid of you ?

8. Why do we find these creatures only during wet weather? Whydo people think they rain down?

9. What does the eft eat? How does it catch its prey? Does it shedits skin ? How many kinds of efts have you seen ?

10. From what kind of egg does the eft hatch? When is this egglaid? How does it look? On what is it fastened?

1 1

.

How many times during its life does the orange eft change color?

What part of its life is spent upon land? What changes take place in its

form when it leaves the water for life upon land, and what changes takeplace in its structure when it returns to the water?


IV. REPTILE STUDY

Yet Tvhen a child and barefoot; I more than once, at morn.

Have passed, I thought, a whiplash unhraided in the sun,

When, stooping to secure it, it wrinkled, and was gone.

—Emily Dickinson.

' F the teacher could bring herself to take as much interest as

did Mother Eve in that "subtile animal," as the Bible calls

the serpent, she might, through such interest, enter the

paradise of the boyish heart instead of losing a paradise of

her own. How many teachers, who have an aversion for

snakes, are obliged to teach small boys whose pet diversion

is capturing these living ribbons and bringing them into

the schoolroom stowed away not too securely in pockets!In one of the suburban Brooklyn schools, boys of this ilk sought to

frighten their teacher with their weird prisoners. But she was equal tothe occasion, and surprised them by declaring that there were manyinteresting things to be studied about snakes, and forthwith sent to thelibrary for books which discussed these reptiles; and this was the begin-ning of a nature-study club of rare efficiency and enterprise.

There are abroad in the land, many errors concerning snakes. Mostpeople believe that they are all venomous, which is far from true. Therattlesnake still holds its own in rocky, mountainous places and themoccasin haunts the bayous of the southern coast; however, in mostlocalities, snakes are not only harmless but are beneficial to the farmer.The superstition that if a snake is killed, its tail will live until sun-down, is

general and has but slender foundation in the fact that snakes, beinglower in their nerve-organization than mammals, the process of death is aslow one. Some people firmly believe that snakes spring or jump fromthe ground to seize their prey, which is quite false since no snake jumpsclear of the ground as it strikes, nor does it spring from a perfect coil.

Nor are snakes slimy, quite to the contrary, they are covered with per-

fectly dry scales. But the most general superstition of all is that, whena snake thrusts out its tongue, it is an act of animosity; the fact is, thetongue is a sense organ and is used as an insect uses its feelers or antennae,and the act is also supposed to aid the creature in hearing; thus when asnake thrusts out its tongue, it is simply trying to find out about its sur-

roundings and what is going on.

Snakes are the only creatures able to swallow objects larger thanthemselves. This is rendered possible by the elasticity of the body walls,

and the fact that snakes have an extra bone hinging the upper to the lowerjaw, allowing them to spread widely; the lower jaw also separates at themiddle of its front edge and spreads apart sidewise. In order to force acreature into a "bag" so manifestly too small, a special mechanism is

needed; the teeth supply this by pointing backward, and thus assist in

the swallowing. The snake moves by literally walking on the ends of its

ribs, which are connected with the crosswise plates on its lower side; eachof these crosswise plates has the hind edge projecting down so that it canhold to an object. Thus, the graceful, noiseless progress of the snake, is

brought about by many of these crosswise plates worked by the move-ment of the ribs.

Reptile Study 201

Some species of snakes simply chase their prey, striking at it andcatching it in the open mouth, while others, like the black snake, windthemselves about their victims crushing them to death. Snakes can live

a long time without food; many instances on record show that they havebeen able to exist a year or more without anything to eat. In our north-

1

em climate they hibernate in winter, going to sleep as soon as the weatherbecomes cold and not waking up until spring. As snakes grow, theyshed their skins ; this occurs only two or three times a year. The crested

fly-catcher adorns its nest with these phantom snakes.

References—The Reptile Book, by Ditmars, gives interesting accountsof our common snakes; Mathew's Familiar Life of Field and Forest is

also valuable. To add interest to the snake lessons let the children read"Kaas Hunting" and "Rikki TikkiTavi" from Kipling's Jungle Books.

THE GARTER, OR GARDEN, SNAKE

Teacher's Story

A chiptiiunk, or a sudden-whirring quail.

Is startled by my step as on I fare.

A gartersnake across the dusty trail,

Glances and — is not there.—Riley.

jARTER snakes can be easily tamed, and are ready to meetfriendly advances half way. A handsome yellow-striped,

black garter lived for four years beneath our piazza andwas very friendly and unafraid of the family. Thechildren of the campus made it frequent visits, and neverseemed to be weary of watching it; but the birds objected

to it very much, although it never attempted to reach their nests in thevine above. The garter snakes are the most common of all, in our North-eastern States. They vary much in color; the ground color may be olive,

brown or black, and down the center of the back is usually a yellow, greenor whitish stripe, usually bordered by a darker band of ground-color.On each side is a similar stripe, but not so brightly colored; sometimesthe middle stripe, and sometimes the side stripes are broken into spots orabsent; the lower side is greenish white or yellow. When fully grownthis snake is about three feet in length.

The garters are likely to congregate in numbers in places favorablefor hibernation, like rocky ledges or stony side-hills. Here each snakefinds a safe crevice, or makes a burrow which sometimes extends a yardor more under ground. During the warm days of Indian summer, thesewinter hermits crawl out in the middle of the day and sun themselves,retiring again to their hermitages when the air grows chilly toward night

;

and when the cold weather arrives, they go to sleep and do not awakenuntil the first warm days of spring; then, if the sun shines hot, theycrawl out and bask in its welcome rays.

After the warm weather comes, the snakes scatter to other localities

more favorable for finding food, and thus these hibernating places aredeserted during the summer. The banks of streams, and the edges ofwoods are places which furnish snakes their food, which consists of earth-worms, insects, toads, salamanders, frogs, etc. The young are bom late


in July and are about six inches long at birth; one mother may have in

her brood from eleven to fifty snakelings; she stays with them during

the fall to protect them, and there are many stories about the way the

young ones run down the mother's throat in case of attack; but, as yet,

no scientist has seen this act, or placed it on record. The little snakes

shift for their own food, catching small toads, earthworms and insects.

If it finds food in plenty, the garter snake will mature in one year.

Hawks, crows, skunks, weasels and other predacious animals seem to find

the garter snake attractive food.

Garter snakes.

LESSON XLIX

The Garter, or Garden, Snake

Leading thought—The garter snake is a common and harmless little

creature and has many interesting habits which are worth studying.Method—A garter snake may be captured and placed in a box with a

glass cover and thus studied in detail in the schoolroom, but the lesson

should begin with observations made by the children on the snakes in

their native haunts.

Observations— i. What are the colors and markings of your gartersnake? Do the stripes extend along the head as well as the body? Howlong is it?

2. Describe its eyes, its ears, its nostrils and its mouth.3. If you disturb it how does it act? "Why does it thrust its tongue

out? What shape is its tongue?

Reptile Study 203

4. In what position is the snake when it rests? Can you see howit moves? Look upon the lower side. Can you see the httle plates

extending crosswise? Do you think it moves by moving these plates?

Let it crawl across your hand, and see if you can tell how it moves.

5. What does the garter snake eat? Did you ever see one swallow

a toad? A frog? Did it take it head first or tail first

?

6. Where does the garter spend the winter? How early does it

appear in the spring ?

7

.

At what time of year do you see the young snakes ? Do the youngones run down the throat of the mother for safety when attacked? Does

the mother snake defend her young?8. What enemies has the garter snake?

"No life in earth or air or sky;The sunbeams, broken silently,

On the bared rocks around me lie,—Cold rocks with half-warmed lichens scarred.

And scales of moss; and scarce a yardAway, one long strip, yellow-barred.

Lost in a cleft! 'Tis but a stride

To reach it, thrust its roots aside,

And lift it on thy stick astride!

Yet stay! That moment is thy grace!

For round tliee, thrilling air and space,

A chattering terror fills tlie place!

A sound as of dry bones titat stir.

In the dead valley! By yon fir

The locust stops its noon-day whir!

The wild bird hears; smote with the sound.As if by bullet brought to groundOn broken wing, dips, wheeling round!

The hare, transfixed, with trembling lip,

Halts breathless, on pulsating hip.

And palsied tread, and heels that slip.

Enough, old friend!—'tis thou. ForgetMy heedless foot, nor longer fret

The peace with thy grim Castanet!"

From "Crotalus" (The Rattlesnake), Bret Hartb.


THE MILK SNAKE, OR SPOTTED ADDERTeacher's Story

The grass divides as with a coinh, a spotted shaft xs seen.

And then it closes at your jeet, and opens farther on.

—Emilv Dickinson.

IHIS is the snake which is said to milk cows, a mostabsurd beUef ; it would not milk a cow if it could, andit could not if it would. It has never yet been induced

to drink milk when in captivity; and if it were very

thirsty, it could not drink more than two teaspoonfuls

of milk at most; thus in any case, its depredations

upon the milk supply need not be feared. Its object,

in frequenting milk houses and stables, is far other than

the milking of cows, for it is an inveterate hunter of

rats and mice and is thus of great benefit to the farmer. It is a constric-

tor, and squeezes its prey to death in its coils.

The ground color of the milk snake is pale gray, but it is covered with

so many brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches, that they seemrather to form the ground-color; the lower side is white, marked withsquare black spots and blotches. The snake attains a length of aboutthree feet when fully grown. Although it is called commonly the spottedadder, it does not belong to the adders at all, but to the family of the kingsnakes.

During July and August, the mother snake lays from seven to twentyeggs; they are deposited in loose soil, in moist rubbish, in compost heaps,etc. The egg is a symmetrical oval in shape and is about one and one-

eighth inches long by a half inch in diameter. The shell is soft and white,

like kid leather, and the egg resembles a puffball. The young hatchnearly two months after the eggs are laid, meanwhile the eggs have in-

creased in size so that the snakelings are nearly eight inches long when theyhatch. The saddle-shaped blotches on the young have much red in them.The milk snake is not venomous; it will sometimes, in defence, try to

chew the hand of the captor, but the wounds it can inflict are very slight

and heal quickly.

The milk snake, or spotted adder.

Reptile Study 205

LESSON L.

The Milk Snake, or Spotted Adder

Leading thought—The milk snake is found around stables where it

hunts for rats and mice but never milks the cows.

Method—Although the snake acts fiercely, it is perfectly harmless andmaybe captured in the hands and placed in a glass-covered box for a study

in the schoolroom.Observations— i. Where is the milk snake found? Why is it called

milk snake? Look at its mouth and see if you think it could possibly

suck a cow. See if you can get the snake to drink milk.

2. What does it hve upon? How does it kill its prey? Can the

milk snake climb a tree?

3. Where does the mother snake lay her eggs? How do the eggs

look? How large are they? How long are the little snakes when theyhatch from the egg? Are they the same color as the old ones?

4. Describe carefully the colors and markings of the milk snake andexplain how its colors protect it from observation. What are its colors onthe under side?

5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its skin? Describe how it wasdone. How does the sloughed-off skin look? What bird always putssnake skins around its nest?

I have the same objection to killing a snake that I have to the killing of any other

animal, yet the most hutnane tnan I know never omits to kill one.

Aug. 5, 1853.

The mower on the river meadows, when he comes to open his hay these days, en-

counters some overgrown water adder, fidl of young (?) and bold in defense of its

progeny, and tells a tale when he comes home at night which causes a shudder to runthrough the village—how it came at hitn and he ran, and it pursued and overtook him,

and he transfixed it with a pitchfork and laid it on a cock of hay, but it revived and cameat him again. This is the story he tells in the shops at evening. The big snake is a sort

of fabulous animal. It is always as big as a man's arm and of indefinite length.

Nobody knows exactly how deadly is its bite hut nobody is known to have been bitten andrecovered. Irishmen introduced into these meadows for the first time, on seeing a snake,

a creature which they have seen only in pictures before, lay down their scythes and run

as if it were the Evil One himself and cannot be induced to return to their work. Theysigh for Ireland, where they say there is no venomous thing that can hurt you.

—Thoreau's Journal.


THE WATER SNAKETeacher's Story

rVERY boy that goes fishing, knows the snake found com-monl}'' about mill-dams and wharves or on rocks andbushes near the water. The teacher will have accomplished

a great work, if these boys are made to realize that this

snake is a more interesting creature for study, than as anobject to pelt with stones.

The water snake is a dingy brown in color, with cross-

bands of brownish or reddish brown which spread out into blotches at

the side. Its color is very protective as it lies on stones or logs in its

favorite attitude of sunning itself. It is very local in its habits, andgenerally has a favorite place for basking and returns to it year after

year on sunny days.

This snake lives mostly upon frogs and salamanders and fish ; however,it preys usually upon fish of small value, so it is of little economic import-

ance. It catches its victims by chasing, and seizing them in its jaws.

It has a very keen sense of smell and probably traces its prey in this

manner, something as a hound follows a fox. It is an expert swimmer,usually lifting the head a few inches above the water when swimming,although it is able to dive and remain below the water for a short time.

The water snake is a bluffer, and, when cornered, it flattens itself andstrikes fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison and it can inflict only

slight and harmless wounds. When acting as if it would "rather fight thaneat," if given a slight chance to escape, it will flee to the water like a"streak of greased lightning," as any boy will assure you.

The water stiake.

Reptile Study 207

The water snake attains a length of about four feet. The young donot hatch from eggs, but are bom aUve in August and September; theydiffer much in appearance from their parents as they are pale gray in

color, with jet-black cross-bands.

LESSON LI

The Water Snake

Leading thought—The water snake haunts the banks of streams becauseits food consists of creatures that live in and about water.

Method—If water snakes are found in the locality, encourage the boysto capture one without harming it, and bring it to school for observation.

However, as the water snake is very local in its habits, and haunts thesame place year after year, it will be better nature-study to get the children

to observe it in its native surroundings.Observations— i . Where is the water snake found ? How large is the

largest one you ever saw?2. Why does the water snake live near water? What is its food?

How does it catch its prey?

3. Describe how the water snake swims. How far does its headproject above the water when swimming? How long can it stay com-pletely beneath the water?

4. Describe the markings and colors of the water snake. How dothese colors protect it from observation? How do the young look?

5. Does each water snake have a favorite place for sunning itself?

6. Where do the water snakes spend the winter?

May 12, 1858.

Found a large water adder by the edge of Farmer's large mudhole, which abottndswith tadpoles and frogs, on which it was probably feeding. It was sttnning on the bankand would face ^ne and dart its head toward me when I tried to drive it from the water.It is barred above, but indistinctly when out of the water, so that it appears almostuniformly dark brown, but in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are seen, very dis-tinctly alternating with very dark-brown ones. The head was very fiat and suddenlybroader than the neck behind. Beneath, it was whitish and reddish flesh-color. It wasabout two inches in diameter at the thickest part. The inside of its mouth and throatwas pink. They are the biggest and most formidable-looking snakes that we have. Itwas awful to see it wind along the bottom, of the ditch at last, raising wreaths of mudamid the tadpoles, to which it must be a very sea-serpent. I afterward saw anotherrunning under Sam Barrett's grist-mill, the same afternoon. He said that he saw awater-snake, which he distinguished from a black snake, in an apple tree near by, lastyear, with a young robin in its mouth, having taken it from the nest. There was a cleftor fork in the tree which enabled it to ascend.

—Thoreau's Journal.

2o8 Handbook of NaHire-Stiidy

THE TURTLETeacher's Story

TURTLE is at heart a misanthrope; its shell is in itself proof of

its owner's distrust of this world. But we need not

wonder at this misanthropy, if we think for a momentof the creatures that lived on this earth, at the timewhen turtles first appeared. Almost any of us wouldhave been glad of a shell in whieh to retire, if we had

been contemporaries of the smilodon and other monsters of earlier geologic

times.

When the turtle feels safe and walks abroad for pleasure, his head pro-

jects far from the front end of his shell, and the legs, so wide, and soft thatthey look as if they had no bones in them, project out at the side, whilethe little, pointed tail brings up an undignified rear; but frighten himand at once head, legs and tail all disappear, and even if we turn him over,

we see nothing but the tip of the nose, the claws of the feet and the tail

turned deftly sidewise. When frightened, he hisses threateningly; thenoise seems to be made while the mouth is shut, and the breath emittedthrough the nostrils.

Carapace of painted terrapin in retirement. Plastron of same terrapin.

The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace and the lower shell,

the plastron. There is much difference in the different species of turtlesin the shape of the upper shell and the size and shape of the lower one.In most species the carapace is sub-globular but in some it is quite flat.

The upper shell is grown fast to the backbone of the animal, and thelower shell to the breast bone. The markings and colors of the sheU offerexcellent subjects for drawing. The painted terrapin has a red-mottledborder to the shell, very ornamental; the wood turtle has a shell made upof plates each of which is ornamented with concentric ridges; and the box-turtle has a front and rear trap-door, hinged to the plastron, which canbe pulled up against the carapace when the turtle wishes to retire, thuscovering it entirely.

Reptile Sttuiy 209

The turtle's head is decidedly snakelike. Its color differs with differ-

ent species. The wood turtle has a triangular, homy covering on thetop of the head, in which the color and beautiful pattern of the shell are

repeated; the underparts are brick-red with indistinct yellowish lines

under the jaw. The eyes are black with a yellowish iris, which somehowgives them a look of intelligence. The turtle has no eyelids like our own,but has a nictitating membrane which comes up from below and com-pletely covers the eye; if we seize the turtle by the head and attempt to

touch its eyes, we can see the use of this eyelid. When the turtle winks,

it seems to turn the eyeball down against the lower lid.

The sense of smell in turtles is not well developed, as may be guessedby the very small nostrils, which are mere pin-holes in the snout. Themouth is a more or less hooked beak, and is armed with cutting edgesinstead of teeth. The constant pulsation in the throat is caused by theturtle swallowing air for breathing.

The turtle's legs, al-

though so large and soft,

have bones within them,as the skeleton shows.The claws are long andstrong; there are five

claws on the front andfour on the hind feet.

Some species have a dis-

tinct web between thetoes; in others, it is less

marked, depending uponwhether the species lives

mostly in water or outof it. The color of theturtle's body varies withthe species; the body is

covered with coarse,

rough skin made up of

various-sized plates.

The enemies of turtles

are the larger fishes andother turtles. Two tur-

tles should never be keptin the same aquarium,since they eat eachothers' tails and legs withgreat relish. They feed

upon insects, small fish,

or almost anything soft-

bodied which they canfind in the water; theyare especially fond of

earthworms. The species which frequent the land, feed upon tendervegetation and also eat berries. In an aquarium, a turtle should befed earthworms, chopped fresh beef, lettuce leaves and berries. Thewood turtle is especially fond of cherries.

j^Hj^HHHi^H^^H^Hu^^ ^ ^ fi*.

2IO Handbook of Nature-Study

The aquarium should always have in it a stone or some othei object

projecting above the water, so that the turtle may climb out, if it chooses.

In winter, turtles bury themselves in the ooze at the bottom of ponds and

streams. Their eggs have white leathery sheUs, are oblong or round, and

are buried by the mother in the sand or soil near a stream or pond. The

long life of turtles is a well authenticated fact, dates carved upon their

shells show them to have attained the age of thirty or forty years.

The following are, perhaps, the most common species of turtles:

(a) The Snapping Turtle—This sometimes attains a shell 14 inches

long and a weight of forty pounds. It is a vicious creature and inflicts a

severe wound with its sharp, hooked beak; it should not be used for a

nature-study lesson unless the specimen is very young.(b) The Mud Turtle—The musk turtle and the common mud turtle

botla inhabit slow streams and ponds; they are truly aquatic and only

come to shore to deposit their eggs. They cannot eat, unless they are

under water, and they seek their food in the muddy bottoms. Themusk turtle when handled, emits a very strong odor; it has on eachside of the head two broad yellow stripes. The mud turtle has noodor. Its head is ornamented with greenish yellow spots.

(c) The Painted Terrapin, or Pond Turtle—This can be determined bythe red mottled border of its shell. It makes a good pet, if kept in anaquarium by itself, but will destroy other creatures. It will eat meat or

chopped fish, and is fond of earthworms and soft insects.

(d) The Spotted Turtle—This has the upper shell black with numerousround yellow spots upon it. It is common in ponds and marshy streamsand its favorite perch is, with many of its companions, upon a log. It

feeds under water, eating insect larvae, dead fish and vegetation. It

likes fresh lettuce.

(e) The Wood Terrapin—This is our most common turtle ; it is foundin damp woods and wet places, since it lives largely upon the land. Its

upper shell often reaches a length of six and one-half inches and is madeup of many plates, ornamented with concentric ridges. This is the turtle

upon whose shell people carve initials and dates and then set it free. All

the fleshy parts of this turtle, except the top of the head and the limbs,

are brick-red. It feeds on tender vegetables, berries and insects. It

makes an interesting pet and will soon learn to eat from the fingers of its

master.

(f) The Box-Turtle—This is easily distinguished from the others,

because the front and rear portions of the lower shell are hinged so thatthey can be pulled up against the upper shell. When this turtle is

attacked, it draws into the shell and closes both front and back doors, andis very safe from its enemies. It lives entirely upon land and feeds uponberries, tender vegetation and insects. It lives to a great age.

(g) The Soft-shelled Turtle—These are found in streams and canals.

The upper shell looks as if it were of one piece of soft leather, and resem-bles a griddle-cake. Although soft-shelled, these turtles are far from soft-

tempered, and must be handled with care.

Reptile Study 211

LESSON LII

The Turtle

Leading thought—The turtle's shell is

for the purpose of

protecting its ownerfrom the attack of

enemies. Some tur-

tles live upon land

and others in water.

Method—A turtle

of any kind, in the

schoolroom, is all

that is needed to

rrake this lesson in-

teresting.

Observati ns—I . How much can yousee of the turtle whenit is walking? I f

you disturb it whatdoes it do? Howmuch of it can yousee then? Can yousee more of it from the

A snapping turtle.

Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

lower side than the upper? What is the advantage to the turtle of

having such a shell ?

2. Compare the upper shell with the lower as follows: How are

they shaped differently? What is their difference in color? Would it

be a disadvantage to the turtle if the upper shell were as light colored

as the lower? Why? Make a d.-awing of the upper and the lower shell

showing the shape of the plates of which they are composed. Whereare the two grown together?

3. Is the border of the upper shell different from the central portionin color and markings? Is- the edge smooth or scalloped?

4. How far does the turtle's head project from the front of the shell?

What is the shape of the head? With what colors and pattern is it

marked? Describe the eyes. How are they protected ? How does theturtle wink? Can you discover the little eyelid which comes up frombelow to cover the eye?

5. Describe the nose and nostrils. Do you think it has a keen senseof smell?

6. Describe the mouth. Are there any teeth? With what does it

bite off its food? Describe the movement of the throat. Why is thisconstant pulsation?

7. What is the shape of the leg? How is it marked? How manyclaws on the front feet ? Are any of the toes webbed ? On which feet arethe webbed toes? Why should they be webbed? Describe the way aturtle swims. Which feet are used for oars?

8. Describe the tail. How much can be seen from above when theturtle is walking? What becomes of it, when the turtle withdraws intoits shell?

212 Harxdbook of Nature-Study

9. How much of the turtle's body can you see? What is its color?

Is it rough or smooth ?

10. What are the turtle's enemies? How does it escape from them?

What noise does the turtle make when frightened or angry?

11. Do all turtles live for part of the time in water? What is their

food and where do they find it? Write an account of all the species of

turtles that you know.12. How do turtle eggs look? Where are they laid? How are they

hidden?Supplementaly reading—"Turtle Eggs for Agassiz," Dalles Lore Sharp,

Altantic Monthly, Feb., 1910.

V. MAMMAL STUDY

OR some inexplicable reason, the word animal, in

common parlance, is restricted to the mammals.As a matter of fact, the bird, the fish, the insect

and the snake have as much right to be called animals as hasthe squirrel or the deer. And while I believe that muchfreedom in the matter of scientific nomenclature is permissible

in nature-study, I also believe that it is well for the child to

have a clearly defined idea of the classes into which the animalkingdom is divided; and I would have him gain this knowledgeby noting how one animal differs from another rather than bystudying the classification of animals in books. He sees

that the fish differs in many ways from the bird and that the

toad differs from the snake; andit will be easy for him to graspthe fact that the mammals differ from all other animals in that

the young are nourished by milk produced for this purpose in the breastsof the mother; when he understands this, he can comprehend how suchdiverse forms as the whale, the cow, the bat, and human beings are akin.

Mammal Study 213

A cotton-tail rabbit.

THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT

Teacher's Story

"The Bunnies are a feeble folk whose weakness is their strength.

To shun a gun a Bun will run to almost any length."—Oliver Herford.

T IS well for Molly Cotton-tail and her family that theyhave learned to shun more than guns for almost everypredatory animal and bird makes a dinner of them onevery possible occasion. But despite these enemies,moreover, with the addition of guns, men and dogs,the cotton-tail lives and flourishes in our midst. A"Molly' ' raised two families last year in a briar-patchback of our garden on the Cornell Campus, where dogsof many breeds abound; and after each fresh fall ofsnow this winter we ha.ve been able to ^trace ourbunny neighbors in their night wanderings aroundthe house, beneath the spruces and in the orchard.The track consists of two long splashes, paired,

and between and a little behind them, two smaller ones; the rabbituses its front feet as a boy uses a vaulting pole and lands bothhind feet on each side and ahead of them; owing to the fact that thebottoms of the feet are hairy the print is not clear-cut. When the rabbitis not in a hurry it has a peculiar lope, but when frightened it makes longJumps. The cotton-tails are night wanderers and usually remain hiddenduring the day. In summer, they feed on clover or grass or other juicyherbs and show a fondness for sweet apples and fresh cabbage; in our


garden last summer Molly was very considerate. She carefully pulled

all the grass out of the garden-cress bed, leaving the salad for our enjoy-

ment. In winter, the long, gnawing teeth of the cotton-tail are some-

times used to the damage of fruit trees and nursery stock since the rabbits

are obhged to feed upon bark in order to keep alive.

The long, strong hind legs and the long ears tell the whole bunnystory. Ears to hear the approach of the enemy, and legs to propel the

listener by long jumps to a safe retreat. The attitude of the ears is a goodindication of the bunny's state of mind; if they are set back to back anddirected backward, they indicate placidity, but a placidity that is alwayson guard; if lifted straight up they signify attention and anxiety; if oneis bent forward and the other backward the meaning is: "Now just

where did that sound come from?" When running or when resting in theform, the ears are laid back along the neck. When the cotton-tail standsup on its haunches with both ears erect, it looks very tall indeed.

Not only are the ears always alert, but also the nose; the nostrils are

partially covered and in order to be always sure of getting every scent

they wabble constantly, the split upper lip aiding in this performance;when the rabbit is trying to get a scent it moves its head up and down in asagacious, apprehensive manner.

The rabbit has an upper and lower pair of incisors like other rodents,

but on the upper jaw there is a short incisor on each side of the large

teeth; these are of no use now but are inherited from some ancestor whichfound them useful. There are at the back of each side of the upper jawsix grinding teeth, and five on each side of the lower jaw. The split

upper lip allows the free use of the upper incisors. The incisors are notonly used for taking the bark from trees, but also for cutting grass andother food. The rabbit has a funny way of taking a stem of grass or

clover at the end and with much wabbling of lips, finally taking it in,

meanwhile chewing it with a sidewise motion of the jaws. The rabbits'

whiskers are valuable as feelers, and are always kept on the qui vive for

impressions; when two cotton-tails meet each other amicably, they rubwhiskers together. The eyes are large and dark and placed on the bulgeat the side of the head, so as to command the view both ways. Probablya cotton-tail winks, but I never caught one in the act.

The strong hind legs of the rabbit enable it to make prodigious jumps,of eight feet or more; this is a valuable asset to an animal that escapesits enemies by running. The front feet are short and cannot be turnedinward like those of the squirrel, to hold food. There are five toes on thefront feet, and four on the hind feet; the hair on the bottom of the feet is

a protecti'on, much needed by an animal which sits for long periods uponthe snow. When sleeping, the front paws are folded under and the rabbitrests on the entire hind foot, with the knee bent, ready for a spring at theslightest alarm; when awake, it rests on the hind feet and front toes; andwhen it wishes to see if the coast is clear, it rises on its hind feet, withfront paws drooping.

The cotton-tail has a color well calculated to protect it from observa-tion; it is brownish -gray on the back and a little lighter along the sides,

grayish under the chin and whitish below; the ears are edged with black,and the tail when raised shows a large, white fluff at the rear. The generalcolor of the rabbit fits in with natural surroundings; since the cotton-tailoften escapes its enemies by "freezing," this color makes the scheme work

Mammal Study 21?

well. I once saw a marsh hare, on a stone in a brook, freezing most suc-

cessfully. I could hardly believe that a living thing could seem so

much like a stone; only its bright eyes revealed it to us.

The rabbit cleans itself in amusing ways.It shakes its feet, one at a time, with great

vigor and rapidity to get off the dirt and thenlicks them clean. It washes its face withboth front paws at once. It scratches its ear

with the hind foot, and pushes it forward so

that it can be licked; it takes hold of its fur

with its front feet to pull it around within

reach of the tongue.

The cotton-tail does not dig a burrow. Washing up.

but sometimes occupies the deserted burrowof a woodchuck or skunk. Its nest is called a "form," which simply

means a place beneath a cover of grass or briars, where the grass is beaten

down or eaten out for a space large enough for the animal to sit. Themother makes a soft bed for the young, using grass and her own hair for

the purpose; and she constructs a coarse felted coverlet, under which she

tucks her babies with care, every time she leaves them. Young rabbits

are blind at first, but when about three weeks old, are sufficiently grownto run quite rapidly. Although there may be five or six in a litter, yet

there are so many enemies that only a few escape.

Fox, mink, weasel, hawk, owl and snake all relish the young cotton-

tail if they can get it. Nothing but its runways through the briars cansave it. These roads wind in and out and across, twisting and turning

perplexingly; they are made by cutting off the grass stems, and are just

wide enough for the rabbit's body. However, a rabbit has weapons andcan fight if necessary; it leaps over its enemy, kicking it on the backfiercely with its great hind feet. Mr. Seton tells of this way of conqueringthe black snake, and Mr. Sharp saw a cat completely vanquished by thesame method. The rabbit can also bite, and when two males are fighting,

they bite each other savagely. Mr. E. W. Cleeves told me of a Belgian.

doe which showed her enmity to cats in a peculiar way. She would runafter any cats that came in sight, butting them like a billy-goat. The cats

soon learned her tricks, and would climb a tree as soon as they caughtsight of her. The rabbit's sound of defiance, is thumping the groundwith the strong hind foot. Some have declared that the front feet are

used also for stamping; although I have heard this indignant thumpingmore than once, I could not see the process. The cotton-tail is a hare,

while the common domestic rabbit is a true rabbit. The two differ

chiefly in the habits of nesting; the hares rest and nest in forms, whilethe rabbit rnakes burrows, digging rapidly with the front feet.

Not the least of tributes to the rabbit's sagacity, are the negro folk-

stories told by Uncle Remus, wherein Bre'r Rabbit, although often in

trouble, is really the most clever of all the animals. I have often thought

Rabbit tracks.

2l6 Hmvihook of Nature Study

when I have seen the tactics which rabbits have adopted to escape dogs,

that we in the North have under-rated the cleverness of this timid animal.

In one instance at least that came under our observation, a cotton-tail

led a dog to the verge of a precipice, then doubled back to safety, while

the dog went over, landing on the rocks nearly three hundred feet below.

LESSON_^LIII

The Cotton-tail Rabbit

heading thought—The cotton-tailthrives

amid civilization; its

color protects it fromsight; its long ears

give it warning of theapproach of danger;and its long legs en-

able it to run by swift,

long leaps. It feeds

upon grasses, clover,

vegetables and other

herbs.

Method—This, studyBelgian hares and Duteh rabbU.

^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

winter, when the rabbit tracks can be observed and the haunts of the

cotton-tail discovered. If caught in a box trap, the cotton-tail will be-

come tame if properly fed and cared for, and may thus be studied at

close range. The cage I have used for rabbits as thus caught, is madeof wire screen, nailed to a frame, making a wire-covered box, two feet

high and two or three feet square, with a door at one side and no bot-

tom. It should be placed upon oil-cloth or linoleum, and thus may be

moved to another carpet when the floor needs cleaning. If it is im-

possible to study the cotton-tail, the domestic rabbit may be used

instead.

Observations— i . What sort of tracks does the cotton-tail make in the

snow? Describe and sketch them. Where do you find these tracks?

How do you know which way the rabbit was going? Follow the track

and see if you can find where the rabbit went. When were these tracks

made, by night or by day? What does the rabbit do during the day?What does it find to eat during the winter? How are its feet protected

so that they do not freeze in the snow?2. What are the two most noticeable peculiarities of the rabbit?

Of what use are such large ears? How are the ears held when the rabbit

is resting? When startled? When not quite certain about the direction

of the noise? Explain the reasons for these attitudes. When the rabbit

wishes to make an observation to see if there is danger coming, what does

it do? How does it hold its ears then? How are the ears held when the

animal is running?

3

.

Do you think the rabbit has a keen sense of smell ? Describe themovements of the nostrils and explain the reason. How does it move its

head to be sure of getting the scent?

Mammal Study 217

4. What peculiarity is there in the upper lip? How would this be anaid to the rabbit when gnawing ? Describe the teeth; how do these differ

from those of the mouse or squirrel ? Of what advantage are the gnawingteeth to the rabbit ? How does it eat a stem of grass ? Note the rabbit's

whiskers. What do you think they are used for?

5. Describe the eyes. How are they placed so that the rabbit cansee forward and backward? Do you think that it sleeps with its eyes

open? Does it wink?6. Why is it advantageous to the rabbit to have such long, strong,

hind legs? Compare them in size with the front legs. Compare the front

and hind feet. How many toes on each? How are the bottoms of the

feet protected? Are the front feet ever used for holding food hke the

squirrel's? In what position are the legs when the rabbit is resting?

When it is standing? When lifted up for observation?

7. How does the cotton-tail escape being seen? Describe its coat.

Of what use is the white fluff beneath the tail? Have you ever seen awild rabbit "freeze" ? What is meant by freezing and what is the use of it?

8. In making its toilet how does the rabbit clean its face, ears, feet,

and fur ?

9. What do the cotton-tails feed upon during the summer? Duringthe winter? Do they ever do much damage?

10. Describe the cotton-tail's nest. What is it called? Does it everburrow in the ground ? Does it ever use a second-hand burrow ? Describethe nest made for the j'oung by the mother. Of what is the bed com-posed? Of what is the coverlet made? What is the special use of thecoverlet? How do the young cotton-tails look? How old are theybefore they are able to take care of themselves?

11. What are the cotton-tail's enemies? How does it escape them?Have you ever seen the rabbit roads in a briar patch ? Do you think thata dog or fox could follow them ? Do rabbits ever fight their enemies? If

so, how? How do they show anger? Do they stamp with the front orthe hind foot ?

12. Tell how the cotton-tail differs in looks and habits from thecommon tame rabbit. How do the latter dig their burrows? Howmany breeds of tame rabbits do you know?

13. Write or tell stories on the following topics: "A Cotton-tail's

Story of its Own Life Until it is a Year Old;" "The Jack-rabbit of theWest;" "TheHabitsof the White Rabbit or Varying Hare;" "The Rab-bit in Uncle Remus' Tales."

Supplementary reading—"Raggylug" and "Little War Horse," Thomp-son-Seton; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Watchers in theWoods, Sharp; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Familiar Life inField and Forest, Mathews; Sharp Eyes, Gibson; Neighbors with Clawsand Hoofs, Johonnot; True Tales of Birds and Beasts, Jordan; UncleRemus Stories, especially The Tar Baby, which emphasizes the fact thatthe rabbits' runways are in the protecting briar-patch.

2l8 Handbook of Nature-Study

Winter lodge of muskrats.

Photo by Silas Lottridge.

THE MUSKRATTeacher's Story

"Having finished this first course of big-neck clams, they were joined by a third

muskrat, and, together, they filed over the bank and down into the meadow. Shortly

two of thewi returned with great mouthfuls of the fnud-bleached ends of calamus-blades.

Then followed the washing.

They dropped their loads upon the plank, took tip the stalks, pulled the blades apart,

and soused them up and down in the 'water, rubbing them with, their paws until they

were as clean and white as the whitest celery one ever ate. What a dainty picture!

Two little brown creatures, humped on the edge of a plank, washing calamus in moonlit

water!"—Dallas Lore Sharp.

RACKING is a part of every boy's education whoaspires to a knowledge of wood lore; and a boy withthis accomplishment is sure to be looked uponwith great admiration by other boys, less skilled in

the interpretation of that writing made by small feet,

on the soft snow or on the mud of stream margins.To such a boy, the track of the muskrat is wellknown, and very easily recognized.

The muskrat is essentially a water animal, and therefore its tracks areto be looked for along the edges of ponds, streams or in marshes. Whetherthe tracks are made by walking or jumping, depends upon the depth ofthe snow or mud; if it is deep, the animal jumps, but in shallow snow ormud, it simply runs along. The tracks show the front feet to be smaller

Mammal Study 219

than the hind ones. The muskrat track is, however, characterized by the

tail imprint. When the creature jumps through the snow, the mark of

the tail follows the paired imprints of the feet; when it walks, there is acontinuous line made by this strong, naked tail. This distinguishes the

track of the muskrat from that of the mink, as the bushy tail of the latter

does not make so distinct a mark. Measuring the track, is timply a

device for making the pupils note its size and shape more carefully. Thetracks may be looked for during the thaws of March or February, whenthe muskrats come out of the water to seek food.

In appearance the muskrat is peculiar. The body is usually about a

foot in length and the tail about eight inches. The body is stout andthickset, the head is rounded and looks like that of a giant meadowmouse; the eyes are black and shining; the ears are short and close to the

head; the teeth, like those of other rodents, consist of a pair of front

teeth on each jaw, then a long, bare space and four grinders on each side.

There are long sensitive hairs about the nose and mouth, like the whiskers

of mice.

The muskrat's hind legs are much larger and stronger than the front

ones; and too, the hind feet are much longer than the front feet and havea web between the toes; there are also stiff hairs which fill the spacebetween the toes, outside the web, thus making this large hind foot anexcellent swimming organ. The front toes are not webbed and are usedfor digging. The claws are long, stout and sharp. The tail is long, stout

and flattened at the sides; it has little or no fur upon it but is coveredwith scales; it is used as a scull and also as a rudder when the muskrat is

swimming.The muskrat's outer coat consists of long, rather coarse hairs; its

under coat is of fur, very thick and fine, and although short, it forms awaterproof protection for the body of the animal. In color, the fur is

dark brown above with a darker streak along the middle of the back;beneath, the body is grayish changing to whitish on the throat and lips,

with a brown spot on the chin. In preparing the pelts for commercialuse, the long hairs are plucked out leaving the soft, fine under coat, whichis dyed and sold under the name of "electric seal."

The muskrat is far better fitted by form, for life in the water than uponthe land. Since it is heavy-bodied and short-legged, it cannot run rapidlybut its strong, webbed hind feet are most efficient oars, and it swimsrapidly and easily; for rudder and propeller the strong, flattened tail

serves admirably, while the fine fur next the body is so perfectly water-proof that, however much the muskrat swims or dives, it is never wet.It is a skillful diver and can stay under water for several minutes ; whenswimming, its nose and sometimes the head and the tip of the tail appearon the surface of the water.

The food of muskrats is largely roots, especially those of the sweet flag

and the yellow lily. They also feed on other aquatic plants and are fondof the fresh-water shell-fish. Mr. Sharp tells us, in one of his delightful

stories, how the muskrats wash their food by sousing it up and down in

water many times before eating it. Often, a muskrat chooses somespecial place upon the shore which it uses for a dining-room, bringingthere and eating pieces of lily root or fresh-water clams, and leaving thedebris to show where it habitually dines. It does most of its hunting for foodat night, although sometimes it may be seen thus employed during the day.

2 20 Haiidbook of Nature-Study

The winter lodge of the muskrat is a most interesting structure. Afoundation of tussocks of rushes, in a stream or shallow pond, is built

upon with reeds plastered with mud, making a rather regular dome whichmay be nearly two or three feet high ; or, if many-chambered, it may be a

grand affair of four or five feet elevation ; but it always looks so much like

a natural hummock that the eye of the uninitiated never regards it as a

habitation. Always beneath this dome and above the water line, is a

snug, covered chamber carpeted with a soft bed of leaves and moss,

which has a passage leading down into the water below, and also has anair-hole for ventilation. In these cabins, closely cuddled together, three

or four in a chamber, the muskrats pass the winter. After the pond is

frozen they are safe from their enemies and are always able to go downinto the water and feed upon the roots of water plants. These cabins are

sometimes built in the low, drooping branches of willows or on other

objects.

A muskrat' s suinmer hoine.

Drawn by A. MacKinnon, a boy of 13 years.

Whether the muskrat builds itself a winter lodge or not, depends uponthe nature of the shore which it inhabits; if it is a place particularly fitted

for burrows, then a burrow will be used as a winter retreat; but if thebanks are shallow, the muskrats unite in building cabins. The mainentrance to the muskrat burrow is always below the surface of the water,the burrow slanting upward and leading to a nest well lined, which is

above the reach of high water; there is always an air hole above, for

ventilating this nest, and there is also often a passage, with a hiddenentrance, leading out to dry land.

The flesh of the muskrat is delicious, and therefore the animal hasmany enemies; foxes, weasels, dogs, minks and also hawks and owls preyupon it. It escapes the sight of its enemies as does the mouse, by havingthe color of its fur not noticeable ; when discovered, it escapes its enemiesby swimming, although when cornered, it is courageous and fights fiercely,

using its strong incisors as weapons. In winter, it dwells in safety whenthe friendly ice protects it from all its enemies except the mink; but it is

exposed to great danger when the streams break up in spring, for it is thenoften driven from its cabin by floods, and preyed upon while thus help-lessly exposed. The muskrat gives warning of danger to its fellows bysplashing the water with its strong tail.

Mammal Study

The inuskrat.

Photo by Silas Lottridge.

References—Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; A

221

It is called musk-rat because of theodor, somewhat re-

sembling musk,which it exhales

from two glands onthe lower side of

the body betweenthe hind legs ; theseglands may be seen

when the skin is

removed, which is

the too commonplight of this poorcreature, since it

is hunted merci-lessly for its pelt.

The little musk-rats are born in

April and there are

usually from six to

eight in a litter.

Another litter maybe produced in

June or July anda third in Augustor September. It is

only thus, by rear-

ing large families

often, that themuskrats are able

to hold their ownagainst the huntersand trappers andtheir natural ene-mies.

Watcher in theWoods, Sharp; Wild Life, Ingersoll;

Dept. of Agriculture.

Farmers' Bulletin No. 396, U. S.

LESSON LIV

The Muskrat

Leading thought—The muskrat, while a true rodent, is fitted for life

in the water more than for life upon the land. Its hind feet are webbedfor use as oars and its tail is used as a rudder. It builds lodges of mud,cat-tails and rushes in which it spends the winter.

Method—It might be well to begin this work by asking for observationson the tracks of the muskrat which may be found about the edges of

almost any creek, pond or marsh. If there are muskrat lodges in theregion they should be visited and described. For studying the muskrat 's

form a live muskrat in captivity is almost necessary. If one is trapped


with a "figure lour" it will not be injured and it may be made more or

less tame by feeding it with sweet apples, carrots and parsnips. Thepupils can thus study it at leisure although they should not be allowed to

handle the creature as it inflicts very severe wounds and is never willing

to be handled. If a live muskrat cannot be obtained perhaps some hunterin the neighborhood will supply a dead one for this observation lesson.

While studying the muskrat the children should read all the stories of

beavers which are available as the two animals are very much alike in

their habits.

Observations— r. In what locality have you discovered the tracks of

the muskrat? Describe its general appearance. Measure the muskrat'strack as follows: (a) Width and length of the print of one foot; (b) the

width between the prints of the two hind feet;

(c) the length between theprints made by the hind feet in several successive steps or jumps.

2. Was the muskrat's track made when the animal was jumping orwalking? Can you see in it a difference in the size of the front and hindfeet? Judging from the track, where do you think the muskrat camefrom? What do you think it was hunting for?

3. What mark does the tail make in the snow or mud? Judging byits imprint, should you think the muskrat's tail was long or short, bare orbrushy, slender or strong?

4. How long is the largest muskrat you ever saw? How much of thewhole length is tail? Is the general shape of the body short and heavyor long and slender?

5. Describe the muskrat's eyes, ears and teeth. For what are theteeth especially fitted? Has the muskrat whiskers like mice and rats?

6. Compare the front and hind legs as to size and shape. Is there aweb between the toes of the hind feet? What does this indicate? Doyou think that the muskrat is a good swimmer?

7. Describe the muskrat fur. Compare the outer and under coat.What is its color above and below? What is the name of muskrat fur in

the shops?8. Describe the tail. What is its covering? How is it flattened?

What do you think this strong, flattened tail is used for?

9. Do you think the muskrat is better fitted to live in the water thanon land ? How is it fitted to live in the water in the following particulars

:

Feet? Tail? Fur?10. How much of the muskrat can you see when it is swimming?

How long can it stay under water when diving?11. What is the food of the muskrat? Where does it find it? How

does it prepare the food for eating? Does it seek its food during the nightor day? Have you ever observed the muskrat's dining room? If so,

describe it.

12. Describe the structure of the muskrat's winter lodge, or cabin,in the following particulars : Its size. Where built ? Of what material

?

How many rooms in it ? Are these rooms above or below the water level ?

Of what is the bed made? How is the nest ventilated? How is it

arranged so that the entrance is not closed by the ice? Is such a homebuilt by one or more muskrats? How many live within it? Do themuskrats always build these winter cabins? What is the character ofthe shores where they are built ?

Mammal Study 223

13. Describe the muskrat's burrow in the bank in the following

particulars: Is the entrance above or below water? Where and how is

the nest made ? Is it ventilated ? Does it have a back door leading out

upon the land?

14. What are the muskrat's enemies? How does it escape them.?

How does it fight? Is it a courageous animal? How does the muskratgive warning to its fellows when it perceives danger? At what time of

year is it comparatively safe? At what time is it exposed to greatest

danger?

15. Why is this animal called muskrat? Compare the habits of

muskrats with those of beaver and write an English theme upon thesimilarity of the two.

16. At what time of year do you find the young muskrats? Howmany in a litter ?

17. Read Farmers' Bulletin No. 396 of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

and write an English theme on the destructive habits of muskrats and theeconomic uses of these animals.

Supplementary reading—Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; Little

Beasts of Field and Wood, Cram; Squirrels and other Fur-bearers, Bur-roughs; "The Builders" in Ways of Wood Folk, Long.

The white-footed, or deer, mouse.Drawn by Anna Stryke.


The hotise mouse feeds upon almost anything which people like to eat,

THE HOUSE MOUSE

Teacher's Story

Somewhere in the darkness a clock strikes two;

And there is no sound in the sad old house,

Btit the lone, veranda dripping with dew.

And in the wainscot—a mouse.—Bret Harte.

ERE mouse-gray a less inconspicuous color, there

would be fewer mice; when a mouse is runningalong the floor, it is hardly discernible, it looks so

like a flitting shadow; if it were black or white or

any other color, it would be more often seen anddestroyed. Undoubtedly, it is owing to the fact

that its soft fur has this shadowy color, that this

species has been able to spread over the world.

At first glance one wonders what possible use a mouse can make of a

tail which is as long as its body, but a little careful observation will

reveal the secret. The tail is covered with transverse ridges and is baresave for sparse hairs, except toward the tip. Dr. Ida Reveley first called

my attention to the fact that the house mouse uses its tail in climbing. I

verified this interesting observation, and found that my mouse used thetail for aid when climbing a string. He would go up the string, hand overhand, like a sailor, then in trying to stretch to the edge of his jar, heinvariably wound his tail about the string two or three times, and hangingto the string with the hind feet and tail, would reach far out with his headand front feet. Also, when clinging to the edge of the cover of the jar, heinvariably used his tail as a brace against the side of the glass, so that it

pressed hard for more than half its length. Undoubtedly the tail is of

great service when climbing up the sides of walls.

Mammal Study 225

The tail is also of some use, when the mouse jumps directly upwards.The hind legs are very much longer and stronger than the front legs. Thehind feet are also much longer and larger than the front feet ; and although

the mouse, when it makes its remarkable jumps, depends upon its strong

hind legs, I am sure that often the tail is used as a brace to guide andassist the leap. The feet are free from hairs but are downy; the hind

foot has three front toes, a long toe behind on the outside and a short oneon the inside. The claws are fairly long and very sharp so that they are

able to cling to almost anything but glass. When exploring, a mousestands on its hind feet, folding its little front paws under its chin while it

reaches up ready to catch anything in sight; it can stretch up to anamazing height. It feeds upon almost anything which people like to eat

and, when eating, holds its food in its front paws like a squirrel.

The thin, velvety ears are flaring cornucopias for taking in sound; thelarge, rounded outer ear can be moved forward or back to test the direc-

tion of the noise. The eyes are like shining, black beads; and if amouse can wink, it does it so rapidly as not to be discernible. The noseis long, inquisitive, and always sniffing for new impressions. Thewhiskers are delicate and probably sensitive. The mouth is furnished

with two long, curved gnawing teeth at the front of each jaw, then a barespace, and four grinding teeth on each side, above and below, like theteeth of woodchucks and other rodents. The gnawing teeth are verystrong and enable the mouse to gnaw through board partitions and other

obstacles.

The energy with which the mouse cleans itself is inspiring to behold.

It nibbles its fur and licks it with fervor, reaching around so as to get at it

from behind, and tak-

ing hold with its little

hands to hold firm

while it cleans. Whenwashing its face andhead, it uses bothfront feet, lickingthem clean and rub-bing them both simul-

taneously from behindthe ears down overthe face. It takes its

hind foot in both front

feet and nibbles andlicks it. It scratches

the back of its headwith its hind foot.

Young mice are

small, downy, pinkand blind when bom.The mother makes for

them a nice, soft nestof pieces of cloth,paper, grass, or what-ever is at hand; thenest is round like Young mice, blind, pink and hairless.


a ball and at its center is nestled the family. Mice living in houses,

have runways between the plaster and the outside, or between ceiling

and floor. In winter they live on what food they can find, and -upon flies

or other insects hibernating in our houses. The house mice sometimesHve under stacks of corn or grain in the fields, but usually confine them-selves to houses or bams. They are thirsty little fellows and they like to

make their nests within easy reach of water. Our house mice came fromancestors which lived in Asia originally; they have always been great

travelers and they have followed men wherever they have gone, over the

world. They came to America on shipc with the first explorers and the

Pilgrim fathers. They now travel back and forth, crossing the ocean in

ships of all sorts. They also travel across the continent on trains.

Wherever our food is carried they go; and the mouse, which you see in

your room one day, may be a thousand miles away within a week. Theyare clever creatures, and learn quickly to connect cause and effect. Fortwo years, I was in an office in Washington, and as soon as the bell rangfor noon, the mice would appear instantly, hunting waste-baskets for

scraps of lunch. They had learned to connect the sound of the bell

with food.

Of all our wild mice, the white-footed or deer mouse is the mostinteresting and attractive. It is found almost exclusively in woods and is

quite different in appearance from other mice. Its ears are very large;

its fur is fine and beautiful and a most delicate gray color. It is whitebeneath the head and under the sides of the body. The feet are pinkish,

the front paws have short thumbs, while the hind feet are very muchlonger and have a long thumb looking very much like an elfin hand in agray-white silk glove. On the bottom of the feet are callous spots whichare pink and serve as foot

pads. It makes its nest in .

hollow trees and stores nuts -" "—

''" '—

for winter use. We oncefound two quarts of shelled Mt^ 4^beech nuts in such a nest. It ___^___ ** ^also likes the hips of the wild ^=~"^""«

rose and many kinds of ber- __^ ^.

ries; it sometimes makes its ^^ ^^K-summer home in a bird's nest, „ .,.,., ,

i_ 1. •

.

r . •

,

1 rack of WMte-footed mouse.which it roofs over to suit ',. '

. , . ^ ,T^, . Notice tail-track.itself. The young mice are

carried, hanging to the mother's breasts. As an inhabitant of summercottages,white-foot is cunning and mischievous ; it pulls cotton out of quilts

takes covers off of jars, and as an explorer, is equal to the squirrel. I oncetried to rear some young deer mice by feeding them warm milk with a

pipette; although their eyes were not open, they invariably washed their

faces after each meal, showing that neatness was bred in the bone. Thismouse has a musical voice and often chirps as sweetly as a bird. Likethe house mouse it is more active at night.

The meadow mouse is the one that makes its run-ways under the snow,making strange corrugated patterns over the ground which attract ourattention in spring. It has a heavy body, short legs, short ears and short

tail. It is brownish or blackish in color. It sometimes digs burrowsstraight into the ground, but more often makes its nest beneath sticks and

Mammal Study 227

stones or stacks of com. It is the nest of this field mouse which thebumblebee so often takes possession of, after it is deserted. The meadowmouse IS a good fighter, sitting up like a woodchuck and facing its enemybravely. It needs to be courageous, for it is preyed upon by almost everycreature that feeds upon small animals; the hawks and owls especiallyare its enemies. It is well for the farmer that these mice have so manyenemies, for they multiply rapidly and would otherwise soon overrun anddestroy the grain fields. This mouse is an excellent swimmer.A part of winter work, is to make the pupils familiar with the tracks

of the meadow mice and how to distinguish them from other tracks.

Mouse traps.

The bow trap. i. A smooth splint or a peeled twig.2. Splint bowed and tied at D, the bait inserted at C.3. The inverted bowl balanced on splint bow-

Figure 4, trap.

Trapping Field Mice—Probably wild animals have endured morecruelty through the agency of traps than through any other form of

human persecution. The savage steel traps often catch the animal by theleg, holding it until it gnaws off the imprisoned foot, and thus escapesmaimed and handicapped for its future struggle for food ; or if the trapgets a strong hold, the poor creature may suffer tortures during a longperiod, before the owner of the trap appears to put an end to its sufferings

by death. If box traps are used, they are often neglected and the poorcreature imprisoned, is left to languish and starve. The teacher cannotenforce too strongly upon the child the ethics of trapping. Impressupon him that the box traps are far less cruel ; but that if set, they mustbe examined regularly and not neglected. The study of mice affords agood opportunity for giving the children a lesson in humane trapping.Let them set a figure 4 or a bowl trap, which they must examineevery morning. The little prisoners may be brought to schooland studied; meanwhile, they should be treated kindly and fed bounti-fully. After a mouse has been studied, it should be set free, even thoughit be one of the quite pestiferous field mice. The moral effect of killing ananimal, after a child has become thoroughly interested in it and its life,

is always bad.

References—Claws and Hoofs, Johomot, American Animals, Stone &Cram; Secrets of the Woods, Long; Wild Life, Ingersoll; Familiar WildAnimals, Lottridge.


LESSON LV

The House Mouse

Leading thought—The mouse is fitted by color, form, agility and habits

to thrive upon the food which it steals from man, and to live in the midstof civilized people.

Method—A mouse cage can be easily made of wire window-screentacked upon a wooden frame. I have even used aquarium jars with wirescreen covers, and by placing one jar upon another, opening to opening,

and then laying them horizontal, the mouse can be transferred to a fresh

cage without trouble, and thus the mousey odor can be obviated, while

the little creature is being studied. A little water in a wide-necked bottle

can be lowered into this glass house by a string, and the food can be givenin like manner. Stripped paper should be put into the jar for the comfortof the prisoner; a stiff string hanging down from the middle of the cagewill afford the prisoner a chance to show his feats as an acrobat.

Observations— i . Why is the color of the mouse of special benefit to it ?

Do you think it protects it from the sight of its enemies? Can you see amouse easily as it runs across the room ? What is the nature of the fur of

a mouse?2. How long is a mouse's tail as compared with its body? What is the

covering of the tail? Of what use to the mouse is this long, ridged tail?

Watch the mouse carefully and discover, if you can, the use of the tail in

climbing.

3. Is the mouse a good jumper? Are the hind legs long and strongwhen compared with the front legs? How high do you think a mousecan jump? Do you think it uses its tail as an aid in jumping? Howmuch of the legs are covered with hair? Compare the front and hind feet.

What sort of claws have they? How does the mouse use its feet whenclimbing the string? How can it climb up the side of a wall?

4. Describe the eyes. Do you think the mouse can see very well?Does it wink? What is the shape of the ears? Do you think it can hearwell ? Can it move its ears forward or backward ?

5. What is the shape of the snout? Of what advantage is this?Note the whiskers. What is their use? Describe the mouth. Do youknow how the teeth are arranged? For what other use than to bite fooddoes the mouse use its teeth? What other animals have their teetharranged like those of the mouse ? What food does the house mouse live

upon? How does it get it?

6. How does the mouse act when it is reaching up to examine some-thing? How does it hold its front feet? Describe how the mouse washesits face. Its back. Its feet.

7. Where does the house mouse build its nest? Of what material?How do the baby mice look ? Can they see when they are first bom ?

8. House mice are great travelers. Can you tell how they manageto get from place to place? Write a story telling all you know of theirhabits.

9. How many kinds of mice do you know? Does the house mouseever live in the field ? What do you know of the habits of the white-footedmouse? Of the meadow mice? Of the jumping mice?

' '^BB^BIl^^^iijMpKH

23 o Handbook of Nature-Study

Candlemas Day, and if it sees its shadow, goes back to sleep for six weeksmore, may savor of meteorological truth, but it is certainly not true of the

ground-hog.The full-grown woodchuck ordinarily measures about two feet in

length. Its color is grizzly or brownish, sometimes blackish in places;

the under parts are reddish and the feet black. The fur is rather coarse,

thick and brown, with longer hairs which are grayish. The skin is verythick and tough and seems to fit loosely, a condition which gives thepeculiar "pouring along" appearance when it is running. The hind legs

and feet are longer than those in front. Both pairs of feet are fitted for

digging, the front ones being used for loosening the earth and the hindpair for kicking it out of the burrow.

The woodchuck's ears are roundish and not prominent, and by mus-cular contraction they are closed when the animal is digging, so that no

soil can. enter; thesense of hearing is

acute. The teeth con-sist of two large in-

cisors at the front ofeach jaw, a bare spaceand four grinders oneach side, above andbelow; the incisors

are used for biting

food and also for fight-

ing. The eyes are full

and bright. The tail

is short and brushy,and it with the hindlegs, form a tripodwhich supports theanimal, as it sits withits forefeet lifted.

When feeding, thewoodchuck oftenmakes a contentedgrunting noise; whenattacked and fighting,

it growls; and whenfeeling happy and con-versational, it sits upand whistles. I had awoodchuck acquaint-ance once which al-

Treed! ways gave a high,Photo by Verne Morton. shriU, almost birdlike

whistle when I came in view, a very jolly greeting. There areplenty of statements in books that woodchucks are fond of music, andMr. Ingersoll states that at Wellesley College a woodchuck on the chapellawn was wont to join the morning song exercises with a "clear soprano."The young woodchucks are bom about the first of May and the litterusually numbers four or five. In June the "chucklings" may be seenfollowing the mother in the field with much babyish grunting. If

Mammal Study 231

captured at this period, they make every interesting pets. By August or

September the young woodchucks leave the home burrow and start

burrows of their own.References—Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; Wild Neighbors, Inger-

soll; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Familiar Wild Ani-

mals, Lottridge.

LESSON LVI

The Woodchuck or Ground-Hog

Leading thought—The woodchuck has thriven with civilization, not-

withstanding the farmer's dog, gun, traps and poison. It makes its nest

in a burrow in the earth and lives upon vegetation; it hibernates in

winter.

Method—Within convenient distance for observation by the pupils of

every country schoolhouse and of most village schoolhouses, maybefound a woodchuck and its dwelling. The pupils should be given theoutline for observations which should be made individually throughwatching the woodchuck for weeks or months.

Observations— i. Where is the woodchuck found? On what does it

live? At what time of day does it feed ? How does it act when startled?

2. Is the woodchuck a good fighter? With what weapons does it

fight? What are its enemies? How does it escape its enemies when in or

out of its burrow? How does it look when running?

3. What noises does the woodchuck make and what do they mean?Play a "mouth-organ" near the woodchuck's burrow and note if it likes

music.

4. How does the woodchuck make its burrow? Where is it likely

to be situated ? Where is the earth placed which is taken from the bur-

row? How does the woodchuck bring it out? How is the burrow madeso that the woodchuck is not drowned in case of heavy rains ? In whatdirection do the underground galleries go? Where is the nest placed in

relation to the galleries ? Of what is the nest made ? How is the beddingcarried in? Of what special use is the nest?

5. Do you find paths leading to the entrances of the burrow? If so,

describe them. How can you tell whether a woodchuck is at home or notif you do not see it enter? Where is the woodchuck likely to station itself

when it sits up to look for intruders?

6. How many woodchucks inhabit the same burrow? Are therelikely to be one or more back doors to the burrow? What for? How dothe back doors differ from the front doors ?

7. How long is the longest woodchuck that you have ever seen?

What is the woodchuck's color? Is its fur long or short ? Coarse or fine ?

Thick or sparse ? Is the skin thick or thin ? Does it seem loose or close

fitting?

8. Compare the front and hind feet and describe difference in size andshape. Are either or both slightly webbed ? Explain how both front andhind feet and legs are adapted by their shape to help the woodchuck. Is

the tail long or short ? How does it assist the animal in sitting up ?

9. What is the shape of the woodchuck's ear? Can it hear well?

Why are the ears not filled with soil when the animal is burrowing? Ofwhat use are the long incisors? Describe the eyes.

232 Handbook of NaHire-Shtdy

10. How does the woodchuck prepare for winter? Where and howdoes it pass the winter? Did you ever know a woodchuck to come out onCandlemas Day to look for its shadow?

11. When does the woodchuck appear in the spring? Compare its

general appearance in the fall and in the spring and explain the reason for

the difference.

12. When are the young woodchucks bom? What do you know of

the way the mother woodchuck cares for her young?

As I turned round the corner of Hubbard' s Grove, saw a woodchuck, the first ofthe season, in the middle of the field six or seven rods from the fence which bounds the

wood, and twenty rods distant. I ran along tlie fence and cut him off, or rather overtookhim, though he started at the same time. When I was only a rod and a half off, hestopped, and I did the same; then he ran again, and 1 ran up within three feet of him,when he stopped again, the fence being between us. I squatted down and surveyed himat my leisure. His eyes were dull black and rather inobvious, with a faint chestnutiris, with but little expression and that more of resignation than of anger. The generalaspect was a coarse grayish brown, a sort of grisel. A lighter brown next the skin, thenblack or very dark brown and tipped with whitish rather loosely. The head between asquirrel and a bear, flat on the top and dark brown, and darker still or black on the tip

of the nose. The whiskers black, two inches long. The ears very small and roundish,set far back and nearly buried in the fur. Black feet, with long and slender claws fordigging. It appeared to tremble, or perchance shivered with cold. When I moved, it

gritted its teeth quite loud, sometimes striking the under jaw against the other chatter-

ingly, sometimes grinding one jaw on the other, yet as if more from instinct than anger.Whichever way I turned, that way it headed. I took a twig a foot long and touched its

snout, at which it started forward and bit the stick, lessening the distance between us to

two feet, and still it held all the ground it gained. I played with it tenderly awhile withthe stick, trying to open its gritting jaws. Ever its long incisors, two above and twobelow, were presented. But I thought it would go to sleep if I stayed long enough. It

did not sit upright as sometimes, but standing on its fore feet with its head down, i. e.,

half sitting, half standing. We sat looking at one another about half an hour, till webegan to feel mesmeric influences. When I was tired, I moved away, wishing to see

hi)n run, but I could not start him. He would not stir as long as I was looking at himor cotdd see him. I walked around him; he turned as fast and fronted me still. I satdown by his side within a foot. I talked to him quasi forest lingo, baby-talk, at any rate

in a concilatory tone, and thought that I had some influence on him. He gritted histeeth less. I chewed checkerberry leaves and presented thein to his nose at last withouta grit; though I saw that by so much gritting of the teeth he had worn thetn rapidly attdthey were covered with a fine white powder, which, if you measured it thus, would havemade his anger terrible. He did not mind any noise I might make. With a little

stick I lifted one of his paws to examine it, and held it up at pleasure. I turned himover to see what color he was beneath (darker or most pusely brown), though he turnedhimself back again sooner than I could have wished. His tail was also brown, thoughnot very dark, rat-tail like, with loose hairs standing out on all sides like a caterpillarbrush. He had a rather mild look. I spoke kindly to him. I reached checkerberryleaves to his mouth. I stretched my hands over him, though he turned up his head andstill gritted a little. I laid my hand on him, but immediately took it off again, instinctnot being wholly overcome. If I had had a few fresh bean leaves, thus in advance ofthe season, I am sure I should have tamed him completely. It was a frizzly tail. Hisis a humble, terrestrial color like the partridge's, well concealed where dead wiry grassrises above darker brown or chestnut dead leaves—a modest color. If I had liad somefood, I should have ended with stroking him at my leisure. Could easily have wrappedhim in my handkerchief. He was not fat nor particularly lean. I finally had to leavehim without seeing him move frotn the place. A large, clumsy, burrowing squirrel.

Arctomys, bear-mouse. I respect hitn as one of the natives. He lies there, by his colorand habits ro naturalized amid the dry leaves, the withered grass, and the bushes. Asound nap, 'too, he has enjoyed in his native fields, the past winter. I think I mightlearn some wisdom of him. His ancestors have lived here longer than mine. He is

more thoroughly acclimated and naturalized than I. Bean leaves the red tnan raisedfor him, but he can do without them.—Thoreau's Journal.

THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE

Teacher's Story

Just a tawny glimmer, a dash of red and gray,

\^as it a flitting shadow, or a sunbeam gone astray I

It glances up a tree trunk, and a pair of bright eyes glow

Where a little spy in ambush is measuring his foe.

I hear a mocking chuckle, then wrathful, he grows bold

And stays his pressing business to scold and scold and scold.

E ought to yield admiring tribute to those animals whichhave been able to flourish in our midst despite man andhis gun, this weapon being the most cowardly andunfair invention of the human mind. The only timethat man has been a fair fighter, in combating his four-

footed brethren, was when he fought them with aweapon which he wielded in his hand. There is noth-ing in animal comprehension which can take into

account a projectile, and much less a shot from a gun; but though it doesnot understand, it experiences a deathly fear at the noise. It is patheticto note the hush in a forest that follows the sound of a gun; every song,

every voice, every movement is stilled and every little heart filled withnameless terror. How any man or boy can feel manly when, with this

scientific instrument of death in his hands, he takes the life of a little

squirrel, bird or rabbit, is beyond my comprehension. In pioneer dayswhen it was a fight for existence, man against the wilderness, the matterwas quite different ; but now it seems to me that anyone who hunts whatfew wild creatures we have left, and which are in nowise injurious, is,

whatever he may think of himself, no believer in fair play.

Within my own memory, the beautiful black squirrel was as commonin our woods as was his red cousin ; the shot-gun has exterminated this

splendid species. Well may we rejoice that the red squirrel has, throughits lesser size and greater cunning, escaped a like fate; and that pug-nacious and companionable and shy, it lives in our midst and climbs ourvery roofs to sit there and scold us for coming within its range of vision..


It has succeeded not only in living despite of man, but because of man, for

it rifles our grain bins and com cribs and waxes opulent by levying tribute

upon our stores.

Thoreau describes most graphically the movements of this squirrel.

He says: "All day long the red squirrels came and went. One wouldapproach at first warily, warily, through the shrub-oaks, running over the

snow crust by fits and starts and like a leaf blown by the wind, now a fewpaces this way, with wonderful speed and waste of energy, making incon-

ceivable haste with his "trotters," as if it were for a wager, and now as

many paces that way, but never getting on more than half a rod at atime; and then suddenly pausing with a ludicrous expression and agratuitous somersault, as if all the eyes of the universe were fixed on him,* * * and then suddenly, before you could say Jack Robinson hewould be in the top of a young pitch pine, winding up his clock, andchiding all imaginary spectators, soliloquizing and talking to all theuniverse at the same time."

It is surely one of the most comical of sights to see a squirrel stoprunning and take observations; he lifts himself on his haunches, and withbody bent forward, presses his little paws against his breast as if to say,

"Be still, oh my beating heart!" which is all pure affectation because heknows he can scurry away in perfect safety. He is likely to take refuge

on the far side of a tree, peeping out from this side and that, and whiskingback like a flash as he catches our eye ; we might never know he was thereexcept as Riley puts it, "he lets his own tail tell on him." When climbingup or down a tree, he goes head first and spreads his legs apart to clasp as

much of the trunk as possible; meanwhile his sharp little claws cling

securely to the bark.He can climb out onthe smallest twigsquite as well, whenhe needs to do so, in

passing from tree to

tree or when gather-ing acorns.

A squirrel alwaysestablishes certain

roads to and fromhis abiding place

and almost invar-

iably follows them.Such a path may beentirely in the tree-

tops, with airbridgesfrom a certainbranch of one tree

to a certain branchof another, or it maybe partially on theground betweentrees. I have madenotes of these pathsin the vicinity ofRed squirrel or Chickaree.

Mammal Stitdy 235

my own home, and have noted that if a squirrel leaves them for ex-

ploring, he goes warily; while, when following them, he is quite reckless

in his haste. When making a jump from tree to tree, he flattens himself

as widely as possible and his tail is held somewhat curved, but on a

level with the body, as if its wide brush helped to buoy him upand perhaps to steer him also.

During the winter the chickaree is quite dingy in color and is aninconspicuous object, especially when he "humps himself up" so

that he resembles a knot on a limb ; but with the coming of spring,

he dons a brighter coat of tawny-red and along his sides, wherethe red meets the grayish white of the under side, there is adark line which is very ornamental; and now his tail is a showerof ruddiness. As the season advances, the colors seem to fade;

they are probably a part of his wooing costume. When dashing up a tree

trunk, his color is never very striking but looks like the glimmer of sun-

light; this has probably saved many of his kind from the gunner, whoseeyes being at the front of his head, cannot compare in efficiency withthose of the squirrel, which being large and full and alert, are placed at

the sides of the head so as to see equally well in all directions.

The squirrel's legs are short because he is essentially a climber ratherthan a runner; the hips are very strong which insures his power as ajumper and his leaps are truly remarkable. A squirrel uses his front

paws for hands in a most human way ; with them he washes his face andholds his food up to his mouth while eating, and it is interesting to notethe skill of his claws when used as fingers. The track he makes in thesnow is quite characteristic. The tracks are paired and those of the largefive-toed hind feet are always in front.

Squirrel tracks.

The squirrel has two pairs of gnawing teeth which are very long andstrong, as in all rodents, and he needs to keep busy gnawing hard thingswith them, or they will grow so long that he cannot use them at all andwill starve to death. He is very clever about opening nuts so as to get all

the meats. He often opens a hickory nut with two holes which tap theplaces of the nut meats squarely; with walnuts or butternuts, which havemuch harder shells, he makes four small holes, one opposite each quarter

of the kernel. He has no cheek-pouches like a chipmunk but he can carry

com and other grain. He often fills his mouth so full that his cheeksbulge out like those of a boy eating pop-corn ; but anything as large as a

nut he carries in his teeth. His food is far more varied than many sup-

pose and he will eat almost anything eatable; he is a little pirate andenjoys stealing from others with keenest zest. In spring, he eats leaf

buds and hunts our orchards for apple seeds. In winter, he feeds on nutsand cones; it is marvelous how he will take a cone apart, tearing off thescales and leaving them in a heap while searching for seeds ; he is espec-

ially fond of the seeds of Norway spruce and hemlock. Of course, he is

fond of nuts of all kinds and will cut the chestnut burs from the tree

before they are ripe, so that he may get ahead of the other harvesters.

He stores his food for winter in all sorts of odd places and often forgets

236 Handbook of Nature-Slvidy

where he puts it. We often find his winter stores untouched the nextsummer. He also likes birds' eggs and nestlings, and if it were not for

the chastisement he gets from the parent robins, he would work m.uchdamage in this way.

The squirrel is likely to be a luxurious fellow and have a winter and asummer home. The former is in some hollow tree or other protectedplace ; the summer home consists of a platform of twigs in some tree-top,

often built upon an abandoned crow or hawk nest; but just how he usesthese two homes, is as yet, a matter of guessing and is a good subject for

young naturalists to investigate. During the winter, he does not remainat home except in coldest weather, when he lies cozily with his tail

wrapped around him like a boa to keep him warm. He is too full of

interest in the world to lie quietly long, but comes out, hunts up some of

his stores, and finds life worth while despite the cold. One squirrel

adopted a bird house in one of our trees, and he or his kin have lived therefor years; in winter, be takes his share of the suet put on the trees for

birds, and because of his greediness, we have been compelled to use picturewire for tying on the suet.

The young are born in a protected nest, usually in the hollow of a tree.

There are four to six young in a litter and they appear in April. If

necessary to move the young, the mother carries the squirrel baby cling-

ing to her breast with its arms around her neck.The squirrel has several ways of expressing his emotions; one is by

various curves in his long beautiful, bushy tail. If the creatures of thewood had a stage, the squirrel would have to be their chief actor. Sur-prise, incredulousness, indignation, fear, anger and joy are all perfectlyexpressed by tail gestures and also by voice. As a vocalist he excels ; hechatters with curiosity, "chips" with surprise, scolds by giving a gutteraltrill, finishing with a falsetto squeal. He is the only singer I know whocan carry two parts at a time. Notice him sometimes in the top of ahickory or chestnut tree when nuts are ripe, and you will hear him singinga duet all by himself, a high shrill chatter with a chuckling accompani-ment. Long may he abide with us as an uninvited guest at our cribs!For, though he be a freebooter and conscienceless, yet our world wouldlack its highest example of incarnate grace and activity, if he were notin it.

LESSON LVII

The Red Squirrel or Chickaree

Leading thought—The red squirrel by its agility and cleverness haslived on, despite its worst enemy—man. By form and color and activityit is fitted to elude the hunter.

Method—If a pet squirrel in a cage can be procured for observation atthe school, the observations on the form and habits of the animal can bebest studied thus; but a squirrel in a cage is an anomaly and it is farbetter to stimulate the pupils to observe the squirrels out of doors. Givethe following questions, a few at a time, and ask the pupils to report theanswers to the entire class. Much should be done with the supplemen-tary reading, as there are many interesting squirrel stories illustrating its

habits. _ —

Mammal Study 237

Observations— i. Where have you seen a squirrel? Does the squirrel

trot along or leap when running on the ground? Does it run straight

ahead or stop at intervals for observation? How does it look? Howdoes it act when looking to see if the "coast is clear"?

2. When climbing a tree, does it go straight up, or move around the

trunk? How does it hide itself behind a tree trunk and observe thepasser-by? Describe how it manages to climb a tree? Does it go downthe tree head first ? Is it able to climb out on the smallest branches? Ofwhat advantage is this to it?

3. Look closely and see if a squirrel follows the same route alwayswhen passing from one point to another. How does it pass from tree to

tree? How does it act when preparing to jump? Hew does it hold its

legs and tail when in the air during a jump from branch to branch?4. Describe the colors of the red squirrel above and below. Is there a

dark stripe along its side, if so, what color? How does the color of thesquirrel protect it from its enemies? Is its color brighter in summer or in

winter?

5. How are the squirrel's eyes placed? Do you think it can see

behind as well as in front all the time? Are its eyes bright and alert, orsoft and tender?

6. Are its legs long or short? Are its hind legs stronger and longer

than the front legs? Why? Why does it not need long legs? Does its

paws have claws? How does it use its paws when eating and in makingits toilet ?

7. Describe the squirrel's tail. Is it as long as the body? Is it

used to express emotion ? Of what use is it when the squirrel is jumping?Of what use is it in the winter in the nest?

8. What is the food of the squirrel during the autumn? Winter?Spring? Summer? Where does it store food for the winter? Does it

steal food laid up by jays, chipmunks, mice or other squirrels? How doesit carry nuts ? Has it cheek-pouches like the chipmunk for carrying food ?

Does it stay in its nest all winter living on stored food like a chipmunk?9. Where does the red squirrel make its winter home? Does it also

have a summer home, if so, of what is it made and where built ? In whatsort of a nest are the young bom and reared? At what time of the yearare the young bom ? How does the mother squirrel carry her little onesif she wishes to move them ?

10. How much of squirrel language can you understand? How doesit express surprise, excitement, anger, or joy during the nut harvest?Note how many different sounds it makes and try to discover what theymean.

11. Describe or sketch the tracks made by the squirrel in the snow.12. How does the squirrel get at the meats of the hickory nut and the

walnut? How are its teeth arranged to gnaw holes in such hard sub-stances as shells?

Supplementary reading—Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, JohnBurroughs; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Secrets of the Woods,Long; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, Mathews; Little Beasts of Field

and Wood; Cram; Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Wild Animals,Lottridge.


FURRY

"URRY was a baby red squirrel. One dayin May his mother was moving him fromone tree to another. He was clinging

with his little arms around her neck andhis body clasped tightly against her breast,

when something frightened her and in her

sudden movement, she dropped her heavybaby in the grass. Thus, I inherited himand entered upon the rather onerous

duties of caring for a baby of whose needs I knew little; but I knew that

every well cared for baby should have a book detailing all that happens to

it, therefore, I made a book for Furry, writing in it each day the things

he did. If the children who have pets keep similar books, they will find

them most interesting reading afterward, and they will surely enjoy

the writing very much.

Extracts from. Furry's Note-book

May 18, 1902—-The baby squirrel is just large enough to cuddle in onehand. He cuddles all right when once he is captured; but he is a terrible

fighter, and when I attempt to take him in my hand, he scratches andbites and growls so that I have been obliged to name him Fury. I told

him, however, if he improved in temper I would change his name to Furry.May ig—Fury greets me, when I open his box, with the most awe-

inspiring little growls, which he calculates will make me turn pale withfear. He has not cut his teeth yet, so he cannot bite very severely, butthat isn't his fault, for he tries hard enough. The Naturalist said cold

milk would kill him, so I warmed the milk and put it in a teaspoon andplaced it in front of his nose; he batted the spoon with both forepawsand tried to bite it, and thus got a taste of the milk, which he drank eagerlylapping it up like a kitten. When I hold him in one hand and cover himwith the other, he turns contented little somersaults over and over.

May 20—Fury bit me only once to-day, when I took him out to feed

him. He is cutting his teeth on my devoted fingers. I tried giving himgrape-nuts soaked in milk, but he spat it out in disgust. Evidently hedoes not believe he needs a food for brain and nerve. He always washeshis face as soon as he is through eating.

May 21—Fury lies curled up under his blanket all day. Evidentlygood little squirrels stay quietly in the nest, when the mother is not at

home to give them permission to run around. When Fury sleeps, he rolls

himself up in a little ball with his tail wrapped closely around him. Thesquirrel's tail is his "furs," which he wraps around him to keep his backwarm when he sleeps in winter.

May 23—Every time I meet Uncle John he asks, "Is his name Fury orFurry now?" Uncle John is much interested in the good behavior of evenlittle squirrels. As Fury has not bitten me hard for two days, I think I

will call him Furry after this. He ate some bread soaked in milk to-day,holding it in his hands in real squirrel fashion. I let him run around theroom and he liked it.

May 25—Furry got away from me this morning and I did not find himfor an hour. Then I discovered him in a pasteboard box of drawingpaper with the cover on. How did he squeeze through?

Mammal Study 239

May 26—He holds the bowl of the spoon with both front paws while

he drinks the milk. When I try to draw the spoon away, to fill it againafter he has emptied it, he objects and hangs on to it with all his little

might, and scolds as hard as ever he can. He is such a funny, unreason-

able baby.May 28—To-night I gave Furry a walnut meat. As soon as he smelled

it he became greatly excited ; he grasped the meat in his hands and ran off

and hid under my elbow, growling like a kitten with its first mouse.May 30—Since he tasted nuts he has lost interest in milk. The nut

meats are too hard for his new teeth, so I mash them and soak them in

water and now he eats them like a little piggy-wig with no manners at all.

He loves to have me stroke his back while he is eating. He uses his

thumbs and fingers in such a human way that I always call his front pawshaiids. When his piece of nut is very small he holds it in one hand andclasps the other hand behind the one which holds the dainty morsel, so as

to keep it safe.

May 31—When he is sleepy he scolds if I disturb him and turning overon his back bats my hand with all of his soft little paws and pretends thathe is going to bite.

June 4—Furry ranges around the room now to please himself. He is alittle mischief; he tips over his cup of milk and has commenced gnawingoff the wall paper behind the book-shelf to make him a nest. The paper is

green and will probably make him sorry.

June 5—This morning Furry was hidden in a roll of paper. I put myhand over one end of the roll and then reached in with the other hand to

get him; but he got me instead, because he ran up my sleeve and wasmuch more contented to be there than I was to have him. I was gladenough when he left his hiding place and climbed to the top shelf of thebookcase, far beyond my reach.

June 6—I have not seen Furry for twenty-four hours, but he is heresurely enough. Last night he tipped over the ink bottle and scatterednut shells over the floor. He prefers pecans to any other nuts.

June 7—I caught Furry to-day and he bit my finger so it bled. Butafterwards, he cuddled in my hand for a long time, and then climbed myshoulder and went hunting around in my hair and wanted to stay thereand make a nest. When I took him away, he pulled out his two handsfull of my devoted tresses. Fll not employ him as a hairdresser.

June 9—Furry sleeps nights in the top drawer of my desk ; he crawlsin from behind. When I pull out the drawer he pops out and scares menearly out of my wits; but he keeps his wits about him and gets awaybefore I can catch him.

June 20—I keep the window open so Furry can run out and in andlearn to take care of himself out-of-doors.

Furry soon learned to take care of himself, though he often returnedfor nuts, which I kept for him in a bowl. He does not come very near meout-of-doors, but he often speaks to me in a friendly manner from a cer-

tain pitch pine tree near the house.

There are many blank leaves in Furry's note-book. I wish that hecould have written on these of the things that he thought about me andmy performances. It would certainly have been the most interesting

book concerning squirrels in the world.


THE CHIPMUNK

Teacher's Story

' KILE the chipmunk is a good runner and jumper,it is not so able a cHmber as is the red squirrel,

and it naturally stays nearer the ground.One windy day I was struck by the peculiar

attitude of what, I first thought, was a red

squirrel gathering green acorns from a chestnutoak in front of my window. A second glance

showed me that it was a chipmunk lying

close to the branch, hanging on for "dear life"

and with an attitude of extreme caution, quite

foreign to the red squirrel in a similar situation. He would creep out,

seize an acorn in its teeth, creep back to a larger limb, take off the shell,

and with his little paws stuff the kernel into his cheek pouches; he tookhold of one side of his mouth with one hand to stretch it out, as if open-ing a bag, and stuffed the acorn in with the other. I do not knowwhether this process was necessary or not at the beginning, for his cheekswere distended when I first saw him ; and he kept on stufBng them until

he looked as if he had a hopeless case of mumps. Then with obviouscare he descended the tree and retreated to his den in the side hill, thedoor of which I had already discovered, although it was well hidden bya bunch of orchard grass.

Chipmunks are more easily tamed than red squirrels and soon learn

that pockets may contain nuts and other things good to eat. The first

tame chipmunk of my acquaintance belonged to a species found in theCalifornia mountains. He was a beautiful little creature and loved toplay about his mistress' room; she beinga naturalist as well as a poet, was ableto understand her little companion, andthe relations between them were full of

mutual confidence. He was fond of

English walnuts and would always hideaway all that were placed in a dish onthe table. One day his mistress, whentaking off her bonnet after returningfrom church, discovered several of thesenuts tucked safely in the velvet bows;they were invisible from the front butperfectly visible from the side. Evenyet, she wonders what the people atchurch that day thought of her original

ideas in millinery; and she wondersstill more how "Chipsie" managed toget into the bonnet-box, the cover ofwhich was always carefully closed.

The chipmunk is a good home builderand carries off, presumably in its cheekpouches, all of the soil which it removesin making its burrow. The burrow is

made usually in a dry hillside, the'Chipsie", a chipmunk of

the Sierras.

Mammal Study 241

passageway just large enough for its own body, widening to a nest

which is well bedded down. There is usually a back door also, so that

in case of necessity, the inmate can escape. It retires to this nest in

late November and does not appear again until March. In the nest,

it stores nuts and other grains so that when it wakens, at long inter-

vals, it can take refreshment.If you really wish to know whether you see what you look at or not,

test yourself by trying to describe the length, position and number of

the chipmunk's stripes. These stripes, like those of the tiger in the

jungle, make the creature less conspicuous; when on the ground,where its stripes fall in with the general shape and color of the grass

and underbrush, it is quite invisible until it stirs. Its tail is not so

long nor nearly so bushy as that of the squirrel ; it does not need a tail

to balance and steer with in the tree tops; and since it lives in the

ground, a bushy tail would soon be loaded with earth and would be anincubus instead of a thing of beauty.

The chipmunk is not a vocalist like the red squirrel, but he can cluck

like a cuckoo and chatter gayly or cogently ; and he can make himself into a

little bunch with his tail curved up his back, while he eats a nut from bothhis hands, and is even more amusing than the red squirrel in this attitude;

probably because he is more innocent and not so much of a poseur. Hisfood consists of all kinds of nuts, grain and fruit, but he does little or nodamage, as a rule. He is pretty and distinctly companionable, and I

can rejoice, in that I have had him and his whole family as my nearneighbors for many years. I always feel especially proud when he showshis confidence, by scampering around our piazza floor and peeping in at

our windows, as if taking a reciprocal interest in us.

LESSON LVIII

The Chipmunk

Leading thought—The chipmunk lives more on the ground than doesthe sg^uirrel; its colors are protective and it has cheek pouches in whichit carries food, and also soil when digging its burrow. It stores food for

winter in its den.

Method—The field note-book should be the basis for this work.Give the pupils an outline of observations to be made, and ask for reports

now and then. Meanwhile stimulate interest in the little creatures byreading aloud from some of the references given.

Observations— i . Do you see the chipmunk climbing around in trees

like the red squirrel ? How high in a tree have you ever seen a chipmunk ?

2. What are the chipmunk's colors above and below? How manystripes has it? Where are they and what are their colors? Do youthink that these stripes conceal the animal when among grasses andbushes?

3. Compare the tails of the chipmunk and the red squirrel. Whichis the longer and bushier? Tell if you can the special advantage to thechipmunk in having this less bushy tail ?

4. What does the chipmunk eat? How does it carry its food? Howdoes it differ in this respect from the red squirrel? Does it store its food

for winter use ? How does it prepare its nuts ? How does it hold its foodwhile eating?

242 Handbook of Nature-Sttidy

5. Where does the chipmunk make its home? How does it carryaway soil from its burrow? How many entrances are there? How is

the den arranged inside? Does it hve in the same den the year round?When does it retire to its den in the fall ? When does it come out in thespring?

6. Does the chipmunk do any damage to crops? What seeds does it

distribute? At what time do the little chipmunks appear in the spring?

7. Observe carefully the different tones of the chipmunk and com-pare its chattering with that of the squirrel.

Supplementary reading—Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers, JohnBurroughs; American Animals, Stone and Cram.

Photo by Verne Morton

The Eastern Chipmunk.

TO A CAPTIVE CHIPMUNK OF THE SIERRAS

Bright little comrade from the woods, come showThy antic cheer about my sunlit room

Of books, that stand in moods of gloom

Because thought's tide is out, heart's rhythm is low

With weariness. Friendly thou art and knowGood friend in me, who yet did dare presumeTo take thee from thy home, thy little doomTo make for thee, and longer life bestow.

So, thou hast not been eaten by the snake;

Thy gentle blood no weasel drank at night;

Thou hast not starved 'mid winter's frozen wood.Nor waited vainly for the sun to makeSweet the wild nuts for thee. Yet, little sprite.

Thou still doth question if my deed were good f

—Irene Hardy.

Mammal Study 243

THE LITTLE BROWN BATTeacher's Story

His small umbrella, quaintly halved,

Describing in the air an arc alike inscrutable,—Elate philosopher!—Emily Dickenson.

j^HOEVER first said "as blind as a bat," surely neverlooked a bat in the face, or he would not havesaid it. The deep-set, keen, observant eyes are

quite in keeping with the alert attitude of the

1^ 'V erect, pointed ears; while the pug-nose and the

wide open, little, pink bag of a mouth, set with tiny, sharp teeth, give

this anomalous little animal a deliciously impish look. Yet how havethose old artists belied the bat, who fashioned their demons after his

pattern, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, wings and all ! Certain it is, if humanbeings ever get to be winged angels in this world, they are far more likely

to have their wings fashioned like those of the bat than like those of the

bird. As a matter of fact, there are no other wings so wonderful as thebat's; the thin membrane is equipped with sensitive nerves whichinform the flier of the objects in his path, so that he darts among thebranches of trees at terrific speed and never touches a twig; a blinded batwas once set free in a room, across which threads were stretched, andhe flew about without ever touching one. After we have tamed one of

these little, silky fiitter-mice we soon get reconciled to his wings for heproves the cunningest of pets; he soon learns who feeds him, and is aconstant source of entertainment.

The flight of the bat is the highest ideal we may have, for the achieve-

ment of the aeroplane. It consists of darting hither and thither withincredible swiftness, and making sharp turns with no apparent effort.

Swifts and swallows are the only birds that can compete with the bat in

wing celerity and agility; it is interesting to note that these birds also

catch insects on the wing, for food. The bat, like the swift, keeps his

mouth open, scooping in all the insects in his way; more than this, hemakes a collecting net of the wing membrane, stretched between the hindlegs and tail, doubling it up like an apron on the unfortunate insects, andthen reaching down and gobbling them up; and thus he is always doinggood service to us on summer evenings by swallowing mosquitoes andgnats.

The short fur of the bat is as soft as silk, and covers the body but notthe wings; the plan of the wing is something like that of the duck's foot;

it consists of a web stretched between very much elongated fingers. If aboy's fingers were as long in proportion, as a bat's, they would measurefour feet. Stretched between the long fingers is a thin, rubbery mem-brane, which extends back to the ankles and thence back to the tip of thebony tail; thus, the bat has a winged margin all around his body. Sincefingers make the framework, it is the thumb that projects from the frontangle of the wing, in the form of a very serviceable hook, resembling thatused by a one-armed man to replace the lost member. These hooks thebat uses in many ways. He drags himself along the floor with their aid,

or he scratches the back of his head with them, if occasion requires. Heis essentially a creature of the air and is not at all fitted for walking; his

244 Handbook oj Naiure-Study

knees bend baclavard. in an opposite direction from ours. This renders

him unable to walk, and when attempting to do so, he has the appeairanceof "scrabbling" along on his feet and elbows. When thus movng hekeeps his wings fluttering rapidly, as if feeling his way in the dark, andhis movements are trembly. He uses his teeth to aid in climbing.

The little brown bat's wings often measure nine inches from tip to tip,

and yet he folds them so that they scarcely show, he does not fold themlike a fan, but rather like a pocket knife. The hind legs merely act as asupport for the side wing, and the little hip bones look pitifully sharp,

the membrane reaches only to the ankle, the tiny emaciated foot pro-

jecting from it isarmed with five, wirelike toes, tipped with sharp hookedclaws. It is by these claws that he hangs when resting during the day,

for he is upside-down-y in his sleeping habits, slumbering during the day-time, while hanging head downward, without any inconvenience from arush of blood to the brain; when thus suspended, the tail is folded down.Sometimes he hangs by one hind foot and a front hook, and he is a weething when all folded together and hung up, with his nose tucked betweenhis hooked thumbs, in a very babyish fashion.

The bat is very particular about his personal cleanliness. People whoregard the bat as a dirty creature, had better look to it that they are evenhalf as fastidious as he. He washes his face with the front part of his

wing, and then licks his wash-cloth clean; he scratches the back of his

head with his hind foot and then licks the foot; when hanging head down,he will reach one hind foot down and scratch behind his ear with anaplomb truly comical in such a mite; but it is most fun of all to see himclean his wings; he seizes the edges in his mouth and stretches and licks

the membrane until we are sure it is made of silk elastic, for he pulls andhauls it in a way truly amazing.

The bat has a voice which sounds like the squeak of a toy wheelbarrow,and yet it is expressive of emotions. He squeaks in one tone when holdingconversation with other bats, and squeaks quite differently when seized

by the enemy.I

,The mother bat feeds her little ones from her breasts as a mouse does

its young, only she cradles them in her soft wings while so doing; oftenshe takes them with her when she goes out for insects in the evenings;they cling to her neck during these exciting rides; but when she wishes towork unencumbered, she hangs her tiny youngsters on some twig andgoes back to them later. The little ones are bom in July and usuallyoccur as twins. During the winter, bats hibernate like woodchucks orchipmunks. They select for winter quarters some hollow tree or cave orother protected place. They go to sleep when the cold weather comes,and do not awake until the insects are flying; they then come forth in theevenings, or perhaps early in the morning, and do their best to rid theworld of mosquitoes and other insect nuisances.

There are many senseless fears about the bat; for instance, that helikes to get tangled in a lady's tresses, a situation which would frightenhim far more than the lady; or that he brings bedbugs into the house,when he enters on his quest for mosquitoes, which is an ungrateful slander.Some people believe that all bats are vampires, and only await an oppor-tunity to suck blood from their victims. It is true that in South Americathere are two species which occasionally attack people who are carelessenough to sleep with their toes uncovered, but feet thus injured seem to

Mammal Study 245

recover speedily; and these bats do little damage to people, althoughthey sometimes pester animals; but there are no vampires in the UnitedStates. Our bats, on the contrary, are innocent and beneficial to man;and if we had more of them we should have less malaria. There a fewspecies in our country, which have httle, leaf-hke growths on the end ofthe nose; and when scientists study the bat from a nature-studyinstead of an anatomical standpoint, we shall know what these leafy

appendages are used for.

The little brown bat.

LESSON LIX

The Bat

Leading thought—-Although the bat's wings are very different fromthose of the bird's yet it is a rapid and agile flier. It flies in the dusk andcatches great numbers of mosquitoes and other troublesome insects, uponwhich it feeds.

Method—This lesson should not be given unless there is a live bat toillustrate it; the little creature can be cared for comfortably in a cage in

the schoolroom, as it will soon learn to take flies or bits of raw meat whenpresented on the point of a pencil or toothpick. Any bat will do for this

study, although the little brown bat is the one on which my observationswere made.

Observations— i . At what time of day do we see bats flying? Describehow the bat's flight differs from that of birds. Why do bats dart aboutso rapidly?

2. Look at a captive bat and describe its wings. Can you see whatmakes the framework of the wings ? Do you see the three finger bonesextending out into the wings? How do the hind legs support the wing?The tail? Is the wing membrane covered with fur? Is it thick andleathery or thin and silky and elastic? How does the bat fold up its

wings ?

3. In what position does the bat rest? Does it ever hang by his

thumb hooks?

4. Can you see whether the knees of the hind legs bend upward or

downward? How does the bat act when trying to walk or crawl? Howdoes it use its thumb hooks in doing this?

5. What does the bat do daytimes? Where does it stay during theday? Do many bats congregate together in their roosts?

246 Hmvibook of Nature-Stiidy

6. Describe the bat's head, including the ears, eyes, nose and mouth.What is its general expression? Do you think it can see and hear well?

How is its mouth fitted for catching insects? Does it shut its mouthwhile chewing or keep it open ? Do you think that bats can see by day-

light?

7. What noises does a bat make? How does it act if you try to

touch it? Can it bite severely? Can you understand why the Germanscall it a fiitter-mouse ?

8. Do you know how the mother bat cares for her young? How does

she carry them? At what time of year may we expect to find them?9. When making its toilet, how does a bat clean its wings? Its face?

Its back? Its feet? Do you know if it is very clean in his habits?

10. How and where do the bats pass the winter? How are theybeneficial to us? Are they ever harmful?

Supplementary reading—American Animals, Stone and Cram.

Nature-study should not be unrelated to the child's life and circumstances. It

stands for directness and naturalness. It is astonishing when one conies to think of it,

how indirect and how remote from the lives of pupils much of our education has been.

Geography still often begins with the universe, and -finally, perhaps, comes down to

some concrete and familiar object or scene that the pupil can understand. Arithmetic

has to do with brokerage and partnerships and partial payments and other things that

mean nothing to the child. Botany begins with cells and protoplasm and cryptogams.

History deals with political and military affairs, and only rarely comes down to physical

facts and to those events that express the real lives of the people; and yet political andsocial affairs are only tht results of expressions of the way in which people live. Read-

ers begin with mere literature or with stories of scenes the child will never see. Of course

these statements are meant to be only general, as illustrating what is even yet a great

fault in educational methods. There are many exceptions, and these are becoming

commoner. Surely, the best education is that which begins with the materials at hand.

A child knows a stone before it knows the earth.

—L. H. Bailey in "The Nature-Study Idea."

Mammal Study 247

THE SKUNKTeacher's Story

HOSE who have had experience with this animal, surely

are glad that it is small; and the wonder always is,

that so little a creature can make such a large impres-

sion upon the atmosphere. A fully grown skunk is

about two feet long: its body is covered with long,

shining, rather coarse hair, and the tail which is carried

like a flag in the air, is very large and bushy. In color,

the fur is sometimes entirely black, but most often has a white patch onthe back of the neck, with two stripes extending down the back andalong the sides to the tail; the face, also, has a white stripe.

The skunk has a long head and a rather pointed snout; its front legs

are very much shorter than its hind legs, which gives it a very peculiar

gait. Its forefeet are armed with long, strong claws, with which it digs

its burrow, which is usually made in light soil. It also often makes its

home in some crevice in rocks, or even takes possession of an abandonedwoodchuck's hole; or trusting to its immunity from danger, makes its

home under the barn. In the fall, it becomes very fat, and during theearly part of winter, hibernates within its den; it comes out during thethaws of winter and early spring.

The young skunks appear in May ; they are born in an enlarged portion

of the burrow, where a nice bed of grass and leaves is made for them; theskunk is scrupulously neat about its own nest. The young skunks are

very active, and interesting to watch, when playing together like kittens.

The skunk belongs to the same family as the mink and weasel, whichalso give off a disagreeable odor when angry. The fetid material whichis the skunk's defence, is contained in two capsules under the root of the

tail. These little capsules are not larger than peas, and the quantity of

liquid forced from them in a discharge is scarcely more than a large drop

;

yet it will permeate the atmosphere with its odor for a distance of a mile.

The fact that this discharge is so disagreeable to all other animals, has hada retarding influence uponthe skunk's intelligence. It

has not been obliged to rely

upon its cunning to escape its

enemies, and has therefore

never developed either fear

or cleverness. It marchesabroad without haste, confi-

dent that every creaturewhich sees it will give it plenty

of room. It is a night

prowler, although it is notaverse to a daytime prome-nade. The white upon its fur

gives warning at night, that

here is an animal which hadbest be left alone. This im-

munity from attack makesthe skunk careless in learning

Photo by Veme MortonThe skunk.


wisdom from experience ; it never learns to avoid a trap or a railway

or trolley track.

The skunk's food consists largely of insects, mice, snakes and othersmall animals. It also destroys the eggs and young of birds whichnest upon the ground. It uses its strong forepaws in securing its

prey. Dr. Merriam, who made pets of young skunks after removingtheir scent capsules, found them very interesting. He says of onewhich was named "Meph": "We used to walk through the woodsto a large meadow that abounded in grasshoppers. Here, Meph wouldfairly revel in his favorite food, and it was rich sport to watch his

manoeuvres. When a grasshopper jumped, he jumped, and I have seenhim with as many as three in his mouth and two under his fore-paws at

the same time."The only injury which the skunk is likely to do to the farmers, is the

raiding of the hens' nests, and this can be obviated by properly housingthe poultry. On the other hand, the skunk is of great use in destroyinginjurious insects and mice. Often when skunks burrow beneath bams,they completely rid the place of mice. Skunk fur is very valuable and is

sold under the name of Alaskan sable. The skunk takes short steps, andgoes so slowly that it makes a double track, the imprints being very close

together. The foot makes a longer track than that of the cat, as theskunk is plantigrade; that is, it walks upon its palms and heels as well as

its toes.

Skunk tracks.

References—Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life in Field andForest, Mathews; American Animals, Stone and Cram; Squirrels andOther Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

LESSON LX

The Skunk

Leading thought—The skunk has depended so long upon protectingitself from its enemies by its disagreeable odor, that it has become stupidin this respect, and seems never to be able to learn to keep off of railroad

tracks. It is a very beneficial animal to the farmer because its food con-sists so largely of injurious insects and rodents.

Method—The questions should be given the pupils and they shouldanswer them from personal observations or inquiries.

Observations— i. How large is a skunk? Describe its fur. Wheredoes the black and white occur in the fur? Of what use is the white to

the skunk ? Is the fur valuable ? What is its commercial name ?

2. What is the shape of the skunk's head? The general shape of thebody? The tail? Are the front legs longer or shorter than the hind legs?

Describe the front feet. For what are they used?

3. Where and how does the skunk make its nest? Does it sleep like

a woodchuck during the winter? What is its food? How does it catchits prey? Does it hunt for its food during the day or the night? Does

Mammal Study 249

the skunk ever hurry? Is it afraid? How does it protect itself from its

enemies? Do you think that the skunk's freedom from fear has renderedthe animal less intelligent ?

4. At what time do the skunk kittens appear? Have you ever seen

little skunks playing ? If so, describe their antics. How is the nest madesoft for the young ones ?

5. How does the skunk benefit farmers? Does it ever do them anyinjury? Do you think that it does more good than harm?

6. Describe the skunk's track as follows: How many toes show in

the track? Does the palm or heel show? Are the tracks near together?

Do they form a single or a double line?

Supplementary reading—Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

Saw a little skunk coming up the river hank in the woods at the white oak, a funnylittle fellow, about six inches long and nearly as broad. It faced me and actually com-

pelled me to retreat before it for five minutes. Perhaps I was between it and its hole.

Its broad black tail, tipped with white, was erect like a kitten's. It had what looked like

a broad white band drawn tight across its forehand or top-head, from which two lines of

white ran down, one on each side of its back, and there was a narrow white line down its

snout. It raised its back, sometimes ran a feiv feet forward, sometimes backward, andrepeatedly turned its tail to me, prepared to discharge its fluid, like the old ones. Such

was its instinct, and all the while it kept up a fitte grunting like a little pig or a red

squirrel.—Henry Thoreau.

Few animals are so silent as the skunk. Zoological works contain no information

as to its voice, and the essayists rarely mention it except by implication. Mr. Bur-

roughs says: "The most silent creature known to me, he makes no sound, so far as I

have observed, save a diffuse, impatient noise, like that produced by beating your hand

with a whisk-broom, when the farm-dog has discovered his retreat in the stone fence."

Rowland Robinson tells us that: "The voiceless creature sometimes frightens the

belated farm-boy, whom he curiously follows with a mysterious hollow beating of his feet

upon the ground." Thoreau, as has beeyi mentioned, heard one keep tip a "fine

grunting, like a little pig or a squirrel" but he seems to have misunderstood altogether a

singular loud patting sound heard repeatedly on the frozen ground under the wall, which

he also listened to, for he thought it "had to do with getting its food, patting the earth to

get the insects or worms." Probably he would have omitted this guess if he could have

edited his diary instead of leaving that to be done after his death. The patting is evi-

dently merely a nervous sign of impatience or apprehension, similar to the well-known

stamping with the hind feet indulged in by rabbits, in this case probably a menace like a

doubling of the fists, as the hind tegs, with which they kick, are their only weapons.

The skunk, then, is not voiceless, bttt its voice is weak and querulous, and it is rarely if

ever heard except in the expression of anger.

—Ernest Ingersol in "Wild Neighbors."


The raccoon.

Photo by George Fiske, Jr.

THE RACCOON

Teaclier's Story

\

ONE other of our little brothers of the forest,

has such a mischievous countenance as thecoon. The black patch across the face

and surrounding the eyes, like large goggles,

and the black line extending from the long,

inquisitive nose directly up the forehead give

the coon's face an anxious expression; andthe keenness of the big, beady, black eyesand the alert, "sassy" looking, broadlytriangular ears, convince one that the anxietydepicted in the face is anxiety lest somethingthat should not be done be left undone ; and

I am sure that anyone who has had experience with pet coons will averthat their acts do not belie their looks.

What country child,

wandering by the brook and -i

watching its turbulence in

early spring, has not viewedwith awe, a footprint on the

muddy banks looking as if it

were made by the foot of a 5very little baby. The first

one I ever saw, I promptlyconcluded was made by the

^aS a-. ?J3l

S^

S^ ^-itf *? Hf.

Coon tracks.

Walking 2 Jumping

Mammal Study 251

foot of a brook fairy. However, the coon is no fairy; it is a ratherheavy, logy animal and, like the bear and skunk, is plantigrade, walkingon the entire foot instead of on the toes, like a cat or dog. The hind foot

is long, with a well-marked heel, and five comparatively short toes, giv-

ing it a remarkable resemblance to a human foot. The front foot is

smaller and looks like a wide, little hand, with fourlong fingers and arather short thumb. The claws are strong and sharp. The soles

of the feet and the palms of the hands look as if they were coveredwith black kid, while the feet above and the backs of the hands are

covered with short fur. Coon tracks are likely to be found during thefirst thawing days of winter, along some stream or the borders of

swamps, often following the path made by cattle. The full-length trackis about 2 inches long; as the coon puts the hind foot in the track made bythe front foot on the same side, only the print of the hind feet is left,

showing plainly five toe prints and the heel. The tracks may varyfrom one-half inch to one foot or more apart, depending on howfast the animal is going; when it runs it goes on its toes, but when walkingsets the heel down ; the tracks are not in so straight a line as those madeby the cat. Sometimes it goes at a slow jump, when the prints of thehind feet are paired, and between and behind them are the prints of the

two front feet.

The coon is covered with long, rather coarse hair, so long as to almostdrag when the animal is walking; it really has two different kinds of

hair, the long, coarse, gray hair, blackened at the tips, covering the fine,

short, grayish or brownish under coat. The very handsome bushy tail is

ringed with black and gray.

The raccoon feeds on almost anything eatable, except herbage. It hasa special predilection for com in the milk stage and, in attaining this

sweet and toothsome luxury, it strips down the husks and often breaksthe plant, doing much damage. It is also fond of poultry and often raids

hen houses; it also destroys birds' nests and the young, thus damagingthe farmer by killing both domestic and wild birds. It is especially fondof fish and is an adept at sitting on the shore and catching them with its

hands; it likes turtle eggs, crayfish and snakes; it haunts the bayous of

the Gulf Coast for the oysters which grow there ; it is also a skillful frog

catcher. Although fond of animal diet, it is also fond of fruit, especially

of berries and wild grapes.

It usually chooses for a nest a hollow tree or a cavern in a ledge near a

stream, because of its liking for water creatures; and also because of its

strange habit of washing its meat before eating it. I have watched a petcoon performing this act; he would take a piece of meat in his hands,dump it into the pan of drinking water and souse it up and down a fewtimes ; then he would get into the pan with his splay feet and roll the meatbeneath and between them, meanwhile looking quite unconcernedly at his

surroundings, as if washing the meat were an act too mechanical to occupyhis mind. After the meat had become soaked until white and flabby, hewould take it in his hands and hang on to it with a tight grip while hepulled off pieces with his teeth ; or sometimes he would hold it with his

feet, and use hands as well as teeth in tearing it apart. The coon's teethare very much like those of the cat, having long, sharp tushes or canines,

and sharp, wedge-shaped grinding teeth, which cut as well as grind.

After eating, the pet coon always washed his feet by splashing them in

the pan.

2^2 Haitdbook of Nature-Study

It is a funny sight to watch a coon arrange itself for a nap, on a branch

or in the fork of a tree , it adapts its fat body to the unevenness of the bed

with apparent comfort ; it then tucks its nose down between its paws andcurls its tail about itself, making a huge, furry ball. In all probability,

the rings of gray and black on the tail, serve as protective color to the

animal sleeping in a tree during the daytime, when sunshine and shadowglance down between the leaves with ever-changing light. The coonspends much of its days asleep in some such situation, and comes forth at

night to seek its food.

In the fall, the coon lays on fat enough to last it during its winter sleep.

Usually several inhabit the same nest in winter, lying curled up togetherin a hollow tree, and remaining dormant all winter except when awakenedby the warmth of a thaw. They then may come forth to see what is

happening, but return shortly to wait until March or April; then theyissue to hunt for the scant food, and are so lean and weak that they fall

easy prey to their enemies.

The young are bom in April and May; there are from three to six in a

litter; they are blind and helpless at first, and are cared for carefully

by their parents, the family remaining together for a year, until the youngare fully grown. If removed from their parents the young ones cry

pitifully, almost like babies. The cry or whistle of the fully grown coonis anything but a happy sound, and is quite impossible to describe. I

have been awakened by it many a night in camp, and it always soundedstrange, taking on each time new quavers and whimperings. As a cry,

it is first cousin to that of the screech-owl.

The stories of pet coons are many. I knew one which, chained in ayard, would lie curled up near its post looking like an innocent stoneexcept for one eye kept watchfully open. Soon a hen, filled with curiosity

would come warily near, looking longingly at remains of food in the pan

;

the coon made no move until the disarmed biddy came close to the pan.Then, there was a scramble and a squawk and with astonishing celerity

he would wring her neck and strip off her feathers. Another pet coonwas allowed to range over the house at will, and finally had to be sent

away because he had learned to open every door in the house, includingcupboard doors, and could also open boxes and drawers left unlocked;and I have always believed he could have learned to unlock drawers if hehad been given the key. All coons are very curious, and one way of

trapping them is to suspend above the trap a bit of bright tin; in solving

this glittering mystery, traps are forgotten.

LESSON LXI

The Raccoon

Leading thought—The raccoon lives in hollow trees or caves alongthe banks of streams. It sleeps during the day and seeks its food at

night. It sleeps during the winter.

Method—If there are raccoons in the vicinity, ask the older boys to

look for their tracks rear the streams and to describe them very care-

fully to the class. The ideal method of studying the animal, is to

have a pet coon where the children may watch at leisure its enter-

taining and funny performances. If this is impossible, then follow the

Mammal Study 2 S3

less desirable method of having the pupils read about the habits of thecoon and thus arouse their interest and open their eyes, so that theymay make observations of their own when opportunity offers. I wouldsuggest the following topics for oral or written work in English:

"How and Where Coons Live and What They Do;" "The Autobio-graphy of a Coon One Year Old;" "The Queer Antics of Pet Coons;""Stories of the Coon's Relative, the Bear."

Treed.

Observations— i. Where have you found raccoon tracks? How dothey differ from those of fox or dog? How far are the footprints apart?

Can you see the heel and toe prints? Do you see the tracks of all four

feet ? Are the tracks in a straight line like those of the cat ? What is the

size of the track, the length, the breadth?

2. What do coons eat and how do they get their food? Which of ourcrops are they likely to damage? What other damage do they do?Have you ever heard coons cry or whistle during August nights in the

cornfields?"


3. Why do raccoons like to live near the water? "What do they find

of interest there? How do they prepare their meat before eating it?

How does a coon handle its meat while eating it?

4. What kind of fur has the coon? Why does it need such a heavycovering? Describe the color of the fur. Describe the tail. Of what use

is such a large and bushy tail to this animal?

5. Describe the coon's face. How is it marked? What is its expres-

sion? Describe the eyes and ears. The nose. Has it teeth resembling

those of the cat and dog ?

6. Describe the coon's feet. How many toes on the front feet?

How many on the hind feet? How does this differ from the cat and dog?How do the front and hind feet differ in appearance ? Can both be usedas hands?

7. How do coons arrange themselves for a nap in a tree? How dothey cover the head? How is the tail used? Do you think this bushytail used in this way would help to keep the animal warm in winter?Do coons sleep most daytimes or nights?

8. At what time of year are coons fattest? Leanest? Why? Dothey ever come out of their nests in winter? Do they live together or

singly in winter?

9. At what time of year are the young coons bom? Do you knowhow they look when they are young? How are they cared for by their

parents ?

10. Are the coon's movements slow or fast? What large animal is

a near relative of the coon?Supplementary reading—American Animals, Stone and Cram; Wild

Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life of Field and Forest, Mathews; Little

People of the Sycamore, Roberts; Life of Animals, Ingersoll; "Mux" in

Roof and Meadow, Sharp; Little Brother of the Bear, Long.

Professor Fred S. Charles and his pet coon, "Dick'

Mammal Study 255

THE WOLF|HE study of the wolf should precede the lessons

on the fox and the dog. After becomingfamiliar with the habits of wolves, the pupils

will be much better able to understand thenature of the dog and its life as a wild animal.In most localities, the study of the wolf must,of course, be a matter of reading, unless thepupils have an opportunity to study theanimal in traveling manageries or in zoo-logical gardens. However, in all the gov-ernment preserves, the timber wolf hasmultiplied to such an extent, that it may

become a factor in the lives of many people in the United States. This

wolf ranged in packs over New York State a hundred years ago, butwas finally practically exterminated in most of the eastern forests, except

in remote and mountainous localities. A glance at Bulletin 72 byVernon Bailey, published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, is a revelation of the success of the timber wolf, in

coming back to his own, as soon as the forest preserves furnished

plenty of game, and forbade hunters. Timber wolves are returning of

late years to Western Maine and Northern New Hampshire; Northern

Michigan and Wisconsin have them in greater numbers ; some have also

been killed in the Apalachian Mountains of Tennessee, Virginia and WestVirginia, but their stronghold is in the great Rocky Mountain Region andthe Northwestern Sierras, from which they have never been driven.

It might be well to begin this lesson on the wolf with a talk about the

gray wolves whichour ancestors had to

contend with, andalso with stories of

the coyote or prairie

wolf which haslearned to adaptitself to civilization

and flourishes in the

regions west of the

Rocky Mountains,despite men anddogs. Literature is

rich in wolf stories.

Although Kipling's

famous M o w g li

Stories belong t o

the realm of fiction,

yet they contain

interesting accounts

of the habits of the

wolves of India, andare based upon the

himter's and track-

Cray Wolf


er's knowledge of these animals. We have many thrillingly interesting

stories in our own literature which deal with our native wolves. The

following are among the best:

"Lobo" in Wild Animals I Have Known; "Tito" in Lives of the

Hunted; "Bad Lands Billy and the Winnipeg Wolf" in Animal Heroes

all by Thompson Seton; "The Passing of Black Whelps" in Watchers of

the Trail by Roberts ; Northern Trails by Long; "Pico, Coyote" by Coolidge

in True Tales of Birds and Beasts.

For more serious accounts of the wolves see American Animals,

p. 277; The "Hound of the Plains,"in Wild Neighbors, and page 188 in

the Life of Animals, both by IngersoU. "The Coyote" by Bret Harte and

"The Law of the Pack" in the Second Jungle Book bring the wolf

into poetry.

From some or all of these stories, the pjupils should get informa-

tion about the habits of the wolves. This information should be in-

corporated in an essay or an oral exercise and should cover the following

points: Where do the wolves live? On what do they feed? Howdo they get their prey? Do they hunt alone or in packs? How do they

call to each other? Description of the den where the young are reared.

The wolf's cleverness in eluding hunters and traps.

Mammal Study 257

Fox cubs.

THE FOX

Teacher's Story

O WE not always, on a clear morning of winter, feel athrill that must have something primitive in its

quality, at seeing certain tracks in the snow thatsomehow suggest wildness and freedom! Suchis the track of the fox. Although it is somewhatjlike that of a small dog yet it is very different.

The fox has longer legs than most dogs of his

weight, and there is more of freedom in his trackand more of strength and agility expressed in it.

His gait is usually an easy lope; this places theimprint of three feet in a line, one ahead of

another, but the fourth is off a little at one side, as if to keep the balance.

The fox lives in a den or burrow. The only fox home which I eversaw, was a rather deep cave beneath the roots of a stump, and there wasno burrow or retreat beyond it. However, foxes often select woodchuckburrows, or make burrows of their own, and if they are caught within,

they can dig rapidly, as many a hunter can attest. The mother usually

selects an open place for a den for the young foxes; often an open field or

side-hill is chosen for this. The den is carpeted with grass and is a verycomfortable place for the fox puppies. The den of the father fox is

usually not far away.The face of the red fox shows plainly why he has been able to cope with

man, and thrive despite and because of him. If ever a face showedcunning, it is his. Its pointed, slender nose gives it an expression of

extreme cleverness, while the width of the head between the upstanding,

triangular ears gives room for a brain of power. In color the fox is russet-

red, the hind quarters being grayish. The legs are black outside andwhite inside; the throat is white, and the broad, triangular ears are tipped

with black. The glory of the fox is his "brush," as the beautiful, bushytail is called. This is red, with black toward the end and white-tipped.

This tail is not merely for beauty, for it affords the fox warmth during the

winter, as any one may see who has observed the way it is wrapped

2S8 Handbook of Nature-Study

around the sleeping animal. But this bushy tail is a disadvantage, if it

becomes bedraggled and heavy with snow and sleet, when the hounds are

giving close chase to its owner. The silver fox and the black fox are the

same species as the red fox.

The fox is an inveterate hunter of the animals of the field; meadowmice, rabbits, woodchucks, frogs, snakes and grasshoppers, are all

acceptable food; he is also destructive of birds. His fondness for the

latter has given him a bad reputation with the farmer because of his

attacks on poultry. Not only will he raid hen-roosts if he can force

entrance, but he catches many fowls in the summer when they are wander-ing through the fields. The way he carries the heavy burden of his

larger prey shows his cleverness: He slings a hen or a goose over his

shoulders, keeping the head in his mouth to steady the burden. Mr.Cram says, in American Animals:

"Yet, although the farmer and the fox are such inveterate enemies,

they manage to benefit each other in a great many ways quite uninten-tionally. The fox destroys numberless field mice and woodchucks for thefarmer and in return the farmer supplies him with poultry, and builds

convenient bridges over streams and wet places, which the fox crosses

oftener than the farmer, for he is as sensitive as a cat about getting his

feet wet. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the fox gets the

best part of the exchange, for, while the farmer shoots at him on everyoccasion, and hunts him with dogs in the winter, he has cleared the land

of wolves and panthers, so that foxes are probably safer than before anyland was ploughed."

The bark of the fox is a high, sharp yelp, more like the bark of the

coyote than of the dog. There is no doubt a considerable range of

meaning in the fox's language, of which we are ignorant. He growlswhen angry, and when pleased he smiles like a dog and wags his beautiful

tail.

Many are the wiles of the fox to head off dogs following his track: heoften retraces his ownsteps for a few yardsand then makes a longsidewise jump ; the

dogs go on, up to the

end of the trailpocket, and try in

vain to get the scent

from that point.Sometimes he walksalong the top rails of

fences or takes thehigh and dry ridges

where the scent will

not remain; he often

follows roads andbeaten paths and also

goes around andaround in the midstof a herd of cattle,

so that his scent is

hidden ; he crossesRed Fox.

Mammal Study 259

streams on logs and invents various other devices too numerous andintricate to describe. When chased by dogs, he naturally runs in a

circle, probably so as not to be too far from home If there are youngones in the den, the father fox leads the hounds far away, in the nextcounty, if possible. Perhaps one of the most clever tricks of the fox, is

to make friends with the dogs. I have known of two instances wherea dog and fox were daily companions and playfellows.

The young foxes are bom in the spring. They are black at first andare fascinating little creatures, being exceedingly playful and active.

Their parents are very devoted to them, and during all their puppyhood,the mother fox is a menace to the poultry of the region, because thenecessity is upon her of feeding her rapidly growing litter.

In my opinion, the best story of animal fiction is "Red Fox" byRoberts. Like all good fiction, it is based upon facts and it presents awholesome picture of the life of the successful fox.' "The Silver Fox" byThompson Seton is another interesting and delightful story. Althoughthe Nights with Uncle Remus could scarcely be called nature stories,

yet they are interesting in showing how the fox has become a part of

folk-lore.

Fox tracks

LESSON LXIl

The Fox

Leading thought—The red fox is so clever that it hasbeen able, in many parts of our country, to maintainitself despite dogs and men.

Method—This lesson is likely to be given largely fromhearsay or reading. However, if the school is in a ruraldistrict, there will be plenty of hunters' stories afloat,

from which may be elicited facts concerning the cunningand cleverness of the red fox. In such places there is

also the opportunity in winter to study fox tracks uponthe snow. The lesson may well be given when there arefox tracks for observation. The close relationshipbetween foxes and dogs should be emphasized.

Observations aitd reading— i. Describe the fox's track. How does it

differ from the track of a small dog?2. Where does the fox make its home ? Describe the den. Describe

the den in which the young foxes live.

3. Describe the red fox, its color and form as completely as you can.What is the expression of its face? What is there peculiar about its tail?

What is the use of this great bushy tail in the winter?

4. What is the food of the fox? How does it get its food? Is it aday or anight hunter? How does the fox benefit the farmer? How doesit injure him? How does the fox carry home its heavy game, such as agoose or a hen ?

2 6o Handbook of Nature-Study

5. Have you ever heard the fox bark? Did it sound like the bark

of a dog? How does the fox express anger? Pleasure?

6. When chased by dogs, in whatdirection does the fox run ? Describe

all of the tricks which you know bywhich the fox throws the dog off the

scent.

7. When are the young foxes

bom? How many in a litter? Whatcolor are they? How do they playwith each other? How do they learn

to hunt ?

Supplementary reading—Red Foxby Roberts ; Silver Fox by ThompsonSeton; Little Beasts of Field andWood, page 25; Squirrels and OtherFur Bearers, chapter 7 ; Fox Ways in

Ways of Wood Folk; The Springfield Fox in Wild Animals I HaveKnown ; Familiar Wild Animals ; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, page

213 ; American Animals, page 264; Nights with Uncle Remus.

'Got a bite"

A pet red fox.

Photo by Fred S. Charles.

Mammal Study 261

DOGS

Teacher's Story

tOTonly to-day but in ancient days, before the dawn

of history, the dog was the companion of man.. Whether the wild species from whence he sprang,

\,jg^ was wolf or jackal or some other similar animal, we,...-am^^ do not know, but we do know that many types of

dogs have been tamed independently by savages,in the region where their untamed relatives run

_ wild. As the whelps of wolves, jackals and foxesare all easily tamed, and are most interesting little

creatures, we can understand how they became companions to the children

of the savage and barbarous peoples who hunted them.In the earliest records of cave dwellers, in the picture writing of the

ancient Egyptians and of other ancient peoples, we find record of thepresence and value of the dog. But man, in historical times, has beenable to evolve breeds that vary more in form than do the wild species of

the present. There are 200 distinct breeds of dogs known to-day, andmany of these have been bred for special purposes. The paleontologists,

moreover, assure us that there has been a decided advance in the size andquality of the dog's brain since the days of his savagery ; thus, he has beenthe companion of man's civilization also. It is not, therefore, to bewondered at that the dog is now the most companionable, and has themost human qualities and intelligence of all our domesticated animals.Dogs run down their prey ; it is a necessity, therefore, that they be

equipped with legs that are long, strong and muscular. The cat, whichjumps for her prey, has much more delicate legs but has powerful hips toenable her to leap. The dog's feet are much more heavily padded thanthose of the cat, because in running, he must not stop to save his feet.

Hounds often return from a chase with bleeding feet, despite the heavypads, but the wounds are usually cuts between the toes. The claws areheavy and are not retractile; thus, they afford a protection to the feet

when running, and they are also used for digging out game which burrowsinto the ground. They are not used for grasping prey like those of the catand are used only incidentally in fighting, while the cat's claws are themost important weapons in her armory. It is an interesting fact thatNewfoundland dogs, which are such famous swimmers, have their toessomewhat webbed.

262 Handbook of Nature-Sttuly

Greyhound.

The dog's body is long, lean, andvery muscular, a fat dog beingusually pampered and old. Thecoat is of hair and is not of fine fur

like that of the cat. It is of inter-

est to note that the Newfoundlanddog has an inner coat of fine hair

comparable to that of the mink ormuskrat. When a dog is running,his body is extended to its fullest

length; in fact, it seems to "lie

flat," the outstretched legs height-

ening the effect of extreme musculareffort of forward movement. Adog is master of several gaits; hecan run, walk, trot, bound andcrawl.

The iris of the dog's eye is

usually of a beautiful brown, al-

though this varies with breeds; in

puppies, the iris is usually blue. The pupil is round like our own; anddogs cannot see well in the dark like the cat, but in dayhght they havekeen sight. The nose is so

much more efficient than theeyes, that it is on the sense of

smell the dog depends for fol-

lowing his prey and for recog-nizing friend and foe. Thedamp, soft skin that coversthe nose, has in its dampnessthe conditions for carryingthe scent to the wide nostrils;

these are situated at the mostforward part of the face, andthus may be lifted in anydirection to receive the mar-velous impressions, so com-pletely beyond our compre-hension. Think of being able

to scent the track of a foxmade several hours previously.

Not only to scent it, but to

follow by scent for many miles without ever having a glimpse of the fleeing

foe! In fact, while running, the dog's attention seems to be focusedentirely upon the sense of smell, for I have seen hounds pass within a fewrods to the windward of the fox they were chasing, without observing himat all. When the nose of any of the moist-nosed beasts, such as cattleand dogs, becomes dry it is a sign of illness.

A light fall of damp snow gives the dog the best conditions for follow-ing a track by scent and a hound, when on the trail, will run until ex-hausted. There are many authentic observations which show thathounds have followed a fox for twenty-four hours without food, andprobably with little rest.

Bird dog.

Mammal Study 263

The dog's weapons for battle, like those of the wolf, are his tushes:

with these, he holds and tears his prey; with them, he seizes the wood-chuck or other small animal through the back and shakes its life out. In

fighting a larger animal, the dog leaps against it and often incidentally

tears its flesh with his strong claws; but he does not strike a blow with his

foot like the cat, nor can he hold his quarry with it.

Dog's teeth are especially fitted for their work. ^^The incisors are small and sharp; the canine teeth

""^

or tushes are very long, but there are bare spaces onthe jaws so that they are able to cross past eachother; the molar teeth are not fitted for grinding,

like the teeth of a cow, but are especially fitted for

cutting, as may be noted if we watch the way a doggnaws bones, first gnawing with the back teeth onone side and then on the other. In fact, a dogdoes not seem to need to chew anything, but simplyneeds to cut his meat in small enough pieces so thathe can gulp them down without chewing. Hispowers of digesting unchewed food are something Bulldog.that the hustling American may well envy.

Of all domestic animals, the dog is most humanly understandable in

expressing emotions. If delighted, he leaps about giving ecstatic

little barks and squeals, his tail in the air and his eyes full of happy an-

\

'Mateo", a St. Bernard of long pedigree.

264 Handbook of Nature-St-udy

ticipation. If he wishes to be friendly, he looks at us interestedly, comesever to smell of us in order to assure himself whether he has ever met usbefore, and then wags his tail as a sign of good faith. If he wishes toshow affection, he leaps upon us and licks our face or hands with his

soft, deft tongue and follows us jealously. When he stands at attention,

he holds his tail stiff in the air, and looks up with one ear lifted as if

to say, "Well, what's doing?" When angry, he growls and shows his

teeth and the tail is held rigidly out behind, as if to convince us that it

is really a continuation of his backbone. When afraid, he whines andlies fiat upon his belly, often looking beseechingly up toward his master as

if begging not to be punished; or he crawls away out of sight. Whenashamed, he drops his tail between his legs and with drooping head andsidewise glance slinks away. When excited, he barks and every barkexpresses high nervous tension.

Almost all dogs that chase their prey, bark when so doing, whichwould seem at first sight to be a foolish thing to do, in that it reveals their

whereabouts to their victims and also adds an incentive to flight. But it

must be borne in mind that dogs are descended from wolves, whichnaturally hunt in packs anddo not stalk their prey. Thebaying of the hound is a mostcommon example of the habit,

and as we listen we can under-stand how, by following this

sound, the pack is kept to-

gether. Almost all breeds of

dogs have an acute sense ofhearing. When a dog baysat the moon or howls when hehears music, it is simply areversion to the wild habit ofhowling to call together thepack or in answer "to themusic of the pack." It is

interesting that our music,which is the flower of ourcivilization, should awakenthe sleeping ancestral traits

in the canine breast. Butperhaps that, too, is why we

respond to music, because it awakens in us the strong, primitiveemotions, and for the time, enables us to free ourselves from all conven-tional shackles and trammels.

Bloodhound.

Mammal Study 265

Fox terrier and pups.

LESSON LXIII

DOGSLeading thought—The dog is a domesticated descendant of wolf-like

animals and has retained certain of the habits and characteristics of his

ancestors.

Method—For the observation lesson it would be well to have at hand, a

well-disposed dog which would not object to being handled; a collie or a

hound would be preferable. Many of the questions should be given to

the pupils to answer from observations at home, and the lesson should bebuilt upon the experience of the pupils with dogs.

Observations— i. Why are the legs of the dog long and strong in pro-

portion to the body compared with those of the cat?

2. Compare the feet of the cat with those of the dog and note whichhas the heavier pads. Why is this of use to each?

3. Which has the stronger and heavier claws, the dog or the cat?

Can the dog retract his claws so that they are not visible, as does the cat?

Of what use is this arrangement to the dog? Are the front feet just like

the hind feet? How many toe impressions show in the track of the dog?

4. What is the general characteristic of the body of the dog? Is it

soft like that of the cat, or lean and muscular? What is the difference

between the hair covering of the dog and cat? What is the attitude of

the dog when running fast? How many kinds of gaits has he?

5. In general, how do the eyes of the dog differ from those of thecat ? Does he rely as much upon his eyes for finding his prey as does thecat? Can a dog see in the dark? What is the color of the dog's eyes?

6. Study the ear of the dog ; is it covered? Is this outer ear movable,is it a flap, or is it cornucopia shaped? How is this flap used when thedog is listening? Roll a sheet of paper into a flaring tube and place the


small end upon your own ear, and note if it helps you to hear better thesounds in the direction toward which the tube opens? Note how thehound lifts his long earlaps, so as to make a tube for conveying sounds tohis inner ear. Do you think that dogs can hear well?

7. "What is theposition of the nose in

the dog's face? Ofwhat use is this?Describe the nostrils;

are they placed onthe foremost point of

the face? What is

the condition of theskin that surroundsthem ? How does this

condition of the noseaid the dog? Whatother animals have it ?

Does the dog recog-nize his friends orbecome acquaintedwith stratngers bymeans of his sight orof his powers of smell-"Klondike Jack".

The dog that pulled four hundred fifty pounds five hundredmiles through the White Horse Pass in the winter

of the first gold excitement.

mgHow long after

a fox or rabbit haspassed can a hound follow the track ? Does he follow it by sight or bysmell? What are the conditions most favorable for retaining the scent?The most unfavorable ? How long will a hound follow a fox trail withoutstopping for rest or food? Do you think the dog is your superior in

ability to smell ?

9. How does a dog seize and kill his prey? How does he use his feet

and claws when fighting? What are his especially strong weapons?Describe a dog's teeth and explain the reason for the bare spaces on thejaw next to the tushes. Does the dog use

his tushes when chewing? What teeth does

he use when gnawing a bone? Make a

diagram of the arrangement of the dog's

teeth.

10. How by action, voice, and especially

by the movement of the tail does the dog ex-

press the following emotions: Delight,

friendhness, affection, attention, anger, fear,

shame, excitement? How does he act whenchasing his prey? Why do wolves and dogs

bark when following the trail? Do you think

of a reason why dogs often howl at night or

when listening to music? What should wefeed to our pet dogs ? What should we do to

make them comfortable in other ways?Tell or write a story of some dog of

which you know by experience or hearsay.

In pleasant mood.A collie.

Mammal Study 267

Of what use was the dog to the pioneer ? How are dogs used in theArctic regions? In Holland?

12. How many breeds of dogs do you know? Describe charac-ters of such as follows; The length of the legs as compared with thebody; the general shape of the body, head, ears, nose; color and characterof hair on head, body and tail.

13. Find if you can the reasons which have led to the develop-ing of the following breeds: Newfoundland, St. Bernard, mastiffs

hounds, collies, spaniels, setters, pointers, bulldogs, terriers, and pugs.Supplementary reading—"Stories of Brave Dogs" from St. Nicholas,

the Century Co.; the following three stories from Thompson-Seton

:

"Chink" in Lives of the Hunted, "Snap" in Animal Heroes, "Wully" in

Wild Animals I Have Known; IBob, Son of Battle; Mack, His Book, byFlorence Leigh ; Rab and his Friends ; The Dog of Flanders; "Red Dog"in Kipling's Jungle Stories; Animals of the World, Knight and Jenks,

p. 80; Life of Animals, Ingersoll, p. 187.

Fox hunting, in the Genesee Valley, N. Y.

Mammal Stttdy 269

Jenny was a cat of remarkable intelligence and was very obedient anduseful. Coming down the kitchen stairs one day, she played with thelatch and someone hearing her, opened the door. She did this several

times, when one day she chanced to push down the latch, and thus openedthe door herself. After that, she always opened it herself. A little later,

she tried the trick on other doors, and soon succeeded in opening all thelatched doors in the house, by thrusting one front leg through the handle,and thus supporting her weight and pressing down with the foot of theother on the thumb-piece of the latch. I remember, guests were greatlyastonished to see her coming thus swinging into the sitting-room. Latershe tried the latches from the other side, jumping up and trying to lift thehook; but now, her weight was thrown against the wrong side of the doorfor opening, and she soon ceased this futile waste of energy; but for

several years, she let herself into all the .rooms in this clever manner, andtaught a few of her bright kittens to do the same.

A pet cat enjoys long conversations with favored members of thehousehold. She will sit in front of her mistress and mew, with everyappearance of answering the questions addressed her; and since the catand the mistress each knows her own part of the conversation, it is per-

haps more typical of society chatter than we might like to confess. Ofour language, the cat learns to understand the call to food, its own name,"scat," and "No, No," probably inferring the meaning of the latter fromthe tone of voice. On the other hand, we understand when it asks to goout, and its polite recognition to the one who opens the door. I knew onecat which invariably thanked us when we let him in as well as out.

When the cat is hungry, it mews pleadingly; when happy in front of thefire, it looks at us sleepily out of half-closed eyes and gives a short mewexpressive of affection and content; or it purrs, a noise which we do notknow how to imitate and which expresses perfectly the happiness of inti-

mate companionship. When frightened the cat yowls, and when hurtsqualls shrilly; when fighting, it is like a savage warrior in that it howls awar-song in blood-curdling strains, punctuated with a spitting expressive

of fear and contempt; and imforttmately, its love song is scarcely less

agonizing to the listener. The cat's whole body enters into the expression

of its emotions. When feeling affectionate toward its mistress, it rubsagainst her gown, with tail erect, and vibrating with a purr which seemsfundamental. When angry, it lays its ears back and lashes its tail backand forth, the latter being a sign of excitement ; when frightened, its hair

stands on end, especially the hair of the tail, making that expressive

appendage twice its natural size; when caught in disobedience, the cat

lets its tail droop, and when nmning lifts it in

a curve.

While we feed cats milk and scraps fromour own table, they have never become entirely

civilized in their tastes. They always catch

mice and other small animals and prove pesti-

ferous in destroying birds. Jenny was wontto bring her quarry, as an offering, to the front

steps of our home every night; one morningwe found seven mice, a cotton-tail rabbit andtwo snakes, which represented her night's

catch. The cat never chases its prey like the

dog. It discovers the haunts of its victims, a ciaw up. b ciaw thrust out.

Bones and ligaments

of cat's claw.


and then lies in ambush, flattened out as still as a statue and all its feet

beneath it, ready to make the spring. The weight of the body is a factor

which enters in the blow with which the cat strikes down its victim, andthus stuns and which it later kills by gripping the throat with the strongtushes. She carries her victims as she does her kittens, by the back.

The cat's legs are not long compared with the body, and it runs with aleaping gallop ; the upper legs are armed with powerful muscles. It walkson the padded toes, five on the front feet and four of the hind feet. Thecat needs its claws to be sharp and hooked, in order to seize and hold its

prey, so they are kept safely sheathed when not thus used. If the clawsstruck the earth during walking, as do the dog's, they would soon becomedulled. When sharpening its claws it reaches high up against a tree or

post, and strikes them into the wood with a downward scratch; this act

is probably more for exercising the muscles which control the claws thanfor sharpening them.

The cat's track is in a single line as if it had only two feet, one set

directly ahead of the other. It accomplishes this by setting its hind feet

exactly in the tracks made by the front feet. The cat can easily leapupward, landing on a window-sill five feet from the ground. The jump is

made with the hind legs and the alighting is done silently on the front

feet.

Cats' eyes are fitted for seeing in the dark; in the daytime the pupil is

simply a narrow, up and down slit; under excitement, and at night, thepupil covers almost the entire eye. At the back of the eye is a reflecting

surface, which catches such dim light as there is, and by reflecting it

enables the cat to use it twice. It is this reflected light, which gives thepeculiar green glare to the eyes of all the cats when seen in the dark.

Some night-flying moths have a like arrangement for utilizing the light,

and their eyes glow like living coals. Ofcourse, since the cat is a night hunter, this

power of multiplying the rays of light is of

great use. The iris of the eye is usually

yellow, but in kittens it may be blue or green.

The cat's teeth are pecularily fltted for

its needs. The six doll-like incisors of the

upper and lower jaw are merely for scraping

meat from bones. The two great tushes,

or canines, on each jaw, with a bare place

behind so that they pass each other freely, are

sharp and hooked, and are for seizing andcarrying prey. The cat is able to open its

mouth as wide as a right angle, in order to

better hold and carry prey. The back teeth,

or molars, are four on each side in the upperjaw and three, below. They are sharp-edgedwedges made for cutting meat flne enough, so

that it may be swallowed.

The tongue is covered with sharp papillae

directed backwards, also used for raspingjuices from meat. The cat's nose is moist,

"Folks are so tiresome." and her sense of smell very keen, as is also her

sense of hearing. The ears rise like two hollow half-cones on either

Mammal Study 271

side of the head and are filled with sensitive hairs; they ordinarily openforward, but are capable of movement. The cat's whiskers consist of

from twenty-five to thirty long hairs set in four lines, above and at the

sides of the mouth; they are connected with sensitive nerves and are

therefore true feelers. The cat's fur is very fine and thick, and is also

sensitive; as can readily be proved, by trying to stroke it the wrongway. While the wild cats have gray or tawny fur, variously mottledor shaded, the more striking colors we see in the domestic cats are the

result of man's breeding.

Cats are very cleanly in their habits. Puss always washes her face

directly after eating, using one paw for a wash-cloth and licking it clean

after she rubs her face. She cleans her fur with her rough tongue andalso by biting; and she promptly buries objectionable matter. Themother cat is very attentive

to the cleanliness of her kit-

tens, licking them clean fromnose tip to tail tip. The waysof the mother cat with herkittens do much to sustain

the assertions of Mr. Setonand Mr. Long that younganimals are trained and edu-cated by their parents. Thecat brings half-dazed mice to

her kittens, that they maylearn to follow and catch themwith their own little claws.

When she punishes them, she

cuffs the ears by holding oneside of the kitten's head firm

with the claws of one foot,

while she lays on the blowswith the other. She carries herkittens by the nape of the neck,

never hurting them. She takes them into the field when they are old

°,nough, and shows them the haunts of mice, and does many things for

their education and welfare. The kittens meantime train themselves toagility and dexterity, by playing rough and tumble with each other, andby chasing every small moving object, even to their own tails.

The cat loves warmth and finds her place beneath the stove or at theheaithside. She likes some people, and dislikes others, for no reason wecan detect. She can be educated to be friendly with dogs and withbirds. In feeding her, we should give her plenty of sweet milk, somecooked meat and fish of which she is very fond; and we should keep abundle of catnip to make her happy, for even the larger cats of the wilder-ness seem to have a passionate liking for this herb. The cat laps milkwith her rough tongue, and when eating meat, she turns the head this

way and that, to cut the tough muscle with her back teeth.

'Interested!"


Cats Should be Trained to Leave Birds Alone

Every owner of a cat owes it to the world to train puss to leave birds

alone. If this training is begun during kittenhood, by switching the

culprit every time it even looks at a bird, it will soon learn to leave themseverety alone. I have tried

this many times, and I knowit is efficacious, if the cat is

intelligent. We have neverhad a cat whose early training

we controlled, that could ever

be induced to even watchbirds. If a cat is not thus

trained as a kitten, it is likely

to be always treacherous in

this respect. But in case anyone has a valuable cat whichis given to catching birds, I

strongly advise the following

treatment which has beenproved practicable by a friend

of mine. When a cat has made the catch, take the bird away andsprinkle it with red pepper, and then give it back. One such treatmentas this resulted in making one cat, which was an inveterate birdhunter, run and hide every time he saw a bird thereafter. Any personstaking cats with them to their summer homes, and abandoning themthere to prey upon the birds of the vicinity, and to become poor, half-

starved, wild creatures, ought to be arrested and fined. It is notonly cruelty to the cats, but it is positive injury and damage to the com-munity, because of the slaughter of beneficial birds which it entails.

This cat has been trained to be friendly

with birds.

LESSON LXIV

The Cat

Leading thought—The cat was made a domestic animal before manwrote histories. It gets prey by springing from ambush and is fitted byform of body and teeth to do this. It naturally hunts at night and haseyes fitted to see in the dark.

Method—This lesson may be used in primary grades by asking a fewquestions at a time and allowing the children to make their observations ontheir own kittens at home, or a kitten may be brought to school for this

purpose. The upper grade work consists of reading and retelling or writ-

ing exciting stories of the great, wild, savage cats, like the tiger, lion,

leopard, lynx and panther.

Observations— i. How much of Pussy's language do you understand?What does she say when she wishes you to open the door for her? Howdoes she ask for something to eat? What does she say when she feels like

conversing with you ? How does she cry when hurt? When frightened?

What noise does she make when fighting? When calling other cats?

What are her feelings when she purrs? When she spits? How manythings which you say does she understand?

Mammal Study 273

2. How else than by voice does she express affection, pleasure andanger? When she carries her tail straight up in the air is she in a pleasant

mood? When her tail "bristles up" how does she feel? What is it

a sign of, when she lashes her tail back and forth?

3. What do you feed to cats? What do they catch for themselves?What do the cats that are wild live upon? How does the cat help us?

How does she injure us?

4. How does a cat catch her prey? Does she track mice by the scent?

Does she catch them by running after them as a dog does? Describe howshe lies in ambush. How does she hold the mouse as she pounces upon it ?

How does she carry it home to her kittens?

5. Study the cat's paws to see how she holds her prey. Where are

the sharp claws? Are they always in sight like a dog's? Does she touchthem to the ground when she walks? Which walks the more silently,

Amicable advaiices.

a dog or a cat? Why? Describe the cat's foot, including the toe-pads.Are there as many toes on the hind feet as on the front feet ? What kindof a track does the cat make in the snow? How does she set her feet tomake such a track? How does she sharpen her claws? How does she useher claws for climbing? How far have you ever seen a cat jump ? Doesshe use her front or her hind feet in making the jump ? On which feet doesshe alight ? Does she make much noise when she alights ?

6. What is there peculiar about a cat's eyes? What is their color?What is the color of kittens' eyes ? What is the shape of the pupil in day-light ? In the dark ? Describe the inner lid which comes from the comerof the eye.

7. How many teeth has Puss? What is the use of the long tushes?Why is there a bare space behind these? What does she use her little

front teeth for? Does she use her back teeth for chewing or for cuttingmeat?

8. How many whiskers has she? How long are they? What is

their use ? Do you think that puss has a keen sense of smell ? Why do

274 Handbook of NaHire-Study

you think so? Do you think she has a keen sense of hearing? How dothe shape and position of the ears help in listening? In what position are

the ears when puss is angry?

9. How many colors do you find in our domestic cats. What is the

color of wild cats ? Why would it not be beneficial to the wild-cat to haveas striking colors as our tame cats ? Compare the fur of the cat with the

hair of the dog. How do they differ? If a cat chased her prey like the

dog do you think her fur would be a too warm covering?

10. Describe how the cat washes her face. How does she clean herfur? How does her rough tongue help in this? How does the mothercat wash her kittens?

1 1

.

How does a little kitten look when a day or two old ? How longbefore its eyes open? How does the cat carry her kittens? How does akitten act when it is being carried ? How does the mother cat punish herkittens ? How does she teach them to catch mice ? How do kittens play ?

How does the exercise they get in playing fit them to become hunters?12. How should cats be trained not to touch birds? When must this

training begin ? Why should a person be punished for injury to the public

who takes cats to summer cottages and leaves them there to run wild?

13. Where in the room does puss best like to lie ? How does she sunherself? What herb does she like best? Does she like some people andnot others? What strange companions have you known a cat to have?What is the cat's chief enemy? How should we care for and make hercomfortable ?

14. Write or tell stories on the following subjects: (i) The thingswhich my pet cat does; (2) The Wild Cat; (3) The Lion; (4) The Tiger;

(5) The Leopard; (6) The Panther and the Mountain Lion; (7) The Lynx;(8) The History of Domestic Cats; (g) The Different Races of Cats,

describing the Manx, the Persian and the Angora Cats.

Stipplemeniary reading—The Life of Animals, IngersoU; AmericanAnimals, Stone and Cram; Our Domestic Animals, Burkett; The FiresideSphinx, Repplier; Concerning Cats, Winslow; The following animalstories from St. Nicholas Magazine: Cat Stories, Lion and Tiger Stories,

Panther Stories.

Photo by Verne Morton

Mammal Study 275

Saanen goats in Switzerland.Peer, Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

THE GOAT

Teacher's Story

Little do we in America realize the close companionship that has ex-

isted in older countries, from time immemorial, between goats and people.

This association began when man was a nomad, and took with him in his

wanderings, his flocks, of which goats formed the larger part. He thendrank their milk, ate their flesh, wove their hair into raiment, or madecloth of their pelts, and used their skins for water bags. Among peoples

of the East all these uses continue to the present day. In the streets of

Cairo, old Arabs may be seen with goat skins filled with water upon their

backs; and in any city of Western Asia or Southern Europe, flocks of

goats are driven along the streets to be milked in sight of the consumer.In order to understand the goat's peculiarities of form and habit, we

should consider it as a wild animal, living upon the mountain heights amidrocks and snow and scant vegetation. It is marvelously sure-footed, andwhen on its native mountains, it can climb the sharpest crags and leap

chasms. This peculiarity has been seized upon by showmen who often

exhibit goats which walk on the tight rope with ease, and even turn

themselves upon it without falling. The instinct for climbing still

lingers in the domestic breeds, and in the country the goat may be seen ontop of stone piles or other objects, while in city suburbs, its form may bediscerned on the roofs of shanties and stables.

It is a common saying that a goat will eat anything, and much sport

is made of this peculiarity. This fact has more meaning for us when werealize that wild goats live in high altitudes, where there is little plant

life, and are therefore, obliged to find sustenance on lichens, moss and suchscant vegetation as they can find.


The goat is closely allied to the sheep, differing from it in only a fewparticulars; its horns rise from the forehead curving over backward anddo not form a spiral like those of the ram; its covering is usually of hair,

and the male has a beard from which we get the name goatee; the goathas no gland between the toes, and it does have a rank and disagreeable

odor. In a wild state, it usually lives a little higher up the mountainsthan do the sheep, and it is a far more intelligent animal. Mary Austinsays: "Goats lead naturally by reason of a quicker instinct, forage morefreely and can find water on their own account, and give voice in case of

alarm. Goat leaders exhibit jealousy of their rights to be first over thestepping-stones or to walk the teetering log bridges at the roaring creeks."

On the great plains, it is a common usage to place a few goats in a flock of

sheep, because of the greater sagacity of these animals as leaders, and also

as defenders in case of attack.

Goats' teeth are arranged for cropping herbage and especially for

browsing. There are six molar teeth oneach side of each jaw; there are eight

lower incisors and none above. Thegoat's sense of smell is very acute; the

ears are movable and the, sense of hear-

Zaraihi milch goats of Egypt.

Thompson. Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ingis keen; the eyes are full and very intelligent; the horns are some-what flattened and angular and often knobbed somewhat in front, andcurve backward above the neck; they are, however, very efficient as

weapons of defence. The legs are strong, though not large, and are well

fitted for leaping and running. The feet have two hoofs, that is, the

animal walks upon two toe-nails. There are two smaller toes behind

Mammal Study 277

and above the hoofs. The goat can run with great rapidity. The tail

of the goat is short hke that of the deer, and does not need to be ampu-

tated Hke that of the sheep. Although the normal covering of the goat is

hair, there are some species which have a more or less woolly coat.

When angry the goat shakes its head, and defends itself by butting

with the head, also by striking with the horns, which are very sharp.

Goats are very tractable and make affectionate pets when treated with

kindness; they display far more affection for their owner than do sheep.

Our famous Rocky Mountain goat, although it belongs rather to the

antelope family, is a large animal, and is the special prize of the hunter;

however, it stiU holds its own in the high mountains of the Rocky and

Milch goats in Malta.Thompson. Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,

Department of Agriculture.

Cascade Ranges. Both sexes have slender black horns, white hair, andblack feet, eyes and nose. Owen Wister says of this animal: "He is

white, all white, and shaggy, and twice as large as any goat you ever saw.

His white hair hangs long all over him like a Spitz dog's or an Angoracat's; and against its shaggy white mass the blackness of his hoofs andhorns, and nose looks particularly black. His legs are thick, his neck is

thick, everything about him is thick, save only his thin black horns.

They're generally about six (often more than nine) inches long, theyspread very slightly, and they curve slightly backward. At their basethey are a little rough, but as they rise they become cylindrically smoothand taper to an ugly point. His hoofs are heavy, broad and blunt. Thefemale is lighter than the male, and with horns more slender, a trifie.

And (to return to the question of diet) we visited the pasture where theherd (of thirty-five) had been, and found no signs of grass growing or grass

eaten; there was no grass on that mountain. The only edible substance

278 Hmtdbook of Nature-Study

was a moss, tufted, stifE and dry to the touch. I also learned that the goat

is safe from predatory animals. With his impenetrable hide and his

disemboweling horns he is left by the wolves and mountain lions respect-

fully alone." (See American Animals, p. 57 ; Camp Fires of a Naturalist,

chapters VIII and XIII).Milch Goats—Mimy breeds of these have been developed, and the

highest type is, perhaps, found in Switzerland. The Swiss farmers havefound the goat particularly adapted to their high mountains and havejused

it extensively; thus, goats developed in the Saane and Toggenburg val-

leys have a world-wide reputation. Above these valleys the high moun-tains are covered with perpetual snow, and winter sets in about Novem-ber 'ist, lasting until the last of May. The goats are kept with the cowsin bams and fed upon hay; but as soon as the snow is gone from the val-

leys and the lower foot-hills, the cattle and goats are sent with the herdersand boy assistants, to the grazing grounds. A bell is put upon the cowthat leads the herd so as to keep it together and the boys, in their gay

peasant dresses, are as happy as

the playful calves and goats to get

out in the spring sunshine. Theherds follow the receding snowsup the mountains until about mid-summer, when they reach the

high places of scanty vegetation;

then they start on the downwardjourney, returning to the homeand stables about November ist.

The milk from goats is mixed withthat from cows to make cheese,

and this cheese has a wide reputa-tion; some of the varieties are:

Roquefort, Schweitzer and Alten-burger. Although the cheese is

excellent, the butter made fromgoat's milk is quite inferior to

that made from the cow's. Themilk, when the animals are welltaken care of, is exceedinglynourishing; it is thought to be thebest milk in the world for children.

Usually, the trouble with goat's

milk is, that the animals are notkept clean nor is care taken in

milking. Germany has producedmany distinct and excellent breedsof milch goats; the Island ofMalta, Spain, England, Ireland,

Egypt and Nubia have eachdeveloped noted breeds. Of all

these, the Nubias give the most milk, sometimes yielding from four to six

quarts per day, while an ordinary goat is considered fairly good if it yields

two quarts per day.

Poona {India) goat.

Thompson. Twenty-first Annual Report Bureaul_of Animal Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture.

Mammal Study 279

The Mohair Goats—There are two noted breeds of goats whose hair is

used extensively for weaving into fabrics; one of these is the Cashmereand the other the Angora. The Cashmere goat has long, straight, silky

hair for an outside coat and has a winter under-coat of very delicate wool.

There are not more than two or three ounces of this wool upon one goat,

and this is made into the famous Cashmere shawls ; ten goats furnish

barely enough of this wool for one shawl. The Cashmere goats are grownmost largely in Thibet, and the wool is shipped from the high tableland to

the Valley of Cashmere, and is made into shawls. It requires the work of

several people for a year to produce one of these famous shawls.

The Angora goat has a long, silky and very curly fleece. These goats

were first discovered in Angora, a city of Asia Minor south of the BlackSea, and some 200 miles southeast from Constantinople. The Angoragoat is a beautiful and delicate animal, and furnishes most of the mohair,which is made into the cloths known as mohair, alpaca, camel's hair andmany other fabrics. The Angora goat has been introduced into America,in California, Texas, Arizona, and to some extent in the Middle West. It

promises to be a very profitable industry. (See Farmers' Bulletin No.

137, "The Angora Goat," United States Department of Agriculture.)

The skins of goats are used extensively; morocco, gloves and manyother articles are made from them. In the Orient, the skin of the goat is

used as a bag in which to carry water and wine.

References—American Animals, p. 55; Neighbors with Claws andHoofs, p. 190; Familiar Animals, pp. 169 and 183; Camp Fires of aNaturalist, chapters VIII and XIII; Lives of Animals.

Angora goat.

Thompson, Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal IndustryU. S. Department of Agriculture.

2 8o Hattdbook of Nature-Study

LESSON LXVThe Goat

Leading thought—Goats are among our most interesting domesticatedanimals, and their history is closely interwoven with the history of the

development of civilization. In Europe, their milk is made into cheese

that has a world-wide fame; and from the hair of some of the species,

beautiful fabrics are woven. The goat is naturally an animal of the highmountains.

Method—A span of goats harnessed to a cart is second only to ponies,

in a child's estimation ; therefore, the beginning of this lesson may well bea span of goats thus employed. The lesson should not be given unless thepupils have an opportunity for making direct observations on the animal's

appearance and habits. There should be some oral and written work in

English done with this lesson. Following are topics for such work:"The Milch Goat of Switzerland," "How Cashmere Shawls are Made,""The Angora Goat," "The Chamois."

Observations— i . Do you think that goats like to climb to high points ?

Are they fitted to climb steep, inaccessible places? Can they jump off

steep places in safety? How does it happen the goat is sure-footed?

How do its legs and feet compare with those of the sheep ?

2. What does the goat eat? Where does it find its natural food onmountains ? How are the teeth arranged for cutting its food ? Does agoat chew its cud like a cow?

3. What is the covering of the goat? Describe a billy-goat's beard.Do you suppose this is for ornament? For what is goat's hair used?

4. Do you think the goat has a keen sense of sight, of hearing and of

smell? Why? Why did it need to be alert and keen when it lived wildupon the mountains? Do you think the goat is intelligent? Give in-

stances of this?

5. Describe the horns. Do they differ from the horns of the sheep?How does a goat fight? Does he strike head on, like the sheep, or side-

wise? How does he show anger?

6. What noises does a goat make? Do you understand what theymean?

7. Describe the goat, its looks and actions. Is the goat's tail short at

first or does it have to be cut off like the lamb's tail? Where and how is

goat's milk used? What kinds of cheese are made from it? For what is

its skin used? Is its flesh ev3r eaten?

Everyone knows the gayety of young kids, which prompts them to ait the most

amtising and burlesque capers. The goat is naturally capricious and inquisitive, andone might say crazy for every species of adventure. It positively delights in perilotis

ascensions. At times it will rear and threaten you with its head and horns, apparently,

with the worst intentions, whereas it is usually an invitation to play. The bucks,

however, fight violently with each other; they seem to have no consciousness of the most

terrible blows. The ewes themselves are not exempt from this vice.

They know very well whether or not they have deserved pu nishment. Drive tliem

out of the garden, where they are forbidden to go, with a whip and they will flee

without uttering a sound; but strike them without just cause and they will send forth

lamentable cries.

Charles William Burkett in "Our Domestic Animals."

Mammal Study 281

A Sicilian shepherd.

Photo by J. H. Comstock,

THE SHEEPTeacher's Story

"The earliest important achievement of ovine intelligence is to knowwltether its ownnotion or another's is most worth while, and if the other's, which one? Individual

sheep have certain qtmlities, instincts, competences, but in the man-herded flocks these

are superseded by something which I shall call the flock mind, though I cannot say very

well what it is, except that it is less than the sum of all their intelligences. This is whythere have never been any notable changes in the management of flocks since the first

herder girt himself with a wallet of sheep-skin and went out of his cave-dwelling to the

pasttires."—"The Flock," by Mary Austin.

Both sheep and goats are at home on mountains, and sheep especially,

thrive best in cool, dry locations. As wild animals, they were creatures

of the mountain crag and chasm, although they frequented more openplaces than the mountain goats, and their wool was developed to protectthem from the bitter cold of high altitudes. They naturally gathered in

flocks, and sentinels were set to give warning of the approach of danger;as soon as the signal came, they made their escape, not in the straightaway race like the deer, but in following the leader over rock, ledge andprecipice to mountain fastnesses where wolf nor bear could follow. Thus,the instinct of following the leader blindly, came to be the salvation of theindividual sheep.

The teeth of the sheep are like those of the goat, eight incisors belowand none on the upper row, and six grinding teeth at the back of each side


of each jaw. This arrangement of teeth on the small, delicate, pointed

jaws enables the sheep to crop herbage where cattle would starve; it cancut the small grass off at its roots, and for this reason, where vast herds of

sheep range, they leave a desert behind them. This fact brought about a

bitter feud between the cattle and sheep men in the far West. In forests,

flocks of sheep completely kill all underbrush, and now they are not per-

mitted to run in government reserves.

The sheep's legs are short and delicate below the ankle. The upperportion is greatly developed to help the animal in leaping, a peculiarity to

which we owe the "leg of lamb" as a table delicacy. The hoof is cloven,

that is, the sheep walks upOx^ two toes; it has two smaller toes above andbehind these. There is a little gland between the front toes which secretes

A sheep of pedigree, Shropshire ram.

an oily substance, which perhaps serves in preventing the hoof frombecoming too dry. The ears are large and are moved to catch better thedirection of sound. The eyes are peculiar; in the sunlight the pupil is amere slit, while the iris is yellow or brownish, but in the dark, even of thestable, the pupils enlarge, almost covering the eye. The ewes either lackhorns or have small ones, but the horns of wild rams are large, placed at theside of the head and curled outward in a spiral. These horns are perhapsnot so much for fighting the enemy as for rival rams. The ram can strike

a hard blow with head and horns, coming at the foe head on, while thegoat always strikes sidewise. So fierce is the blow of the angry sheep, thatan ancient instrument of war was fashioned like a ram's head and used toknock down walls, and was called a battering ram. A sheep shows angerby stamping the ground with the front feet. The habit of ruminationenables the sheep to feed in a flock and then retire to some place to rest

and chew the cud, a performance peculiarly funny in the sheep.

Mammal Study 283

Sheep under attack and danger are silent; ordinarily they keep up a

constant, gentle bleating to keep each other informed of their where-

abouts; they also give a peculiar call when water is discovered, andanother to inform the flock that there is a stranger in the midst ; they also

give a peculiar bleat, when a snake or other enemy which they conquer, is

observed. Their sense of smell is very acute. Mary Austin says,

"Young lambs are principally legs, the connecting body being simply a

contrivance for converting milk into more leg, so you understand how it is

that they will follow the flock in two days and are able to take the trail in

a fortnight, traveling four and five miles a day, falling asleep on their feet

and tottering forward in the way."The older lambs have games which

they play untiringly, and which fit

them to become active members of theflock; one, is the regular game of

"Follow My Leader," each lambstriving to push ahead and attain

the place of leader. In playing this

the head lamb leads the chase overmost difficult places, such as logs,

stones and across brooks; thus is a

training begun which later in life maysave the flock. The other game is

peculiar to stony pastures; a lambclimbs to the top of a boulder and its

comrades gather around and try to

butt it off; the one which succeeds in

doing this, climbs the rock and is "it." This game leads to agility andsure-footedness. A lamb's tail is long and is most expressive of lambkinbliss, when feeding time comes ; but, alas ! it has to be cut off so that later

it will not become matted with burrs and filth. In southern Russia there

is a breed of sheep with large, flat, fat tails which are esteemed as

a great table delicacy. This tail becomes so cumbersome that wheelsare placed beneath it, so that it trundles along behind its owner.We have a noble species of wild sheep in the Rocky Mountains

which is likely to become extinct soon. The different breeds of

domesticated sheep are supposed to have been derived from different

wild species. Of the domesticated varieties, we have the Merinoswhich originated in Spain and which give beautiful, long, fine woolfor our fabrics; but their flesh is not very attractive. The Merinoshave wool on their faces and legs and have wrinkled skins. The English

breeds of sheep have been especially developed for mutton, althoughtheir wool is valuable. Some of these like the Southdown, Shropshire,

and Dorset, give a medium length of wool, while the Cotswold has

very long wool, the ewes having long strings of wool over their eyes

in the fashion of "bangs."The dog, as descended from the wolf, is the ancient enemy of sheep

;

and even now after hundreds of years of domestication, some of ourdogs will revert to savagery and chase and kill sheep. This, in fact,

has been one of the great drawbacks to sheep raising in the (Eastern

United States. The collie, or sheep-dog, has been bred so many years as

the special care-taker of sheep, that a beautiful relationship has been

Mutual contentment.

284 Handbook^, of Nature-Study

established between these dogs and their flocks. For instances of this,

read the chapter on sheep-dogs in A Country Reader; "Wully" in WildAnimals I Have Known, and "Bob, Son of Battle."

LESSON LXVI

The Sheep

Leading thotight—Sheep live naturally in high altitudes. Whenattacked by enemies, they follow their leader over difficult and dangerousmountain places.

Method—The questions of this lesson should be given to the pupils andthe observations should be made upon the sheep in pasture or stable.

Much written work may be done in connection with this lesson. Thefollowing topics are suggested for themes : "The Methods by which Woolis Made into Cloth," "The Rocky Mountain Sheep," "The Sheep-herdersof California and their Flocks," "The True Story of a Cosset Lamb."

Horned Dorset ram.

Observations—i. What is the chief character that separates sheepfrom other animals? What is the difference between wool and hair?

Why is wool of special use to sheep in their native haunts? Is there anyhair on sheep?

2. Where do the wild sheep live? What is the climate in these

places? Does wool serve them well on this account? What sort of

pasturage do sheep find on mountains? Could cows live where sheepthrive? Describe the sheep's teeth and how they are arranged to enableit to crop vegetation closely? What happens to the vegetation on therange, when a great flock of sheep passes over it? Why are sheep notallowed in our forest preserves?

Mammal Study 28s

3. What are the chief enemies of sheep in the wilderness? How do

the sheep escape them? Describe the foot and leg of the sheep andexplain how they help the animal to escape its enemies. We say of cer-

tain men that they "follow hke a flock of sheep." Why do we make this

comparison? What has this habit of following the leader to do with the

escape of sheep from wolves and bears?

4. How do sheep fight? Do both rams and ewes have horns? Dothey both fight ? How does the sheep show anger ? Give your experience

with a cross cosset lamb.

5. Do you think that sheep can see and hear well? What is the posi-

tion of the sheep's ears when it is peaceful? When there is danger?

How do the sheep's eyes differ from those of the cow?6. Does the sheep chew its cud like the cow? Describe the actionas

performed by the sheep. How is this habit of cud chewing of use to the

wild sheep ?

7. Describe a young lamb. Why has it such long legs? How do es

it use its tail to express joy? What happens to this tail later? Whatgames have you seen lambs play? Tell all the stories of lambs that youknow.

8. How much of sheep language do you understand? What is the

use to the wild flock of the constant bleating?

9. For what purposes do we keep sheep? How many breeds of

sheep do you know? What are the chief differences between the English

breeds and the Merinos? Where and for what purposes is the milk of

sheep used?10. Have you ever seen a collie looking after a herd of sheep? If so,

describe his actions. Did you ever know of dogs killing sheep ? At whattime of day or night was this done? Did you ever know of one dogattacking a flock of sheep alone. What is there in the dog's ancestry

which makes two or three dogs, when hunting, give chase and attack

sheep ?

Photo by Gerrit Miller

Handbook of Nature-Study

A herd of ponies in the Isle of Shetland guarded by a sheep-dog.

THE HORSETeacher's Story

"There was once a little animal no bigger than a fox'.

And on five toes he scrambled over Tertiary rocks.

They called him Eohippus, and they called him very small.

And they thoiight him of no value when they thought of him at all.

Said the little Eohippus, I am going to be a horse!

And on my middle finger nails to run my earthly course!

I am going to have a flowing tail! I am going to have a mane!

And I am going to stand fourteen hands high on the Psychozooic plain!"—Mrs. Stetson.

It was some millions of years ago, that Eohippus lived out in theRocky Mountain Range; its fore feet had four toes and the splint of thefifth; the hind feet had three toes and the splint of the fourth. Eohippuswas followed down the geologic ages by the Orohippus and the Mesohippusand various other hippuses, which showed in each age a successive enlarge-

ment and specialization of the middle toe and the minimizing and final

loss of the others. This first little horse with many toes, lived when theearth was a damp, warm place and when animals needed toes to spreadout to prevent them from miring in the mud. But as the ages went on,

the earth grew colder and drier, and a long leg ending in a single hoof, wasvery serviceable in running swiftly over the dry plains ; and according tothe story read in the fossils of the rocks, our little American horses

migrated to South America; and also trotted dry-shod over to Asia in

the Mid-pleocine age, arriving there sufficiently early to become the com-panion of prehistoric man. In the meantime, horses were first hunted by

Mammal Study 287

savage man for theii

flesh, but were later

ridden. At present,

there are wild horses

in herds on the plains

of Tartary; and there

are still sporadic herds /

of mustangs on thegreat plains of our \\

own country, althoughfor the most part, they \ Ware branded and be- \\

long to someone, even ^though they live like \

wild horses ; theseAmerican wild horsesare supposed to bedescendents of thosebrought over icentu-

ries ago by the Span-iards. The Shetlandponies are also wild

Four-toed horse of the Eocene period.

After Charles R. Knight.

in the islands north of Scotland, and the zebras roam the plains of Africa

the most truly wild of all. In a state of wildness, there is always a stal-

lion at the head of a herd of mares, and he has to win his position and keepit by superior strength and prowess. Fights between stallions are terrible

to witness, and often result in the death of one of the participants. Thehorse is well armed for battle; his powerful teeth can inflict deep woundsand he can kick and strike hard with the front feet ; still more efficient

is the kick made with both hind feet while the weight of the body is borneon the front feet, and the head of the horse is turned so as to aim well theterrible blow. There are no wild beasts of prey which will not slink awayto avoid a herd of horses. After attaining their growth in the herd withtheir mothers, the young males are forced by the leader to leave and go off

by themselves; in turn, they must by their own strength and attractions,

win their following of mares. However, there are times and places wheremany of these herds join, making large bands wandering together.

The length of the horse's leg was evidently evolved to meet the needfor flight before fierce and swift enemies, on the great ancient plains.

The one toe, with its strong, sharp hoof, makes a fit foot for such a longleg, since it strikes the ground with little waste of energy and is sharpenoughnot to slip, but it is not a good foot for marshy places ; a horse will

mire where a cow can pass in safety. The development of the middle toeinto a hoof results in lifting the heel and wrist far up the leg, making themappear to be the knee and elbow, when compared with the human body.

The length of neck and head are necessary in order that an animal,with such length of leg as the horse, may be able to graze. The head ofthe horse tells much of its disposition ; a perfect head should be not tooiarge, broad between the eyes and high between the ears, while below theeyes, it should be narrow. The ears, if lopped or turned back, denote atreacherous disposition. They should point upward or forward ; the earslaid back is always a sign that the horse is angry; sensitive, quick-moving

Hai-tdbook of Nature-Study

ears indicate a high-strung, sensitive animal. The eyes are placed sothat the horse can see in front, at the side and behind, the last being

necessary in order to aim a kick. Hazeleyes are usually preferred to dark ones,

and they should be bright and prominent.

The nostrils should be thin-skinned, wide-

flaring and sensitive; as a wild animal,

scent was one of the horse's chief aids in

detecting the enemy. The lips should

not be too thick and the lower jaw should

be narrow where it joins the head.

The horse's teeth are peculiar; thereare six incisors on both jaws; behind them,

is a bare space called the bar, of

which we have made use for

placing the bit. Back of the

bar, there are six molars or

grinders on each side of each jaw. At the age of about three

years, canine teeth or tushes appear behind the incisors; these are

more noticeable in males, and never seem to be of much use.

Thus, the horse has on each jaw, when full-grown, six incisors, twocanines, and twelve molars, making forty teeth in all. The incisors areprominent and enable the horse to bite the grass more closely than canthe cow. Tlie horse when chewing, does not have the sidewise motion ofthe jaws peculiar to the cow and sheep.

The horse's coat is, when rightly cared for, glossy and beautiful; butif the horse is allowed to run out in the pasture all winter, the coat becomesvery shaggy, thus reverting to the condition of wild horses which stand in

need of a warmer coat for winter; the hair is shed every year. Themane and the forelock are useful in protecting the head and neck fromflies; the tail is also an efficient fiy-brush. Although the mane and tail

Hoofs of horses from earliest ages to the present time,

arranged in pairs, hind and front.

Mammal St-udy 289

have thus a practical value, they'add greatly to the animal's beauty. Todock a horse's tail as an ornament is as absurd as the sliced ears and weltedcheeks of savages; and horses thus mutilated sufEer greatly from theattacks of flies.

Owing to the fact that wild horses made swift flight from enemies, the

colts could not be left behind at the mercy of wolves. Thus it is, the colt

like the lamb, is equipped with long legs from the first, and can run veryrapidly; as a runner, it could not be loaded with a big compound stomachfull of food, like the calf, and therefore, must needs take its nourishmentfrom the mother often. The colt's legs are so long that, in order to graze,

it spreads the front legs wide apart in order that it may reach the grass

with its mouth. When the colt or the horse lies down out of doors and in

perfect freedom, it lies flat upon the side. In lying down, the hind quar-

ters go first, and in rising, the front legs are thrust out first.

English draft-horse.

The horse has several natural gaits and some that are artificial. Its

natural methods of progression are the walk, the trot, the amble, thegallop. When walking there are always two or more feet on the groundand the movement of the feet consists in placing successively the right

hind foot, the right fore foot, left hind foot, left fore foot, right hind foot,

etc. In trotting, each diagonal pair of legs is alternately lifted and thrust

forward, the horse being unsupported twice during each stride. Inambling, the feet are moved as in the walk, only differing in that a hindfoot or a fore foot is lifted from the ground, before its fellow fore foot or

hind foot is set down. In a canter, the feet are landed on the ground in

the same sequence as a walk but much more rapidly; and in the gallop,

the spring is made from the fore foot and the landing is on the diagonal

hind foot and just before landing, the body is in the air and the legs are all

bent beneath it.


An excellent horseman once said to me, "The whip may teach a horse

to obey the voice, but the voice and hand control the well-broken horse,"

and this epitomizes the best horse training. He also said, "The horseknows a great deal, but he is too nervous to make use of his knowledgewhen he needs it most. It is the horse's feelings that I rely on. Healways has the use of his feelings and the quick use of them." It is a

well-known fact that those men who whip and scold and swear at their

horses, are meantime showing to the world that they are fools in this

particular business. Many of the qualities which we do not like in ourdomesticated horses, were most excellent and useful when the horses werewild, for instance, the habit of shying was the wild horse's method of

escaping the crouching foe in the grass. This habit as well as many others

Saddle-horse.

is best controlled by the voice of the driver instead of a blow from thewhip.

'Timothy hay, or hay mixed with clover, form good, bulky food for thehorse, and oats and com are the best concentrated food. Oats are best for

driving-horses and com for the working team. Dusty hay should not befed to a horse; but if unavoidable, it should always be dampened beforefeeding. A horse should be fed with regularity, and should not be usedfor a short time after having eaten. If the horse is not warm, it shouldbe watered before feeding, and in the winter the water should have thechill taken off. The frozen bit should be warmed before being placed in

the horse's mouth; if anyone doubts the wisdom of this, let him put afrozen piece of steel in his own mouth. The tight-drawn, cruel use of theover check-rein should not be permitted, although a moderate check is

often needed and is not cruel. When the horse is sweating, it should beblanketed immediately if hitched outside in cold weather; but in thebam, the blanket should not be put on until the perspiration has stoppedsteaming. The grooming of a horse is a part of its rights, and its legs

should receive more attention during this process than its body, a fact

not always well understood.

The breeds of horses may always be classified more or less distinctly as

follows; Racers or thoroughbreds; the saddle-horse, or hunter; the

Mammal Study 291

coach-horse; the draft-horse and the pony. For a description of breedssee dictionaries or cyclopedias. Of the draft-horses, the Percherons,Shires and Clydesdales are most common; of the carriage and coach-horses, the English hackney and the French and German coach-horses are

famed examples. Of the roadster breeds, the American trotter, theAmerican saddle-horse and the English thoroughbred are most famous.

A good coacher.

LESSON LXVII

The Horse

Leading thought—The horse as a wild animal depended largely uponits strength and fleetness to escape its enemies, and these two qualities

have made it of greatest use to man.Method—Begin this study of the horse with the stories of wild horses.

"The Pacing Mustang" in Wild Animals I Have Known, is an excellent

story to show the habits of the herds of wild horses ; Chapter first in ACountry Reader and the story of horses in Life of Animals are excellent as

a basis for study. Before beginning actual study of the domestic horses,

ask for oral or written English exercises descriptive of the lives of the

wild horses. Get Remington's pictures illustrating the wild horses of

America. After the interest has been thus aroused the following observa-

tions may be suggested, a few at a time, to be made incidentally in thestreet or in the stable.

Observations— i. Compare the length of the legs of the horse with its

height. Has any other domestic animal legs as long in proportion?

What habits of the ancestral wild horses led to the development of suchlong legs? Do you think the length of the horse's neck and head corre-

spond to the length of its legs? Why?


2. Study the horse's leg and foot. The horse walks on one toe.

Which toe do you think it is ? What do we call the toe-nail of the horse ?

What advantage is this sort of a foot to the horse ? Is it best fitted for

running on dry plains or for marshy land? Does the hoof grow as ournails do ? Do you know whether there were ever any horses with three

toes or four toes on each foot? Make a sketch of the horse's front andhind leg and label those places which correspond to our wrist, elbow,shoulder, hand, heel, knee and hip.

3. Where are the horse's ears placed on the head? How do theymove? Do they flap back and forth like the cow's ears when they are

moved, or do they turn as if on a pivot? What do the following different

positions of the horse's ears indicate : When lifted and pointing forward ?

When thrown back? Can you tell by the action of the ears whether ahorse is nervous and high-strung or not?

4. What is the color of the horse's eyes? The shape of the pupil?

What advantage does the position of the eyes on the head give to the wild

horse ? Why do we put blinders on a horse ? Can you tell by the expres-

sion of the eye the temper of the horse ?

5. Look at the mouth and nose. Are the nostrils large and flaring?

Has the horse a keen sense of smell ? Are the lips thick or thin ? Whentaking sugar from the hand, does the horse use teeth or lips?

6. Describe the horse's teeth. How many front teeth ? How manyback teeth? Describe the bar where the bit is placed. Are there any

UO Al-TO IN 1892.

"Palo Alto", a famous running horse.

Mammal Study 293

canine teeth? If so, where? Do you know how to tell a horse's age byits teeth? (See Elements of Agriculture, Warren, page 304, and TheHorse, Roberts, page 246.) Can a horse graze the grass more closely

than a cow? Why? When it chews does it move the jaws sidewise like

the cow? Why? Why did the wild horses not need to develop a cud-chewing habit?

7. What is the nature of the horse's coat in summer? If the horseruns in the pasture all winter, how does its coat change ? When does the

horse shed its coat? What is the use of the horse's mane, forelock andtail ? Do you think it is treating the horse well to dock its tail ?

8. Why do colts need to be so long-legged? How does a colt haveto place its front legs in order to reach down and eat the grass? Does thecolt need to take its food from the mother often? How does it differ

from the calf in this respect? How has this difference of habit resulted

in a difference of form in the calf and colt?

9. When the horse lies down which part goes down first? Whengetting up which rises first? How does this differ from the method of thecow? When the horse lies down to sleep does it have its legs partially

under it like the cow?10. In walking which leg moves first? Second? Third? Fourth?

How many gaits has the horse? Describe as well as you can all of these

gaits. (See pictures illustrating the word "movement" in the StandardDictionary.)

11. Make a sketch of a horse showing the parts. (See Webster'sUnabridged). When we say a horse is fourteen hands high what do wemean?

12. In fighting, what weapons does the horse use and how?13. In training a horse, should the voice or the whip be used the

most? What qualities should a man have to be a good horse trainer?

Why is shying a good quality in wild horses ? How should it be dealt within the domestic horse ?

14. What sort of feed is best for the horse? How and when shouldthe horse be watered? Should the water be warmed in cold weather?Why? Should the bit be warmed in winter before putting it in a horse's

mouth? Why? Should a tight over check-rein be used when driving?

Why ? When the horse has been driven until it is sweating what are the

rules for blanketing it when hitched out of doors and when hitched in thebam ? What is your opinion of a man who lets his horse stand waiting in

the cold, unblanketed in the village street. If horses were kept out of

doors all the time would this treatment be so cruel and dangerous ? Why?Why should dusty hay be dampened before it is fed to a horse? Whyshould a horse be groomed? Which should receive the most attention,

the legs or the body?15. How many breeds of horses do you know? What is the use of

each? Describe as well as you can the characteristics of the following

breeds: The thoroughbred, the hackney, and other coach-horses; theAmerican trotter, the Percheron, the Clydesdale.

16. Write English themes on the following subjects: "The Pre-historic Horses of America," "The Arabian Horse and Its Life With Its

Master," "The Bronchos and Mustangs of the West," "The Wild Horsesof Tartary," "The Zebras of Africa," "The Shetland Ponies and theIslands on Which They Run Wild."


Supplementary reading—The Horse, Roberts; Elements of Agricul-

ture, Warren; Life of Animals, Cram ; Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs;A Country Reader; Agriculture for Beginners; Black Beauty; JohnBrent, by Theodore Withrop; Half Hours with Mammals, Holder;Chapters on Animals, Hammerton; "Kaweah's Run" in Claws andHoofs.

Many horses shy a good deal at objects they meet on the road. This mostly arises

from nervousness, because the objects are not familiar to them. Therefore, to cure the

habit, yoii -must get your horse accustomed to what he sees, and so give him confidence.

. Be careful never to stop a horse that is drawing a vehicle or load in the middle

of a hill, except for a rest; and if for a rest, draw him across the hill and place a big

stone behind the wheel, so that the strain on the shoulder may be eased. Unless abso-

lutely necessary never stop a horse on a hill or in a rut, so that when he starts again it

means a heavy tug. Many a horse has been made a jibber and his temper spoilt by

not observing this rule.

—H. B. M. Buchanan in "A Country Reader."

Mammal Study 295

^^BIIH^^^^^P'^HbLlJ^H^^^


Course of food in acow's stomach.

I, ruminant stomach; II, wherethe cud-balls are formed;III, IV, true stomachs.

mother; the youngfor a long journey;"frozen" and willnever stir unless

actually touched.As the mother is

obliged to be absentfor some time grazingwith the herd, the

calf is obliged to gowithout nourishmentfor a number of hours,

and so it is providedwith a large compoundstomach which, if filled

twice per day, suffices

to insure health andgrowth. The cow, onthe other hand, giv-

ing her milk out onlytwice per day, needs a

large udder in whichto store it. The size

of the udder is whathas made the cowuseful to us as a milchanimal.

A fine cow is abeautiful creature, hersoft yellow skin be-

neath the sleek coatof short hair, the well

proportioned body,the mild face, crownedwith spreading,polished horns andilluminated with large

gentle eyes, are all

in their ruminating stomachs. During theheat of the day, they move to the shade,preferably to the shady banks of streams,and there in quiet the food is broughtup, a small portion at a time, and chewed witha peculiar sidewise movement of the jaws andthen swallowed, passing to the true stomach.There is probably no more perfect picture ofutter contentment, than a herd of cows chewingtheir cuds in the shade, or standing knee-deepin the cool stream on a summer's day. Thecattle in a herd when grazing, keep abreast andmove along, heads in the same direction.

Connected with the grazing habit, is that ofthe hiding of the new-bom calf by its

calf is a wabbly creature and ill-fitted

so the mother hides it, and there it stays

A pet Holstein.

Mammal Sttidy 297

elements of beauty which artists have recognized, especially thoseof the Dutch school. The ancients also admired bovine eyes, andcalled their most beautiful goddess the ox-eyed Juno.

The cow's ears can be turned in any direction, and her sense of hearingis keen; so is her sense of smell, aided by the moist, sensitive skin of thenose; she always sniffs danger and also thus tests her food. Although acow if well kept has a sleek coat, when she is allowed to run out of doorsduring the winter, her hair grows long and shaggy as a protection. Thecow walks on two toes, or as we say has a split hoof. She has two lesser

toes above and behind the hoofs which we call dew-claws. The part of

her leg which seems at first glance to be her knee, is really her wrist orankle. Although short-legged, the cow is a good runner, as those whohave chased her can bear witness. She can walk, gallop and has a pacingtrot; she is a remarkable jumper, often taking a fence like a deer; shealso has marvelous powers as a swimmer, a case being on record where acow swam five miles. But a cow would be illy equipped for comfort if it

were not for her peculiar tail, which is made after the most approvedpattern of fly-brushes, and is thus used. Woe betide the fly she hits withit, if the blow is as efficient as that which she incidentally bestows on thehead of the milker. It is to get rid of flies, that the cattle, and especially

the buffaloes, wallow in the mud, and thus coat themselves with a fly-

proof armor.There is a fairly extensive range of emotions expressed in cattle

language, from the sullen bellow of the angry animal to the lowing whichis the call of the herd, and the mooing which is meant for the calf; andthere are many other bellowings and mutterings which we can partially

understand.Every herd of cows has its leader, which has won the position by fair

fight. Add a new cow to the herd, and there is at once a trial of strength,

to adjust her to her proper place; and in a herd of cows, the leader leads;

she goes first and no one may say her nay. In fact, each member of theherd has her place in it ; and that is why it is so easy to teach cows eachto take her own stanchion in the stable. In a herd of forty cows which I

knew, each cow took her stanchion, no matter in what order she happenedto enter the stable.

A cow at play is a funny sight; her tail is lifted aloft like a pennant andshe kicks as lightly as if she were made of rubber. She is also a sure-

footed beast, as anyone can attest who has seen her running down the

rocky mountain sides of the Alps, at a headlong pace and never making amistake. In lying down, the cow first kneels with the front legs, or

rather drops on her wrists, and then the hind quarters go down, and thenthe front follow. She does not lie flat on her side when resting, like the

horse when at ease, but with her legs partially under her. In getting up,

she rests upon her wrists and then lifts the hind quarters.

The Usefulness of Cattle

When man emerged from the savage state, his first step toward civili-

zation was domesticating wild animals and training them for his own use.

During the nomad stage, when tribes wandered over the face of the

earth, they took their cattle along. From the first, these animals havebeen used in three capacities : First, for carrying burdens and as draught


animals; second, as meat; third, as givers of milk. They were also usedin the earlier ages as sacrifices to the various deities, and in Egypt, somewere held as sacred.

As beasts of burden and draft animals, oxen are still used in manyparts of the United States. For logging, especially in pioneer days, oxenwere far more valuable than horses. They are patient and will pull a fewinches at a time, if necessary, a tedious work which the nervous horse

refuses to endure. Cows too, have been used as draft animals, and are so

used in China today, where they do most of the plowing; in these oriental

countries milk is not consumed to any extent, so the cow is kept for the

work she can do. In ancient times in the East, white oxen formed a part

of royal processions.

Beef cattle.

Because of two main uses of cattle by civilized man, he has bred themin two directions; one for producing beef, and one for milk. The beefcattle are chiefly Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Short-horn or Durham, andHereford; the dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Holstein-Frisian and Brown Swiss. The beef animal is, in cross-section, approxi-mately like a brick set sidewise. It should be big and full across the loins

and back, the shoulders and hips covered heavily with flesh, the legs stout,

the neck thick and short, and the face short; the line of the back is

straight, and the stomach line parallel with it. Very different is theappearance of the milch cow. Her body is oval, instead of being approxi-mately square in cross-section. The outline of her back is not straight,

Mammal Study 299

but sags in front of the hips, which are prominent and bony. Theshoulders have Httle flesh on them; and if looked at from above, her bodyis wedge-shaped, widening from shoulders backward. The stomach line

is not parallel with the back bone, but slants downward from the shoulder

to the udder. The following are the points that indicate a good milch

cow: Head high between the eyes, showing large air passages andindicating strong lungs. Eyes clear, large and placid, indicating gooddisposition. Mouth large, with a muscular lower jaw, showing ability to

chew efficiently and rapidly. Neck, thin and fine, showing veins throughthe skin. Chest deep and wide, showing plenty of room for heart andlungs. Abdomen, large but well supported, and increasing in size towardthe rear. Ribs, well spread, not meeting the spine like the peak of a roof,

but the spine must be prominent, revealing to the touch the separate

vertebrae. Hips, much broader than the shoulders. Udder, large, the

four quarters of equal size, and not fat; the "milk veins" which carry

the blood from the udder should be large and crooked, passing into theabdomen through large openings. Skin, soft, pliable and covered withfine, oily hair. She should have good digestion and great powers of

assimilation. The milch cow is a milk-making machine, and the morefuel (food) she can use, the greater her production.

The physiological habits of the beef and milch cattle have beenchanged as much as their structure. The food given to the beef cow goes

to make flesh; while that given to the milch cow goes to make milk,

however abundant her food. Of course, there are all grades between thebeef and the milch types, for many farmers use dual herds for both.However, if a farmer is producing milk it pays him well to get the best

possible machine to make it, and that is always a cow of the right type.

A Geography Lesson

All the best breeds of cattle have been evolved in the British Isles andin Europe north of Italy and west of Russia. All our domesticated cattle

were developed from wild cattle of Europe and Asia. The cattle whichroam in our rapidly narrowing grazing lands of the far West are Europeancattle. America had no wild cattle except the bison. In geographysupplementary readers, read about Scotland, England, the ChannelIslands, the Netherlands, France and Switzerland and the different kinds

of cattle developed in these countries; for example, "A Holland Dairy,"in Northern Europe, Ginn & Co.

How to Produce Good Milk

There are three main ingredients of milk—fat, curd and ash. Thefat is for the purpose of supplying the animal with fat and we make it into

butter; the curd supplies muscle, or the lean meat of the animal, andis the main ingredient of cheese, although cheese to be good should con-tain a full amount of butter fat; the ash which may be seen as residue

when milk is evaporated, builds up the bone of the animal. The bestbutter cows are those which give a larger per cent, of fat and a smallper cent, of curd, like the Jerseys; the best cheese cows are thosewhich give a fair per cent, of fat and a larger yield of curd, like theAyrshire and Holstein.


A cow for producing cheese, is not profitable, unless she gives seven

thousand pounds of milk per year; a butter cow, a Jersey for instance,

should produce five thousand pounds of milk per year to be really

profitable.

The stable where milch cows are kept should be thoroughly cleaned

before each milking, and should be swept each day; the cows' udders

should be brushed, and the milkers should wear clean aprons and should

wash their hands before milking. Milk should never be strained in the

bam, but in some place where the air is fresh. If milk is perfectly clean,

it will keep sweet much longer; sterilized milk put in bottles will keepsweet for weeks and even months. Loud talking should not be permittedin the stables while the cows are being milked, and each cow should bemilked by the same person for the entire season.

The perfect milch type.

Milk to be legally sold in New York State must possess three per cent,

of butter fat. For upper grades or first year work in the high school,

there could not be a more profitable exercise than teaching the pupils the

use of the Babcock milk tester.

The Care of the Milch Cow

The importance cannot be over-estimated of teaching the pupils in

rural districts, the proper care of milch cattle for the production of milk.

The milch cow is a perfect machine, and should be regarded as such in

producing milk. First, she should have plenty of food of the right kind,

that is, a well-balanced ration. Second, she should have a warm, clean

stable and be supplied with plenty of good, fresh air. A cold stable

makes it necessary to provide much more food for the cow; a case onrecord shows that when a bam was opened up in cold weather for neces-

sary repairing, the amount of milk from the cows stabled in it, decreasedten per cent, in twenty-four hours. There should be a protected place for

Mammal Study 301

drinking, if the cattle must be turned out of the bam for water in winter;

it is far better to have the water piped into the bam, although the herdshould be given a few hours each day in the open air. A dog shouldnever be used for driving cows. To be profitable, a cow should give milkten months of the year at least. Calves should be dehorned when theyare a few days old by putting caustic potash on the budding horns, thusobviating the danger of damaging the cow by dehorning.

In a properly run dairy, a pair of scales stands near the can for receiv-

ing the milk; and as the milk from each cow is brought in, it is weighedand the amount set down opposite the cow's name on a "milk sheet," thatis tacked on the wall, near by. At the end of each week, the figures onthe milk sheet are added, and the farmer knows just how much milk eachcow is giving him, and whether there are any in the herd which are notpaying their board.

References—Elements of Agriculture, Warren; Agriculture for

Beginners, Burkett, Stevens and Hill, p. 216; First Principles of Agricul-

ture, Vorhees, p. 117; Elements of Agriculture, Sever, p. 57; Ele-

ments of Agriculture, Shepperd, chapters 15 and 22; First Principles

of Agriculture, Goff and Maine, p. 154; Agriculture Through the

Laboratory, School and Garden, Jackson and Dougherty, chapter 8; TheDairy Herd, Farmers' Bulletin No. 55, U. S. Dept. of Agr.; Care of Milkon the Farm, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

LESSON LXVIII

The Cow

Leading thought—Certain characteristics which enable the cow to live

successfully as a wild animal, have rendered her of great use to us as a

domestic animal.Method—Begin the lesson with leading the pupils to understand the

peculiar adaptation of cattle for success, as wild animals. This will haveto be done largely by reading and asking for oral or written work on the

following topics: "The Aurochs," "Wild Cattle of the Scottish High-lands," "The Buffaloes of the Orient," "The American Bison," "TheCow-boys of the West and their Work with their Herds," "The Breeds of

Beef Cattle, Where they Came From, and Where Developed," "TheBreeds of Milch Cattle, their Origin and Names." The following ques-

tions may be given out a few at a time and answered as the pupils haveopportunity for observation.

Observations—i . What- are the characteristics of a fine cow ? Describe

her homs, ears, eyes, nose and mouth. Do you think she can hear well?

What is the attitude of her ears when she is listening? Do you think she

has a keen sense of smell? Is her nose moist? Is her hair long or short?

Smooth or rough ?

2. The cow walks on two toes. Can you see any other toes which she

does not walk on ? Why is the cow's foot better adapted than that of the

horse, to walk in mud and marshes? What do we call the two hind toes

which she does not walk on? Can you point out on the cow's leg those

parts which correspond with our elbow, wrist, knee and ankle? Is the

cow a good runner? Is she a good jumper? Can she swim?


3. For what use was the cow's tail evidently intended? How do thewild buffalos and bisons get rid of attacks of flies?

4. How much of cattle language do you understand ? How does thecow express pleasure? Lonesomeness ? Anger? How does the bull

express anger? What does the calf express with the voice?

5. Is there always a leader in a herd of cows? Do certain cows of

the herd always go first and others last? Do the cows readily learn to

take each her own place in the stable? How is leadership of the herdattained ? Describe cattle at play.

6. At what time of day do cattle feed in the pasture? When andwhere do they chew the cud? Do they stand or lie to do this ? Describehow a cow lies down and gets up.

7. How do wild cattle defend themselves from wolves ? From bearsor other solitary animals?

8. For what purposes were cattle first domesticated? For howmany purposes do we rear cattle today?

9. Name and give brief descriptions of the different breeds of cattle

with which you are familiar. Which of these are beef and which milchtypes?

10. What are the distinguishing points of a good milch cow? Of agood beef animal? What does the food do for each of these? Whichpart of the United States produces most beef cattle? Which the mostmilch cattle?

1 1

.

What do we mean by a balanced ration ? Do you know how tocompute one? What is the advantage of feeding cattle a balancedration ?

12. How many pounds of milk should a dairy cow produce in a yearto be profitable if the product is cheese ? If the product is butter? Whythis discrepancy? What must be the percent, of butter fat in milk to

make it legally salable in your state? How many months of the yearshould a good cow give milk?

13. Why should a cow be milked always by the same person ? Doesthe milker always sit on the same side? Why should loud talking andother noise at milking time be avoided ? Should a dog be used in drivingdairy cows? Why?

14. Why is a cool draughty bam an expensive place in which to keepcattle? why is a bam not well-ventilated, a danger?

15. Why and where is the dehorning of cattle practiced? When andhow should a calf be dehorned?

16. Why should milk not be strained in the bam? Why is it profit-

able for the dairy farmer to keep his stable clean and to be cleanly in thecare of milk? How does the food of cows affect the flavor of the milk?Why should a farmer keep a record of the number of pounds of milk whicheach cow in his dairy gives each day?

17. For what are oxen used? Wherein are they superior to horses

as draft animals? Do you know of any place where oxen are used as

riding animals ?

18. How many industries are dependent upon cattle?

19. Give oral or written exercises on the following themes : "Howthe Best Butter is Made;" "The Use of Bacteria in Butter;" "How DairyCheese is Made;" "How Fancy Cheeses are Made."

Mammal Study Z°Z

THE PIG

Teacher's Story

"I wander through the uv.derbresh.

Where pig tracks pmtin' to'rds the crick,

Is picked and printed in the fresh

Black bottom-lands, like wimmen prick

Their pie-crust with a fork."—Riley.

|Y a forest law of William the First of England in theeleventh century, it was ordained that any that werefound guilty of killing the stag or the roebuck or thewild boar, should have their eyes put out. This showsthat the hunting of the wild boar in England wasconsidered a sport of gentlemen in an age when nothingwas considered sport unless it was dangerous. Thewild hog of Europe is the ancestor of our common

domesticated breeds; although independent of these, the Chinese domes-ticated their own wild species, even before the dawn of history.

The wild hog likes damp situations where it may wallow in the waterand mud; but it also likes to have, close by, woods, thicket or under-brush, to which it can retire for rest and also when in danger. The stiff,

bristling hairs which cover its thick skin, are a great protection when it is

pushing through thorny thickets. When excited or angry, these bristles

rise and add to the fury of its appearance. Even in our own country,the wild hogs of the South whose ancestors escaped from domestication,have reverted to their original savagery, and are dangerous when infuri-

ated. The only recorded instance when our great national hunter, Theo-dore Roosevelt, was forced ignominiously to climb a tree, was after he

304 Hmtdbook of Nature-Study

had emptied his rifle into a herd of "javelins," as the wild pigs of Texasare called; the javelins are the peccaries, which are the American repre-

sentatives of the wild hog.

That the hog has become synonymous with filth is the result of theinfluence of man upon this animal, for of all animals, the pig is naturally

the neatest, keeping its bed clean, often in the most discouraging and ill-

kept pens. The pig is sparsely clothed with bristles and hairs, whichyield it no protection from the attacks of flies and other insects. Thus it

is the pig, in order to rid itself of these pests, has learned to wallow in themud. However, this is in the nature of a mud bath, and is for the pur-

pose of keeping the body free from vermin. The wild hogs of India makefor themselves grass huts, thatched above and with doors at the sides,

which shows that the pig, if allowed to care for itself, understands well

the art of nest-building.

One of the most interesting things about a pig, is its nose; this is afleshy disc with nostrils in it and is a most sensitive organ of feeling; it

can select grain from chaff, and yet is so strong that it can root up theground in search for food. "Root" is a pig word, and was evidentlycoined to describe the act of the pig when digging for roots ; the pig's noseis almost as remarkable as the elephant's trunk, and the pig's sense of

smell is very keen ; it will follow a track almost as well as a dog. Thereare more instances than one of a pig being trained as a pointer for huntingbirds, and showing a keener sense of smell, and keener intelligence in

this capacity, than do dogs. French pigs are taught to hunt for truffles,

which are fungi growing on tree roots, a long way below the surface of theground; the pig detects their presence through the sense of smell.

The pig has a full set of teeth, having six incisors, two canines andseven grinding teeth on each jaw; although in some cases there are onlyfour incisors on the upper jaw. A strange thing about a pig's teeth, is theaction of the upper canines, or tushes, which curve upward instead of

downward; the lower canines grind up against them, and are thussharpened. The females have no such development of upper tushes as

do the males; these tushes, especially the upper ones, are used as weapons;with them, the wild boar slashes out and upward, inflicting terrible

wounds, often disabling horses and killing men. Professor H. F. Buttondescribes the fighting of hogs thus: "To oppose the terrible weapons of

his rival, the boar has a shield of skin over his neck and shoulders, whichmay become two inches thick, and so hard as to defy a knife. When twoof these animals fight, each tries to keep the tushes of his opponent againstthe shield, and to get his own tushes under the belly or flank of the other.

Thus, each goes sidewise or in circles, which has given rise to the expres-sion, 'to go sidewise like a hog to war.'

"

When, as a small girl, I essayed the difficult task of working button-holes, I was told if I did not set my stitches more closely together, mybuttonhole would look like a pig's eye, a remark which made me observantof that organ ever after. But though the pig's eyes are small, they cer-

tainly gleam with intelligence, and they take in all that is going on,which may in amy way affect his pigship.

The pig is the most intelligent of all the farm animals, if it is only givena chance; it has excellent memory and can be taught tricks readily; it iS'

affectionate and will follow its master around like a dog. Anyone whohas seen a trained pig at a show picking out cards and counting, must

Mammal Study 305

grant that it has brains, although we stuff it so with fattening food, that

it does not have a chance to use its brain, except now and then when it

breaks out of the sty and we try to drive it back. Under these circum-

stances, we grant the pig all the sagacity usually imputed to the one whoonce possessed swine and drove them into the sea. Hunters of wild hogsproclaim that they are full of strategy and cunning, and are exceedingly

fierce. We pay tribute to the pig's cleverness when free to outwit us,

when we say of other uncertain undertakings, that they are like "buyinga pig in a poke."

The head of the wild hog is wedge-shaped with pointed snout, and this

form enables the animal to push into the thick underbrush along the river

banks, whenever it is attacked.

But civilization has changed this

bold profile of the head, so thatnow in many breeds, there is ahollow between the snout andeyes, giving the form which wecall "dished." Some breeds havesharp, forward-opening ears, while

others have ears that lop. Thewild pig of Europe and Asia haslarge, open ears extending outwide and alert on each side of the

head.

The covering of the pig is a

thick skin beset with bristling

hairs; when the hog is excited,

the bristles rise and add to the

fury of its appearance. The bris-

tles aid in protecting the animalwhen it is pushing through thornythickets. The pig's querly tail is merely an ornament, although thetail of the wart hog of Africa, if pictures may be relied upon, might beused in a limited fashion as a fly-brush.

When the pig is allowed to roam in the woods, it lives on roots, nuts,

and especially acorns and beech nuts; in the autumn it becomes very fat

through feeding upon the latter. The mast-fed bacon of the semi-wildhogs of the Southern States is considered the best of all. But almost any-thing animal or vegetable, that comes in its way, is eaten by the hog, andit has been long noted that the hog has done good service on our frontier

as a killer of rattlesnakes. The pig is"well fitted for locomotion on either

wet or dry soil, for the two large hoofed toes enable it to walk well on dryground and the two hind toes, smaller and higher up, help to sustain it onmarshy soil. Although the pig's legs are short, it is a swift runner unless

it is too fat. The razor-backs of the South are noted for their fleetness.

We understand somewhat the pig's language; there is the constantgrunting, which is a sound that keeps the pig herd together. We under-stand perfectly the complaining squeal of hunger, the satisfied gruntsignifying enjoyment of food, the squeal of terror when seized, and thenasal growl when fighting. But there is much more to the pig's conversa-

tion than this; I know a certain lady, who is a lover of animals, and whoonce undertook to talk pig language as best she could imitate it, to two of

Good for the pigs and

for the orcliard.

3o6 Handbook of Nature-Study

her sows when they were engaged in eating. They stopped eating, lookedat each other a moment and forthwith began fighting, each evidently

attributing the lady's remark to the other, and obviously it was of anuncomplimentary character.

The pig's ability to take on fat was evidently a provision, in the wild

state, for storing up fat from mast that should help sustain the animalduring the hardships of winter; and this character is what makes swineuseful for our own food. Pigs, to do best, should be allowed to havepasture and plenty of fresh green food. Their troughs should be keptclean and they should have access to ashes, and above all, they shouldhave plenty of pure water; and as the pig does not perspire freely, access

to water where it can take its natural mud-baths helps to keep the bodycool and the pig healthy in hot weather.

The breeds of hogs most common in America are the Berkshires, whichare black with white markings, and have ears extending erect; thePoland Chinas, which are black and white with drooping ears; the Duroc-Jersey, which are red or chestnut with drooping ears ; the Yorkshire andCheshire, which are white with erect ears, while the Cheshire White is

white with drooping ears. The Poland China and Duroc-Jersey are bothpure American breeds.

References—Elementary Agriculture, Warren; Our Domestic Animals,Burkett; The Country Reader, Buchanan; Lives of Animals, IngersoU;

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb; and the bulletins of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture.

LESSON LXIX

The Pig

Leading tliought—The pig is something more than a source of pork.

It is a sagacious animal and naturally cleanly in its habits when not madeprisoner by man.

Method—The questions in this lesson may be given to the pupils a fewat a time, and those who have access to farms or other places where pigs

are kept may makethe observations andin giving them to theclass they should bediscussed. Supple-mentary readingshould be given thepupils, which may in-

form them as to thehabits and peculiari-

ties of the wild hogs.

Theodore Roosevelt'sexperience in huntingthe wart-hog in Africawill prove interesting

reading.

Observations— i

.

How does the pig's

nose differ from thatBottle-fed babies.-

Mammal Study 3°7

of other animals? What is it used for besides for smelling? Do youthink the pig's sense of smell is very keen? Why do pigs root?

2. Describe the pig's teeth. For what are they fitted? What are

the tushes for? Which way do the upper tushes turn? How do wild

hogs use their tushes?

3. Do you think that a pig's eyes look intelligent? What color are

they? Do you think the pig can see well?

4. Is the pig's head straight in front or is it dished? Is this dishedappearance ever found in wild hogs? Do the ears stand out straight or

are they lopped ? What advantage is the wedge-shaped head to the wild

hogs?

5. How is the pig covered ? Do you think the hair is thick enough to

keep off flies? Why does the pig wallow in the mud? Is it because theanimal is dirty by nature or because it is trying to keep clean ? Do the

hog's bristles stand up if it is angry?6. If the pig could have its natural food what would it be and where

would it be found? Why and on what should pigs be pastured? Whatdo pigs find in the forest to eat? What kind nf bacon is considered thebest?

7. On how many toes does the pig walk? Are there other toes onwhich it does not walk? If wading in the mud are the two hind toes of

use ? Do wild pigs run rapidly ? Do tame pigs run rapidly if they are nottoo fat? Do you think the pig can swim? Do you think that the pig's

tail is of any use or merely an ornament ?

8. What cries and noises do the pigs make which we can understand?

9. How do hogs fight each other? When the boars fight, how do theyattack or ward off the enemy? Where do we get the expression going"sidewise like a hog to war?"

10. How many breeds of pigs do you know? Describe them.11. What instances have you heard that show the hog's intelligence?

12. Give an oral or written English exercise on one of the followingtopics: "The antiquity of swine; how they were regarded by the ancientEgyptians, Greeks and Romans;" (see encyclopedia). "The story of

hunting wild hogs in India; "The razor-back hogs of the South;" "Thewart-hog of Africa."

"The nice little pig with a querly tail,

All soft as satin and pinky pale

Is a very different thing by far

Than the lumps of iniquity, big pigs are."

—Nonsense Rhyme.

THE BIG HANDBOOK OFhomeschoolfreebies.s3.amazonaws.com/HandbookOfNatureStudy...THE BIG HANDBOOK OF...

Documents

Transcript of THE BIG HANDBOOK OFhomeschoolfreebies.s3.amazonaws.com/HandbookOfNatureStudy...THE BIG HANDBOOK OF...