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ge·og·ra·phy (noun)ge·og·ra·phy (noun)

1. The study of the earth and its features 1. The study of the earth and its features and of the distribution of life on the earth, and of the distribution of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of including human life and the effects of human activity. human activity. 2. The physical characteristics, especially 2. The physical characteristics, especially the surface features, of an area.the surface features, of an area.

GEOGRAPHYGEOGRAPHY

GEOLOGGEOLOGYYge·ol·o·gy (ge·ol·o·gy (noun)noun)

1. The scientific study of 1. The scientific study of the origin, history, and the origin, history, and structure of the earth. structure of the earth. 2. The structure of a 2. The structure of a specific region of the specific region of the earth's crust.earth's crust.

Detailed description or graphic Detailed description or graphic (picture) representation of a place or (picture) representation of a place or region on a map, a description of region on a map, a description of surface features.surface features.

topos (Greek) = placetopos (Greek) = place

graph (Greek) = draw or graph (Greek) = draw or recordrecord

TOPOGRAPHYTOPOGRAPHY

islandislandA piece of land completely surrounded by A piece of land completely surrounded by

water, islands are of four types:water, islands are of four types: Coral islands, formed by coral reefsCoral islands, formed by coral reefs Barrier islands, formed by build-up of silt Barrier islands, formed by build-up of silt

and sandand sand Volcanic islands, formed by oceanic Volcanic islands, formed by oceanic

volcanoesvolcanoes Continental islands, those such as Continental islands, those such as

Tasmania that were once connected to a Tasmania that were once connected to a continentcontinent

archipelagoarchipelagoa group or chain of islands a group or chain of islands

clustered together in a clustered together in a sea or sea or

oceanocean

Archipelago off the Coast Archipelago off the Coast of Guinea-Bissau, Africaof Guinea-Bissau, Africa

atollatoll

a ring (or partial ring) of coral that a ring (or partial ring) of coral that forms an island in an ocean or seaforms an island in an ocean or sea..

The protected The protected

area within thearea within the

ring is a ring is a lagoonlagoon..

Coral Island Sipadan off coast of Borneo

coral reefcoral reefCoral reefs are found in warm, Coral reefs are found in warm,

shallow, tropical seas, such shallow, tropical seas, such as the South Pacific. Living as the South Pacific. Living coral -forming animals come coral -forming animals come in many colorful shades and in many colorful shades and magical forms, from fan magical forms, from fan shapes to brain coral. When shapes to brain coral. When the animals die, they leave the animals die, they leave limestone skeletons that form limestone skeletons that form the foundations and ridges of the foundations and ridges of coral reefs.coral reefs.

Pacific atoll as seen from spacePacific atoll as seen from space

Post World War II Nuclear Post World War II Nuclear Experimentation on Bikini AtollExperimentation on Bikini Atoll

Operation CrossroadsOperation Crossroads was an atmospheric was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted in the nuclear weapon test series conducted in the summer of 1946 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall summer of 1946 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The series consisted of two Islands. The series consisted of two detonations, each with a yield of 21 kilotons, detonations, each with a yield of 21 kilotons, named shots named shots ABLEABLE and and BAKERBAKER..

The series was intended to The series was intended to study the effects of nuclear study the effects of nuclear weapons on warships, weapons on warships, equipment, and material.equipment, and material.

The Initial Blast…The Initial Blast…

At 0900 on 1 July, At 0900 on 1 July, 1946, test ABLE 1946, test ABLE detonated about 518 detonated about 518 feet above the target feet above the target fleet. The surface fleet. The surface temperature of the temperature of the resulting fireball was resulting fireball was about 100,000 about 100,000 degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Fahrenheit, scorching wood, paint scorching wood, paint and metal alike. and metal alike.

The full formation of the BAKER cloud The full formation of the BAKER cloud reached a height of 10,000 feet. The blast reached a height of 10,000 feet. The blast column reached to the floor of the lagoon--column reached to the floor of the lagoon--some 200 feet deep--and spewed bits and some 200 feet deep--and spewed bits and

pieces of coral on the decks of the target fleet. pieces of coral on the decks of the target fleet.

Bikini Atoll Bikini Atoll Operation CrossroadsOperation Crossroads

The cloud at its peak, shows the water column and the familiar cauliflower-shaped cloud of

water vapor. Millions of gallons of water hung in the atmosphere, where they mixed with

fission particles and became highly radioactive.

 

barrier islandsbarrier islands As barrier islands disintegrate, the vast system of As barrier islands disintegrate, the vast system of

sheltered wetlands along coastal areas are sheltered wetlands along coastal areas are exposed to increasing wave attack, salinity exposed to increasing wave attack, salinity (saltiness), and storm surge. Removal of the (saltiness), and storm surge. Removal of the barrier islands will accelerate destruction of barrier islands will accelerate destruction of wetlands which are nurseries for many species of wetlands which are nurseries for many species of fish and shellfish. The loss of the barrier islands fish and shellfish. The loss of the barrier islands and protected wetlands will have a profound and protected wetlands will have a profound impact on the fishing industry and the fragile impact on the fishing industry and the fragile coastal environment. coastal environment.

Barrier Islands of North Barrier Islands of North Carolina Outer BanksCarolina Outer Banks

Barrier Islands act as a Barrier Islands act as a protection against storms and protection against storms and

erosion to the continental erosion to the continental coastline.coastline.

√√ Quick Check Quick Check √√

What is the difference between geography What is the difference between geography and geology as a study?and geology as a study?

Name four major types of islands and Name four major types of islands and describe how they are formed.describe how they are formed.

How might an area’s topography affect the How might an area’s topography affect the lifestyle of a person living In that area?lifestyle of a person living In that area?

Describe the events and motivation for the Describe the events and motivation for the events on Bikini Atoll following WWII. events on Bikini Atoll following WWII.

oceanA body of saline (salt) water occupying all or part of the Earth's ocean basins. There are five recognized oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.

Did you know?Did you know?

Oceans cover approximately 75% of the Oceans cover approximately 75% of the earth’s surface! No wonder early explorers earth’s surface! No wonder early explorers used to think that the oceans formed the used to think that the oceans formed the edges of the planet.edges of the planet.

All the oceans are All the oceans are interconnectedinterconnected and have and have a a salinitysalinity (salt content) of about 3.5% (salt content) of about 3.5%

At one time people thought the ocean floor At one time people thought the ocean floor was relatively flat. Not so. It has mountains was relatively flat. Not so. It has mountains valleys, plains, even sand dunes and valleys, plains, even sand dunes and canyons.canyons.

Which ocean is nearest your Which ocean is nearest your state?state?

Atlantic

Indian

Pacific

Southern

Pacific

Arctic

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

Which Ocean lies between the Atlantic and Which Ocean lies between the Atlantic and Pacific and borders India?Pacific and borders India?

What and where is the Mariana Trench? What and where is the Mariana Trench? Describe how it was formed.Describe how it was formed.

What provides the passageway between the What provides the passageway between the Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea basins?Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea basins?

What and where is Telegraph Plateau?What and where is Telegraph Plateau? What are four major threats to the health of What are four major threats to the health of

our oceans?our oceans?

The PacificThe Pacific

Balboa discovered and named this ocean as it Balboa discovered and named this ocean as it seemed very tranquil (pacific, like a pacifier) to him seemed very tranquil (pacific, like a pacifier) to him when he first saw it. Little did he know that the when he first saw it. Little did he know that the world’s tallest wave would be recorded here by a world’s tallest wave would be recorded here by a US Navy ship in 1933 at 112 feet tall! US Navy ship in 1933 at 112 feet tall!

It is home to the deepest point of Earth, the It is home to the deepest point of Earth, the Mariana Trench off the southwest coast of Guam. Mariana Trench off the southwest coast of Guam. At this point, the Challenger Deep is estimated to At this point, the Challenger Deep is estimated to be 36,198 feet deep. That would cradle Mount be 36,198 feet deep. That would cradle Mount Everest with more than a mile to spare!Everest with more than a mile to spare!

Mariana TrenchMariana Trench

The Mariana Trench is located north of The Mariana Trench is located north of New Guinea in the Mariana Islands. New Guinea in the Mariana Islands. The Mariana Trench is the The Mariana Trench is the deepest point deepest point on the Earth's surfaceon the Earth's surface. The deepest part . The deepest part is called the Challenger Deep. is called the Challenger Deep. The Trench is about 36,000 feet below sea The Trench is about 36,000 feet below sea level, which is about 6.8 miles down. level, which is about 6.8 miles down. Compare that to Mount Everest, which is Compare that to Mount Everest, which is a little over 29,000 feet or 5.5 miles high.a little over 29,000 feet or 5.5 miles high.

The Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic, theThe Atlantic, thesecond largestsecond largestocean, has ocean, has relatively few relatively few islands, unlike theislands, unlike thePacific. Most of Pacific. Most of these are locatedthese are locatedin the Caribbean.in the Caribbean.

The Ocean FloorThe Ocean Floor

The Atlantic Ocean is separated from the Arctic The Atlantic Ocean is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a submarine ridge extending from Ocean by a submarine ridge extending from Greenland to Scotland; part of the floor (about Greenland to Scotland; part of the floor (about 3,000 feet don) is known as “telegraph plateau” 3,000 feet don) is known as “telegraph plateau” because of the network of cables laid there. A because of the network of cables laid there. A shallow submarine ridge across the shallow submarine ridge across the Strait ofStrait of Gibraltar separates the Mediterranean basin from Gibraltar separates the Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic and limits the exchange of water the Atlantic and limits the exchange of water between the two bodies. between the two bodies.

The Great Transatlantic CableThe Great Transatlantic CableBy the middle of the 19th century, a network By the middle of the 19th century, a network

of telegraph poles strung across America of telegraph poles strung across America enabled Samuel Morse's invention to create enabled Samuel Morse's invention to create communication between cities across the communication between cities across the continent. Communicating with Europe was continent. Communicating with Europe was another matter. Messages to London were another matter. Messages to London were sent the old-fashioned way, aboard sailing sent the old-fashioned way, aboard sailing ships that could take weeks to reach their ships that could take weeks to reach their destination. Though the need for a destination. Though the need for a transatlantic cable was obvious, the physical transatlantic cable was obvious, the physical challenges to laying one were enormous. challenges to laying one were enormous.

Telegraph PlateauTelegraph PlateauThe project would require the production of a 2,000 The project would require the production of a 2,000

mile long cable that would have to be laid three mile long cable that would have to be laid three miles beneath the Atlantic. Cyrus Field, a young miles beneath the Atlantic. Cyrus Field, a young New York paper manufacturer, took up the New York paper manufacturer, took up the challenge.challenge.

After 12 years of cajoling investors, several failed After 12 years of cajoling investors, several failed attempts to lay the cable, and millions of wasted attempts to lay the cable, and millions of wasted dollars, Field and his team of engineers finally dollars, Field and his team of engineers finally succeeded. On July 27, 1866, when the wire was succeeded. On July 27, 1866, when the wire was finally in place, Field sent back the first message to finally in place, Field sent back the first message to Europe: "Thank God, the Cable is laid." Since then, Europe: "Thank God, the Cable is laid." Since then, nothing has broken his communications link with nothing has broken his communications link with Europe -- not storms, earthquakes or world wars.Europe -- not storms, earthquakes or world wars.

Indian OceanIndian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third-largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict.

Southern OceanSouthern OceanIn 2000, the International Hydrographic Org. delimited a fifth world ocean - the Southern Ocean - from the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. It is the fourth largest ocean and, like the Arctic, a circumpolar body of water.

Arctic OceanArctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean surrounds the North Pole between North America and Eurasia. Located entirely within the Arctic Circle, the “Frozen Ocean” is covered by pack ice (2-14’ thick) year round in most of its central and western portions. From the fjords of west Greenland, dangerous icebergs (like the one that sink the Titanic) originate.

Some Deep IdeasSome Deep Ideas

Although man has walked upon the Although man has walked upon the moon and photographed the craters of moon and photographed the craters of other planets, he still knows very little other planets, he still knows very little about the great oceans on our own about the great oceans on our own earth.earth.

People who study the ocean are called People who study the ocean are called oceanographersoceanographers, while the study of the , while the study of the oceans is called_________________.oceans is called_________________.

Our Oceans are at Great RiskOur Oceans are at Great Risk

Increased pressures from Increased pressures from unregulated and over fishing unregulated and over fishing Habitat destruction Habitat destruction Pollution Pollution Introduction of Introduction of invasive alieninvasive alien species species Global warming Global warming All of these threaten the diversity of life in estuaries, All of these threaten the diversity of life in estuaries,

coastal waters and oceans, and the impacts could coastal waters and oceans, and the impacts could be devastating for life in the sea. be devastating for life in the sea.

baybay a body of water that is partly a body of water that is partly

enclosed by land (and is usually enclosed by land (and is usually smaller than a gulf).smaller than a gulf).

Montego Bay, JamaicaMontego Bay, Jamaica

This mid bay barrier in Narrabeen- Sydney This mid bay barrier in Narrabeen- Sydney (Australia), has blocked a former bay to form a (Australia), has blocked a former bay to form a

lagoon.lagoon.

bightbightA A bight bight is a wide bay formed by a curve in is a wide bay formed by a curve in the shoreline. Looking at a map of the shoreline. Looking at a map of Australia's southern coastline, one can see Australia's southern coastline, one can see the curve which creates this bight.the curve which creates this bight.

This is a photo of the Great Australian Bight. This is a photo of the Great Australian Bight. It is 685 miles across, from Cape Pasley in It is 685 miles across, from Cape Pasley in Western Australia to Cape Carnot in South Western Australia to Cape Carnot in South Australia. Note the Australia. Note the strata strata (layers) of rock.(layers) of rock.

gulfgulf A gulf is a part of the A gulf is a part of the

ocean (or sea) that is ocean (or sea) that is

partly surrounded by partly surrounded by

land and is usually land and is usually

larger than a bay. larger than a bay.

(Satellite image of(Satellite image of

Persian Gulf 1990)Persian Gulf 1990)

Satellite Image of Middle East 2003Satellite Image of Middle East 2003Persian Gulf and Gulf of AdenPersian Gulf and Gulf of Aden

aquiferaquifer

Coastal Aquifer in Iceland

coastal aquifercoastal aquifer

riverriver A large stream of water flowing in a A large stream of water flowing in a

bed or channel and emptying into an bed or channel and emptying into an ocean, a sea, a lake or another stream; ocean, a sea, a lake or another stream; a stream larger than a rivulet or a a stream larger than a rivulet or a brook.brook.

How many of the major How many of the major rivers of the rivers of the world can world can you name?you name?

river basinriver basinRiver basinRiver basin - The tract of country drained by - The tract of country drained by

a river and its tributaries.a river and its tributaries.

The actual rivers as shown The actual rivers as shown on the mapon the map

The Nile RiverThe Nile RiverThe Nile and its The Nile and its tributaries, tributaries,

or branches, flow though or branches, flow though nine countries. The White nine countries. The White Nile flows though Uganda, Nile flows though Uganda, Sudan, and Egypt. The Sudan, and Egypt. The Blue Nile starts in Blue Nile starts in Ethiopia. Zaire, Kenya, Ethiopia. Zaire, Kenya, Tanzanian, Rwanda, and Tanzanian, Rwanda, and Burundi all have Burundi all have tributaries, which flow into tributaries, which flow into the Nile or into Lake the Nile or into Lake Victoria. It is over 4,000 Victoria. It is over 4,000 miles in length. miles in length.

The NileThe Nile

Red squares are dams.

In ancient Egypt. . . In ancient Egypt. . .

The calendar was divided into The calendar was divided into three seasons, based on the three seasons, based on the flooding of the Nile. During the flooding of the Nile. During the season of the season of the Inundation,Inundation, layers layersof fertile silt were deposited onof fertile silt were deposited onthe land. The Egyptian peoplethe land. The Egyptian peoplewere drafted to work on the were drafted to work on the pyramids and building projects pyramids and building projects during that time.during that time. Hapi – The Nile

Deity

Amazon River BasinAmazon River Basin

mouth

sources

AMAZON: The Perfect NameAMAZON: The Perfect Name For years, there has been discussion about whether For years, there has been discussion about whether

the Nile or the Amazon is the longer river. Both rivers the Nile or the Amazon is the longer river. Both rivers are approximately 4,000 miles in length.are approximately 4,000 miles in length.

Because the Amazon drains the entire northern half Because the Amazon drains the entire northern half of the South American continent, including all the of the South American continent, including all the tropical rains that deluge the rainforests, it carries an tropical rains that deluge the rainforests, it carries an enormous amount of water, depositing enormous amount of water, depositing 20%20% of all the of all the freshwater discharged into the world’s oceans! freshwater discharged into the world’s oceans!

At its widest point the Amazon is almost 7 miles wide At its widest point the Amazon is almost 7 miles wide during the dry season, swelling to almost 25 miles during the dry season, swelling to almost 25 miles wide during the rainy season. Where the Amazon wide during the rainy season. Where the Amazon opens at its opens at its estuaryestuary the river is over 202 mi wide! the river is over 202 mi wide!

China’s Yangtze RiverChina’s Yangtze RiverAsia’s longest river, over 3900 miles long, origin-ates in the Tibetan Plateau and , with its 700 tributaries, makes its way to the China Sea.

A major source of irrigation and hydroelectric power, approxi-mately 400 million people, a third of China 's total population, make their homes here.

Three Gorges Dam ProjectThree Gorges Dam ProjectConstruction on the Construction on the Three Gorges Dam Three Gorges Dam began in 1993 and began in 1993 and will end in 2009. The will end in 2009. The total project cost is total project cost is estimated at $25 billion.estimated at $25 billion.A lake about 400 miles A lake about 400 miles long will form behindlong will form behindthe dam. Over 1 millionthe dam. Over 1 millionPeople will be relocated. People will be relocated.

Note reservoir flooding land behind dam.

ss

Mississippi-Missouri RiverMississippi-Missouri River

With its tributaries, the Mississippi is over 3700 miles long. Over 18 million people and more than 50 cities rely on theMississippi River Basin for daily water supply . At its headwaters, the Mississippi is less than 3 feet deep. Theriver's deepest section in New Orleans is 200 feet deep.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

Describe the length and path of the Nile and Describe the length and path of the Nile and its tributaries.its tributaries.

Describe the path of the Amazon from Describe the path of the Amazon from source to mouth.source to mouth.

What is the Three Gorges project, and What is the Three Gorges project, and where and why is it being carried out?where and why is it being carried out?

Define and describe four geographic terms Define and describe four geographic terms associated with rivers.associated with rivers.

Δ Δ Δ Δ deltaΔ Δ Δ Δ delta Δ Δ Δ ΔΔ Δ Δ Δ

A delta is a low, watery land formed at A delta is a low, watery land formed at the mouth of a river. It is formed from the mouth of a river. It is formed from the the siltsilt, sand and small rocks that flow , sand and small rocks that flow downstream and are deposited in the downstream and are deposited in the delta. A delta is often shaped like a delta. A delta is often shaped like a triangle, hence its name, delta, a Greek triangle, hence its name, delta, a Greek letter that is shaped like a triangle.letter that is shaped like a triangle.

The Nile Delta, EgyptThe Nile Delta, Egypt

Mississippi Delta at New Orleans, LAMississippi Delta at New Orleans, LA The Mississippi River The Mississippi River

Delta is the modern Delta is the modern area of land built up by area of land built up by silt deposited by the silt deposited by the Mississippi River as it Mississippi River as it slows down and enters slows down and enters the Gulf of Mexico. The the Gulf of Mexico. The deltaic process has, deltaic process has, over the past 5,000 over the past 5,000 years, caused the years, caused the coastline of south coastline of south Louisiana to advance Louisiana to advance gulfward from 15 to 50 gulfward from 15 to 50 miles.miles.

Economic Importance of the Economic Importance of the Mississippi DeltaMississippi Delta

It is a It is a biologicallybiologically significant region, comprising 3 significant region, comprising 3 million acres of coastal wetlands and 40 percent million acres of coastal wetlands and 40 percent of the of the salt marshsalt marsh in the in the contiguous (connected)contiguous (connected) United States. It is also a United States. It is also a commerciallycommercially significant region, supporting the economy of significant region, supporting the economy of New Orleans with much shipping traffic, New Orleans with much shipping traffic, providing 16 to 18 percent of the US oil supply, providing 16 to 18 percent of the US oil supply, and providing 16 percent of the United States’ and providing 16 percent of the United States’ fisheries harvest, including shrimp, crab, and fisheries harvest, including shrimp, crab, and crayfish.crayfish.

Problems in the Delta AreaProblems in the Delta AreaΔ Δ Man-made changes to other parts of the Man-made changes to other parts of the

Mississippi River have a pronounced effect Mississippi River have a pronounced effect on the Delta region. Dams, artificial on the Delta region. Dams, artificial channeling, and land conservation measures channeling, and land conservation measures have caused a decrease in sediment carried have caused a decrease in sediment carried into the delta region, decreasing the rate of into the delta region, decreasing the rate of build up of the Delta.build up of the Delta.

ΔΔ At the same time, the rate of loss of the Delta At the same time, the rate of loss of the Delta has recently increased past the rate of build has recently increased past the rate of build up, causing a up, causing a net lossnet loss of wetlands in the of wetlands in the Delta area. The rise of the sea level has also Delta area. The rise of the sea level has also caused increased erosion, as fresh water caused increased erosion, as fresh water vegetation, which previously protected vegetation, which previously protected against erosion, dies due to the against erosion, dies due to the influxinflux (flowing in) of salt water(flowing in) of salt water. .

Estuaries – Wetlands - MarshesEstuaries – Wetlands - Marshes

Protected wetlands or estuaries provide rich breeding grounds for plants and animals.

estuaryestuaryAn estuary is a partly-enclosed body of water where sea water mixes with fresh water, often at the mouth of a river. A very important characteristic is that there is an influence of the ocean tide creating a dynamic relationship between the two waters.

Mangrove ecosystems cover large areas of shoreline between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

Transitional EcosystemTransitional EcosystemMangrove trees form the backbone of an Mangrove trees form the backbone of an

entire ecosystem. Leaves dropping from the entire ecosystem. Leaves dropping from the trees are eaten by many aquatic species, trees are eaten by many aquatic species, and their extensive root systems shelter and their extensive root systems shelter

small fish and juvenile shrimp from small fish and juvenile shrimp from predators, and help stabilize the soil. The predators, and help stabilize the soil. The

swamps are an important rest stop for swamps are an important rest stop for migratory birds on their journey south. migratory birds on their journey south.

Additionally, humans have always harvested Additionally, humans have always harvested mangrove trees for food, medicines, tannins, mangrove trees for food, medicines, tannins,

fuel wood, and construction materials.fuel wood, and construction materials.

AdaptationAdaptation

Mangroves thrive in theMangroves thrive in the transition transition area between area between the sea and fresh water. They have weird roots the sea and fresh water. They have weird roots that shoot back up from the soil and work kind of that shoot back up from the soil and work kind of like snorkels. Special pores in the gnarled, like snorkels. Special pores in the gnarled, exposed roots let the trees “breathe,” even at high exposed roots let the trees “breathe,” even at high tide. Their leaves have special pores to excrete tide. Their leaves have special pores to excrete salt. One tree may have several root systems to salt. One tree may have several root systems to help stabilize it against waves, wind and help stabilize it against waves, wind and hurricanes, making human movement through the hurricanes, making human movement through the tangled root maze nearly impossibletangled root maze nearly impossible

Mangrove Swamp Mangrove Swamp

The roots catch and hold particles of sand and silt, thus helping to protect the shore and build up dry land.

Flood plainFlood plainFlooding occurs when a river, canal, or otherFlooding occurs when a river, canal, or otherbody of water rises above its normal levelbody of water rises above its normal leveland overflows its banks and covers the and overflows its banks and covers the adjacent, low-lying area, known as the flood adjacent, low-lying area, known as the flood plain. People build dikes or levees to protectplain. People build dikes or levees to protectthis area. Building in these locations often this area. Building in these locations often requires special flood insurance or zoning requires special flood insurance or zoning exceptions. In recent years, human developmentexceptions. In recent years, human developmenthas caused great strain to the environment by has caused great strain to the environment by overbuilding in these areas.overbuilding in these areas.

Netherlands Flood DefenseNetherlands Flood Defense

North Sea surge barriersDikes protect polders

Netherlands Flood ProtectionNetherlands Flood ProtectionThe Netherlands’ Delta Project started in 1958 The Netherlands’ Delta Project started in 1958

(after a disastrous 1953 flood) and created a (after a disastrous 1953 flood) and created a defensive flood barrier capable of withstanding defensive flood barrier capable of withstanding the kind of storm that only happens once in the kind of storm that only happens once in 10,000 years. 10,000 years.

More than half of the Netherlands’ landmass lies More than half of the Netherlands’ landmass lies below sea level and the Netherlands — its below sea level and the Netherlands — its name means ‘Low Lands’ — is also one of the name means ‘Low Lands’ — is also one of the most densely populated countries in the world. most densely populated countries in the world. Under the Delta Project, huge multiple dikes Under the Delta Project, huge multiple dikes were built and a complex system of floodgates were built and a complex system of floodgates created to keep the sea at bay and protect the created to keep the sea at bay and protect the polders, or reclaimed farmland.polders, or reclaimed farmland.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√ What are transitional ecosystems and what What are transitional ecosystems and what

purpose do they serve?purpose do they serve? What is a mangrove and why is it important?What is a mangrove and why is it important? Describe some factors that threaten Describe some factors that threaten

estuaries.estuaries. How does a delta develop. Name two cities How does a delta develop. Name two cities

located on a delta.located on a delta. Why, during the aftermath of Hurricane Why, during the aftermath of Hurricane

Ophelia, were we happy to have the aid of Ophelia, were we happy to have the aid of the government of Holland (the the government of Holland (the Netherlands)?Netherlands)?

continentcontinent

continentcontinent The land mass on Earth is divided into 7 The land mass on Earth is divided into 7

continents: continents:

EuropeEurope AsiaAsia

AfricaAfricaNorth AmericaNorth America

South America South America AntarcticaAntarctica

AustraliaAustralia

About 250 millions of years About 250 millions of years ago, it was believed that ago, it was believed that there was one huge there was one huge continent called Pangaea, continent called Pangaea, which means “all lands.”which means “all lands.”

PangaeaPangaea

Continental ShelfContinental Shelf

countrycountry The United Nations currentlyThe United Nations currently recognizes 192 countries or recognizes 192 countries or

states. The largest is Russia, at more than 17 million states. The largest is Russia, at more than 17 million square kilometers; and the smallest is Vatican City, square kilometers; and the smallest is Vatican City, which is less than a half a square kilometer in area. which is less than a half a square kilometer in area. A A countrycountry, a land, is a , a land, is a geographicalgeographical area that area that connotes an independent connotes an independent politicalpolitical entity, with its entity, with its own government, administration, laws, often a own government, administration, laws, often a constitution, police, military, tax rules, and constitution, police, military, tax rules, and population. Countries are shown by population. Countries are shown by political mapspolitical maps, , rather than physical maps.rather than physical maps.

a deep valley with very a deep valley with very steep sides - often carved steep sides - often carved into the Earth by the into the Earth by the eroding power of a river.eroding power of a river.

canyoncanyon

Grand Canyon of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado RiverColorado River

Grand CanyonGrand Canyon

The muddy The muddy

Colorado is Colorado is

seen at theseen at the

base of thebase of the

canyon.canyon.

Bryce Canyon National ParkBryce Canyon National ParkUtahUtah

Plateau, Mesa, TablelandPlateau, Mesa, Tableland

A plateau is an extensive land formation. The A plateau is an extensive land formation. The top is flat or sloping; the elevation, from a top is flat or sloping; the elevation, from a few hundred to several thousand meters. few hundred to several thousand meters.

A plateau is larger than a A plateau is larger than a mesamesa or or buttebutte. .

Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado

North America’s Columbia PlateauNorth America’s Columbia Plateau

A major plateau in A major plateau in

North America is North America is

the Columbia the Columbia Plateau.Plateau.

The Tibetan PlateauThe Tibetan Plateau

This NASA satellite image of the Himalayan Range This NASA satellite image of the Himalayan Range shows the Tibetan Plateau near the centre and the shows the Tibetan Plateau near the centre and the Takla Makan Desert Plain as the upper, lighter area. Takla Makan Desert Plain as the upper, lighter area.

A crater is a funnel or A crater is a funnel or

bowl-shaped depression, bowl-shaped depression,

most often found at the most often found at the

top of volcanic cones. top of volcanic cones.

Large sunken craters Large sunken craters

may be as much as 20may be as much as 20

miles in diameter. These craters are formed by themiles in diameter. These craters are formed by the

sinking of the ground surface as supporting lava is sinking of the ground surface as supporting lava is

spewed out from underneath.spewed out from underneath.

cratercrater

Crater Lake, Oregon,Crater Lake, Oregon, is 6 miles across at itsis 6 miles across at itswidest point and the widest point and the deepest lake in the US.deepest lake in the US.No known outlets or No known outlets or streams flow from it. Thestreams flow from it. Thecaldera was formedcaldera was formed6,800 years ago, when6,800 years ago, whenvolcanic eruption volcanic eruption caused it to collapsecaused it to collapsein on itself. It is one ofin on itself. It is one ofthe largest eruptions inthe largest eruptions inthe last 10,000 years.the last 10,000 years.

escarpmentescarpmenta steep slope or long cliff caused by erosiona steep slope or long cliff caused by erosion

or faulting separating two level areas of or faulting separating two level areas of

differing heights.differing heights.

Both Niagara Falls and the Great Lakes are the Both Niagara Falls and the Great Lakes are the result of a huge glacier bulldozing its way result of a huge glacier bulldozing its way across eastern Canada about 10,000 years across eastern Canada about 10,000 years ago, grinding up rocks and soil. It dammed up ago, grinding up rocks and soil. It dammed up some lakes and gouged others out as it some lakes and gouged others out as it moved and receded.moved and receded.

Harder rock eroded more slowly than softer Harder rock eroded more slowly than softer rock, and the powerful new waterways thus rock, and the powerful new waterways thus carved these escarpments and falls areas.carved these escarpments and falls areas.

Niagara Falls and the Great LakesNiagara Falls and the Great Lakes

Water Erosion at EscarpmentWater Erosion at Escarpment

Niagara

Bruce

Peninsula

escarpments

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

What is the difference between a canyon What is the difference between a canyon and a crater, and how is their formation and a crater, and how is their formation process generally different?process generally different?

What is the relationship between an What is the relationship between an escarpment and the falls that often are escarpment and the falls that often are present in such areas?present in such areas?

What is the difference between a mesa and What is the difference between a mesa and a plateau?a plateau?

Plate Tectonics TheoryPlate Tectonics Theory assumes assumes that the earth’s surface consists that the earth’s surface consists of about twenty rigid plates that of about twenty rigid plates that are continually moving past are continually moving past each other. This squeezes and each other. This squeezes and stretches the plates’ edges. If stretches the plates’ edges. If the force becomes too great, the the force becomes too great, the plates plates rupturerupture or break, causing or break, causing an earthquake. Most of these an earthquake. Most of these ruptures orruptures or FAULTS FAULTS lie beneath lie beneath the surface, but some, like the the surface, but some, like the San Andeas Fault in California, San Andeas Fault in California, are visible.are visible.

A Moving ExperienceA Moving Experience

The earth's surface is broken into seven large The earth's surface is broken into seven large and many small moving plates. These and many small moving plates. These plates, each about 50 miles thick, move plates, each about 50 miles thick, move relative to one another an average of a few relative to one another an average of a few inches a year. Three types of movement are inches a year. Three types of movement are recognized at the boundaries between recognized at the boundaries between plates: plates: convergent, divergent and transform-convergent, divergent and transform-fault. fault.

Convergent BoundariesConvergent Boundaries

At At convergent boundariesconvergent boundaries, plates move , plates move toward each other and toward each other and collidecollide. .

Where an oceanic plate collides with a Where an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic plate tips continental plate, the oceanic plate tips down and slides beneath the continental down and slides beneath the continental plate forming a deep plate forming a deep ocean trenchocean trench (long, (long, narrow, deep basin), such as the trench at narrow, deep basin), such as the trench at the boundary between the oceanic Nazca the boundary between the oceanic Nazca Plate and the continental South American Plate and the continental South American Plate.Plate.

Mariana TrenchMariana TrenchAt least 22 trenches have been identified with the Challenger Deep, the deepest part of this trench, being the lowest point on earth. The Trench is where two tectonic plates meet, and one is undergoing subduction or being forced under the other.

Bathyscaphe TriesteBathyscaphe Trieste

In 1960, two American Navy divers descended to the In 1960, two American Navy divers descended to the bottom of the Trench in the bottom of the Trench in the Trieste. Trieste. At the bottom At the bottom Walsh and Piccard were surprised to discover Walsh and Piccard were surprised to discover flounder about one foot long, as well as shrimp. flounder about one foot long, as well as shrimp. According to Piccard, “The bottom appeared light According to Piccard, “The bottom appeared light and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze” – and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze” – eukaryotic algae.eukaryotic algae.

At the bottom of the Mariana Trench, water exerts a At the bottom of the Mariana Trench, water exerts a pressure of 15,751 psi or pounds per square inch!pressure of 15,751 psi or pounds per square inch!

Diving Technology Sampling at the Bottom of Diving Technology Sampling at the Bottom of the Trenchthe Trench

Unicellular Marine DiatomsUnicellular Marine Diatoms

The AppalachiansThe Appalachians

Where continental plates Where continental plates collide, they form major collide, they form major mountain systems, mountain systems, such as the Himalayas.such as the Himalayas.Our Appalachians also Our Appalachians also are a range formed are a range formed by a series of by a series of continental collisionscontinental collisions that took place overthat took place overa period of more a period of more

than 1 billion years.than 1 billion years.

At At divergentdivergent boundaries, boundaries, plates move away from plates move away from each other, allowing each other, allowing hot, molten lava to rise to hot, molten lava to rise to the ocean floor. Cooling, the ocean floor. Cooling, it adds new material it adds new material to the edges of the to the edges of the oceanic plates, creating oceanic plates, creating mountains and renches, mountains and renches, such as the Mid-Atlantic such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.Ridge.

Mid-Atlantic RidgeMid-Atlantic Ridge

Rising to the OccasionRising to the Occasion

Some of the islands formed by this submarine Some of the islands formed by this submarine volcanic activity are the Azores, off the volcanic activity are the Azores, off the coast of Africa, and the island of Iceland, coast of Africa, and the island of Iceland, which is located at the northern end of the which is located at the northern end of the divergent plate. These are places where the divergent plate. These are places where the volcanic eruptions have actually raised the volcanic eruptions have actually raised the level of the land above sea level.level of the land above sea level.

A true color image of Iceland captured A true color image of Iceland captured by NASA's Aqua satellite in 2004by NASA's Aqua satellite in 2004

IcelandIceland Iceland has about 130 active volcanoes due to its Iceland has about 130 active volcanoes due to its

unique unique geological conditionsgeological conditions. Over the past 500 . Over the past 500 years, Iceland's volcanoes have erupted a third of years, Iceland's volcanoes have erupted a third of the total global lava output. Geologists explain the total global lava output. Geologists explain this intense activity as being due to a combination this intense activity as being due to a combination of the island's position on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge of the island's position on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and a volcanic hotspot underneath the island. and a volcanic hotspot underneath the island. Iceland sits astride the boundary between the Iceland sits astride the boundary between the European and American plates, and most volcanic European and American plates, and most volcanic activity takes place along the plate boundary. activity takes place along the plate boundary.

Iceland – Resting between the Iceland – Resting between the Eurasian and North American PlatesEurasian and North American Plates

Geo-thermal ActivityGeo-thermal Activity

In geology, In geology, geothermalgeothermal refers to heat sources refers to heat sources withinwithin the planet. Geothermal heat at the the planet. Geothermal heat at the surface is highly concentrated where surface is highly concentrated where magma (hot lava) is close to the surface. magma (hot lava) is close to the surface. This primarily occurs in volcanic and hotspot This primarily occurs in volcanic and hotspot areas and at spreading ridge areas of areas and at spreading ridge areas of divergent tectonic plates. The island of divergent tectonic plates. The island of Iceland is one of these areas.Iceland is one of these areas.

Island Island HotHot Spot and Spot and ColdCold Spot!Spot! Being on a hot spot means that the island is Being on a hot spot means that the island is

extremely geologically active. It has many active extremely geologically active. It has many active volcanoes. Around 10% of the island is volcanoes. Around 10% of the island is glaciatedglaciated. . Iceland has many Iceland has many geysers, geysers, an Icelandic word an Icelandic word meaning “to gush.” Having much geothermal meaning “to gush.” Having much geothermal power available means residents have hot water power available means residents have hot water and home heat for a low price. Electricity is and home heat for a low price. Electricity is generally very cheap because of the many rivers generally very cheap because of the many rivers and waterfalls which are also used for the and waterfalls which are also used for the generation of electrical power.generation of electrical power.

The island itself has many The island itself has many fjordsfjords along the along the coastline, which is also where most towns are coastline, which is also where most towns are situated, because the island's interior, the situated, because the island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a Highlands of Iceland, is a coldcold uninhabitable uninhabitable desertdesert..

fjord / fiordfjord / fiord A fjord is a long, narrow sea inlet in NorwayA fjord is a long, narrow sea inlet in Norway

that is bordered by steep cliffs. that is bordered by steep cliffs.

NOW . . .NOW . . .

Back to other Back to other FAULTS FAULTS that will that will

really really crackcrack you up! you up!

Transform Fault BoundariesTransform Fault Boundaries

At At transform-fault transform-fault boundaries, plates move boundaries, plates move horizontally past each other. The San horizontally past each other. The San Andreas Fault zone is an example of this Andreas Fault zone is an example of this type of boundary where the Pacific Plate on type of boundary where the Pacific Plate on which Los Angeles sits is moving slowly which Los Angeles sits is moving slowly northwestward relative to the North northwestward relative to the North American Plate on which San Francisco American Plate on which San Francisco sits. sits.

San San Andreas Andreas

Fault Fault LineLine

The San Andreas fault is dotted, and interpreted rupture scenarios are shown; urban areas are gray. The rupture line runs approximately 200km.

Almost all the earth’s major earthquakes occur in two great belts: one cuts across Europe and Asia from Burma to southern Europe. The other famous seismic band is the Ring of Fire, which encircles the Pacific Ocean and accounts for 75% of the world’s earthquakes.

1923 Tokyo Earthquake

The Great Rift is one of the most The Great Rift is one of the most interesting examples of Tectonic Plate interesting examples of Tectonic Plate

Theory.Theory.

African – Arabian PlateAfrican – Arabian PlateNote the Y-split in the Great Rift area. Will the Horn of Africa be the next to break off?

R. Maurer’s TheoryR. Maurer’s Theory

Engineer R. Maurer had some additional Engineer R. Maurer had some additional ideas about Plate Tectonics, recently ideas about Plate Tectonics, recently published in 2001. He suggested that the published in 2001. He suggested that the earth was behaving like an unbalanced, earth was behaving like an unbalanced, rotating cylinder – like your laundry dryer rotating cylinder – like your laundry dryer with an uneven load – trying to balance with an uneven load – trying to balance itself. He theorized that the vibrations of the itself. He theorized that the vibrations of the rotating earth were causing the earth to rotating earth were causing the earth to continually try to balance itself.continually try to balance itself.

Crusty Tension on the GlobeCrusty Tension on the Globe

Lighter and heavier unbalanced rotating bodies (like Lighter and heavier unbalanced rotating bodies (like the earth and the dryer) are continually in a state the earth and the dryer) are continually in a state of tension, trying to achieve balance. of tension, trying to achieve balance.

In this case the geologically quiet and heavier In this case the geologically quiet and heavier African Plate, which is splitting (Tension Zone) at African Plate, which is splitting (Tension Zone) at the Rift Valley, is “competing against” the the Rift Valley, is “competing against” the geologically active Pacific Basin’s Ring of Fire with geologically active Pacific Basin’s Ring of Fire with its deep trenches and subduction zones its deep trenches and subduction zones (Compression Zone), as the earth tries to balance (Compression Zone), as the earth tries to balance itself. itself.

Lake Tanganyika basin, formed some 25 million years ago when a block of the earth’s crust dropped down between blocks that rise on either side in the Great Rift area. At nearly 350 miles, it is the longest lake in the world and reaches depths of over 1400 meters. (NASA)

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

Define and describe examples of three different Define and describe examples of three different types of fault movements.types of fault movements.

What is Plate Tectonics?What is Plate Tectonics? Give some examples of geothermal activity.Give some examples of geothermal activity. What is Maurer’s relatively new theory regarding What is Maurer’s relatively new theory regarding

changes in the earth’s surface?changes in the earth’s surface? What is the Great Rift?What is the Great Rift? What is the Mariana Trench? Give some specifics What is the Mariana Trench? Give some specifics

about its formation, location, and size.about its formation, location, and size.

isthmusisthmus

A narrow strip of land A narrow strip of land

connecting two largerconnecting two larger

landmasses, an isthmus landmasses, an isthmus

makes a natural place makes a natural place

to build a canal, as it to build a canal, as it

has water on both sides.has water on both sides.

Isthmus of PanamaIsthmus of Panama

The isthmus was formed about 3 million years when tectonic plate movement and silt and sediment build-up joined islands into the isthmus.

peninsulapeninsulaa strip of land a strip of land largely surrounded by largely surrounded by water and connected to water and connected to a larger land mass by a a larger land mass by a narrow neck or narrow neck or isthmus; isthmus; any area of any area of land jutting out into a land jutting out into a lake or sea. Most of the lake or sea. Most of the state of Florida is a state of Florida is a peninsula, as is most of peninsula, as is most of Italy and Baja California,Italy and Baja California,shown here. shown here. In Spanish, In Spanish, baja means “below.”baja means “below.”

volcanic peninsulavolcanic peninsula

The word The word peninsulapeninsula

comes from the comes from the

Latin words for Latin words for

““almost island.” almost island.”

Banks Peninsula-Banks Peninsula-

South Island ofSouth Island of

New ZealandNew Zealand

lakelakeA lake is a large body of water surrounded by land A lake is a large body of water surrounded by land on all sides. Some large bodies of water commonlyon all sides. Some large bodies of water commonlycalled seas – the Sea of Galilee, the Aral Sea, thecalled seas – the Sea of Galilee, the Aral Sea, theCaspian Sea – are really lakes. Most lakes areCaspian Sea – are really lakes. Most lakes areformed by glaciers that cut deep valleys and damformed by glaciers that cut deep valleys and damup areas with glacial deposits. As the glaciersup areas with glacial deposits. As the glaciersmelt, their water collects in these valleys. Most melt, their water collects in these valleys. Most are fed by rivers and mountain streams. Artificial are fed by rivers and mountain streams. Artificial Lakes are made by blocking rivers and creating Lakes are made by blocking rivers and creating reservoirs to regulate water levels behind a dam. reservoirs to regulate water levels behind a dam.

The Plight of the Aral SeaThe Plight of the Aral SeaKazahkstanKazahkstan

20032003 19851985

Environmental TragedyEnvironmental Tragedy The two major rivers feeding the Aral Sea were The two major rivers feeding the Aral Sea were

diverted by the formerly controlling USSR to irrigate diverted by the formerly controlling USSR to irrigate the desert to raise the cash crop, cotton. Poorly the desert to raise the cash crop, cotton. Poorly built irrigation ditches wasted about 70% of the built irrigation ditches wasted about 70% of the water. As the sea dried up, the receding waters left water. As the sea dried up, the receding waters left huge plains covered by salt deposits and toxic huge plains covered by salt deposits and toxic chemicals, so that the area is highly polluted. The chemicals, so that the area is highly polluted. The people are suffering from a lack of fresh water, as people are suffering from a lack of fresh water, as well as from a number of other health problems. well as from a number of other health problems. Winds have picked up and spread the toxic dust to Winds have picked up and spread the toxic dust to the surrounding areas so that the population the surrounding areas so that the population around the Aral Sea now shows high rates of around the Aral Sea now shows high rates of certain forms of cancer and lung disease. certain forms of cancer and lung disease.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

What is the difference between a strait (not What is the difference between a strait (not a straight!) and an isthmus?a straight!) and an isthmus?

Give some examples of major lakes that “go Give some examples of major lakes that “go by another name.”by another name.”

Discuss the tragedy of the Aral Sea and why Discuss the tragedy of the Aral Sea and why this has occurred. Do you think man has this has occurred. Do you think man has been responsible in managing this been responsible in managing this resource?resource?

MountainsMountains

Earth’s tallest mountains on dry land are the Earth’s tallest mountains on dry land are the Himalayan Mountain Range, towering over Himalayan Mountain Range, towering over five miles above sea level. The highest peak,five miles above sea level. The highest peak,Mount Everest, is over 29,000 feet above sea Mount Everest, is over 29,000 feet above sea level, astride the border of India and Nepal. level, astride the border of India and Nepal. Strong winds of 118+ miles per hour, frigid Strong winds of 118+ miles per hour, frigid temperatures as low as -100temperatures as low as -100°F°F, and lack of , and lack of Oxygen will not sustain plant or animal life.Oxygen will not sustain plant or animal life.Climbers accustom themselves to the lack ofClimbers accustom themselves to the lack ofOxygen by a process known as acclimatization.Oxygen by a process known as acclimatization.

From the Depths to the HeightsFrom the Depths to the Heights

About 1500 climbers have reached theAbout 1500 climbers have reached thesummitsummit of Everest, and about 200 of Everest, and about 200 have died making the attempt; many have died making the attempt; many bodies are still visible from the bodies are still visible from the paths! Ascending over 25,000 feet paths! Ascending over 25,000 feet above sea level puts climbers in above sea level puts climbers in the “death zone,” where body the “death zone,” where body processes tend to shut processes tend to shut down due to lack of oxygen. It down due to lack of oxygen. It literally leaves you breathless!literally leaves you breathless!

Mountains: What a Relief !Mountains: What a Relief ! Mountains cover about a fifth of the earth’s Mountains cover about a fifth of the earth’s

surface. . . surface. . . They are on all continents and even under the They are on all continents and even under the

sea. . . sea. . . Mountains are formed by slow, but grand Mountains are formed by slow, but grand movements of the earth’s crust. . .movements of the earth’s crust. . .Think of how you could fold, rumple, buckle, orThink of how you could fold, rumple, buckle, orstack pieces of stiff pie dough to form peaksstack pieces of stiff pie dough to form peaksand domes. Volcanic eruptions also buildand domes. Volcanic eruptions also buildmountains along fault lines or ruptures in themountains along fault lines or ruptures in theearth’s crust. A string of mountains is a mountainearth’s crust. A string of mountains is a mountainrange.range.

What do the following all have What do the following all have in common?in common?

Mount McKinley

Mount Kilimanjaro (pictured here)

Mount Everest

Mount Kosciuszko

Mount Aconcagua

Mount Elbrus

RIGHT!!! Each is the HIGHEST mountain RIGHT!!! Each is the HIGHEST mountain on its respective continent!on its respective continent!

Mt. Everest Mt. Everest (Asia – Nepal-India) (Asia – Nepal-India) 29,029 feet 29,029 feet

Mt. Aconcagua (S. America – Chile/Argentina) 22,835 Mt. Aconcagua (S. America – Chile/Argentina) 22,835 feetfeet

Mt. McKinley (North America – Alaska) Mt. McKinley (North America – Alaska) 20,320 20,320 feetfeet

Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa – Tanzania) 19,340 Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa – Tanzania) 19,340 feetfeet

Mt. Elbrus (Europe – Russia) 18,513 Mt. Elbrus (Europe – Russia) 18,513 feetfeet

Vinson Massif Vinson Massif (Antarctica)(Antarctica) 16,066 feet 16,066 feet

Mt. Kosciuszko (Australia) Mt. Kosciuszko (Australia) 7,310 feet 7,310 feet

Want to see a mountain shrink Want to see a mountain shrink overnight?overnight?

The volcano Mount Saint Helens, in southwestern Washington state began to eruption March 27, 1980, after a long period of dormancy. The large-scale eruption occurred May 18, 1980. This violent blast sent clouds of ash and other volcanic debris into the atmosphere and, the mountain’s elevation dropped from 9,677 to 8,365 feet.

A last word on Mountains…A last word on Mountains… Mountains are Mountains are dynamicdynamic forms that change forms that change

over timeover time– As volcanic activity occursAs volcanic activity occurs– As tectonic plates shift and moveAs tectonic plates shift and move– As glaciers advance and recedeAs glaciers advance and recede– As weathering occursAs weathering occurs

Weathering occurs through exposure to the Weathering occurs through exposure to the elements – snow, wind, rain.elements – snow, wind, rain.

– Even human activity effects change.Even human activity effects change.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

What is the approximate distance between What is the approximate distance between the highest and lowest place on earth? the highest and lowest place on earth? Where are they located?Where are they located?

What factors can cause dramatic change in What factors can cause dramatic change in terrain and topography over long periods of terrain and topography over long periods of time?time?

What is dormancy in a volcano?What is dormancy in a volcano?

BiomeBiome

What is a biome?What is a biome?

A A biomebiome is a large geographical area of distinctive is a large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal groups, which are adapted to that plant and animal groups, which are adapted to that particular environment. particular environment.

The climate and geography of a region determines The climate and geography of a region determines what type of biome can exist in that region. what type of biome can exist in that region.

Major biomes include deserts, forests, grasslands, Major biomes include deserts, forests, grasslands, tundra, and several types of aquatic environments.tundra, and several types of aquatic environments.

Each biome consists of many ecosystems whose Each biome consists of many ecosystems whose communities have adapted to the differences in communities have adapted to the differences in climate and the environment inside that biome.climate and the environment inside that biome.

TundraTundra Tundra is the coldest of the Tundra is the coldest of the biomes. Tundra comes from biomes. Tundra comes from the Finnish word the Finnish word tunturiatunturia, , meaning “treeless plain.”meaning “treeless plain.”

Two types: Two types:

*Arctic (with *Arctic (with permafrostpermafrost) ) *Alpine*Alpine

Characteristics: Characteristics:

*extremely low temperatures*extremely low temperatures

* little precipitation * little precipitation

*poor nutrients*poor nutrients

*short growing seasons*short growing seasons

*shrubby vegetation*shrubby vegetation

Taku Glacier, Alaska, 1929

glacierglacierGlaciers form when more snow falls in winter Glaciers form when more snow falls in winter

than melts or evaporates in summer. The than melts or evaporates in summer. The excess snow builds up and freezes in excess snow builds up and freezes in layers, becoming so thick that the glacier layers, becoming so thick that the glacier begins to move under the pressure of its begins to move under the pressure of its own weight. Most glaciers range in own weight. Most glaciers range in thickness from 300 to 10,000 feet! The thickness from 300 to 10,000 feet! The melting and refreezing of ice crystals help it melting and refreezing of ice crystals help it move downhill. move downhill. MoraineMoraine is the pile-up of dirt is the pile-up of dirt caused by a glacier’s movement.caused by a glacier’s movement.

Malaspina Piedmont GlacierMalaspina Piedmont GlacierAlaskaAlaska

This glacier is the largest of its type, covering 5,000 square kilometers of coastal plain. (View from Space)

Taiga or Boreal ForestTaiga or Boreal Forest•Stretching over Eurasia and North America, just below the tundra, is the taiga. Taiga is the Russian word for “swamp forest, and Boreal was the Greek goddess of the North Wind.”•Temperatures range from -60° F in winter to a rainy, humid 70° in summer, so in summer there are millions of insects.•Coniferous trees are those such as pines and hemlocks which have long, waxy needles to protect them from drying out. Moose, bobcats, hares, and weasels thrive in the taiga.

Temperate Coniferous ForestTemperate Coniferous ForestThese are the evergreen These are the evergreen forest areas where you find forest areas where you find the bear, elk, mountain lions, the bear, elk, mountain lions, and moose, as well as the and moose, as well as the beautiful giant redwoods of beautiful giant redwoods of California. Summers are California. Summers are temperate, but winters are temperate, but winters are long and cold. This biome islong and cold. This biome istypical of higher elevations typical of higher elevations in North America, Europe, in North America, Europe, and Asia. and Asia.

Temperate Deciduous ForestTemperate Deciduous ForestDeciduous (broadleaf) Forests Deciduous (broadleaf) Forests are located in the temperate are located in the temperate climate zone below the Coni-climate zone below the Coni-ferous Forest. Most of  Europe, ferous Forest. Most of  Europe, the eastern half of North America, the eastern half of North America, and parts of Japan, Asia, and and parts of Japan, Asia, and South America were originally South America were originally covered by these magnificent covered by these magnificent forests of oak and chestnut. forests of oak and chestnut.

Man has eliminated most of the deciduous forests- Man has eliminated most of the deciduous forests- clearing land to make room for  pastures, farms and towns, clearing land to make room for  pastures, farms and towns,

and using the trees up as timber. Most of the Deciduous and using the trees up as timber. Most of the Deciduous Forest has now disappeared. Large animals that once lived Forest has now disappeared. Large animals that once lived in the Deciduous Forest have almost completely been in the Deciduous Forest have almost completely been driven into the Coniferous Forest.driven into the Coniferous Forest.

Chaparral is the dominant Chaparral is the dominant habitat found in southern habitat found in southern California. It is character-California. It is character-ized by scrub growth and ized by scrub growth and small evergreens, lizards,small evergreens, lizards,and coyotes. Because ofand coyotes. Because ofhot, dry summers, fireshot, dry summers, firesare common. The old coware common. The old cowboy movies often tookboy movies often tookplace in these areas.place in these areas.

ChaparralChaparral

The steppes of EurasiaThe steppes of Eurasia The Steppe is a dry, cold, The Steppe is a dry, cold,

grassland that is found in all of grassland that is found in all of the continents except Australia the continents except Australia and Antarctica. and Antarctica.

It is mostly found in the USA, It is mostly found in the USA, Mongolia, Siberia, Tibet and Mongolia, Siberia, Tibet and China. Soil is poorChina. Soil is poor

There isn't much humidity in the There isn't much humidity in the air because Steppe is located air because Steppe is located away from the ocean and close away from the ocean and close to mountain barriers, usually to mountain barriers, usually between the desert and the between the desert and the forest. It is often very windy.forest. It is often very windy.

If it got more rain, it would If it got more rain, it would become a forest. If it got less become a forest. If it got less rain, it would become a desert.rain, it would become a desert.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

What two factors determine the type of What two factors determine the type of biome that exists in an area?biome that exists in an area?

Name and describe two different biomes Name and describe two different biomes and at what latitudes they would occur.and at what latitudes they would occur.

What is permafrost and where does it What is permafrost and where does it occur?occur?

What is the difference between a deciduous What is the difference between a deciduous and a coniferous forest and where they and a coniferous forest and where they would naturally occur?would naturally occur?

QUESTION? QUESTION? Question. . . Question. . . There are about twenty There are about twenty major deserts on our major deserts on our planet . . . planet . . .

What What single factorsingle factor do do

ALL of these deserts ALL of these deserts have in common ?have in common ?

aridity (dryness)aridity (dryness)

Although extreme heat is one way to Although extreme heat is one way to make a desert dry, at the chilliest make a desert dry, at the chilliest extreme are the polar deserts of extreme are the polar deserts of Antarctica and Greenland, where the Antarctica and Greenland, where the frigid air can hold scant moisture, frigid air can hold scant moisture, and what little precipitation there is and what little precipitation there is comes in frozen form. comes in frozen form.

desert (not dessert!)desert (not dessert!)

Western Australian Desert

Arabian Desert Middle East

Sahara Desert

Deserts may be . . . Deserts may be . . . •Sun-baked sand dunes OR

frozen polar deserts of Antarctica,

• Snow-swept plateaus OR

cactus-studded mountains,

•Barren salt flats OR

stony mountain sides

Between 15° and 35° Between 15° and 35° latitude (N and S of the latitude (N and S of the equator); equator);

Examples are Mojave, Examples are Mojave, Sonoran, Chihuahua, and Sonoran, Chihuahua, and Great Basin (North Am.); Great Basin (North Am.); Sahara (Africa); Negev (Mid Sahara (Africa); Negev (Mid East); and Gobi (Asia); East); and Gobi (Asia);

Perennials survive for Perennials survive for several years by becoming several years by becoming dormant dormant and flourishing and flourishing when water is available.when water is available.

Annuals are referred to as Annuals are referred to as ephemerals ephemerals because some because some can complete an entire life can complete an entire life cycle in weeks! cycle in weeks!   

Desert Sidewinder

Sagauro Cactus – up to 50’ tall!

Black-tailed Jack Rabbit

desertdesert

The Great SaharaThe Great Sahara

The Sahara is the world’s second largest desert, The Sahara is the world’s second largest desert, next to Antarctica. The entire US would fit within next to Antarctica. The entire US would fit within the Sahara! Central and Western Sahara have the Sahara! Central and Western Sahara have high mountains and desert plateaus. The hottest, high mountains and desert plateaus. The hottest, most arid region is the Libyan Desert.most arid region is the Libyan Desert.

West Libyan DesertWest Libyan Desert

Extensive areas of gravel plains like these are called regs.

Sahel of AfricaSahel of Africa

The The SahelSahel forms the southern border of the forms the southern border of the Sahara and is a Sahara and is a transitionaltransitional area to the savannas. area to the savannas. Beginning in the 1960s, the Sahel has Beginning in the 1960s, the Sahel has experienced the problems of drought, overgrazing, experienced the problems of drought, overgrazing, and overpopulation. As a consequence, many and overpopulation. As a consequence, many thousands of acres are continuing daily to be lost thousands of acres are continuing daily to be lost to the desert. Hundreds of thousands of people to the desert. Hundreds of thousands of people have faced starvation or have been forced to have faced starvation or have been forced to move south, move south, exacerbatingexacerbating (intensifying) the (intensifying) the problems of poverty and homelessness. problems of poverty and homelessness.

Nigerois Salt DepressionsNigerois Salt Depressions

Back-bending labor produces salt at Teguidda-n-Tessoumt, a Saharan village in Niger, where briny well water is mixed with salty earth in large depressions, then placed in smaller ponds for evaporation.

Pinnacles of Western AustraliaPinnacles of Western Australia

Kelso Dunes Mojave Desert, Kelso Dunes Mojave Desert, CaliforniaCalifornia

The American DesertsThe American Deserts

The Mojave National Preserve is regarded as the The Mojave National Preserve is regarded as the meeting place for three of the four great American meeting place for three of the four great American deserts - the Sonoran, Mojave and Great Basin. deserts - the Sonoran, Mojave and Great Basin. Miners, cattle ranchers, railroad speculators and Miners, cattle ranchers, railroad speculators and wagons westward bound each attempted to wagons westward bound each attempted to survive here, probably coming by way of a Native survive here, probably coming by way of a Native American trail known now as the Mojave Road. American trail known now as the Mojave Road. They saw strange volcanic features, towering sand They saw strange volcanic features, towering sand dunes, and the largest Joshua tree forest in the dunes, and the largest Joshua tree forest in the world .world .

Joshua Tree BloomsJoshua Tree Blooms

Petroglyphs in the MojavePetroglyphs in the Mojave

Meeting of two Dune Crests in a Meeting of two Dune Crests in a Dune Field on the MojaveDune Field on the Mojave

Desolation Canyon

Death Valley National ParkDeath Valley National ParkCaliforniaCalifornia

Death Death Valley Valley

BadlandsBadlands

Named features on maps of Death Valley include the Funeral Mountains, Coffin Peak, Hell's Gate, Dead Man Pass, and Starvation Canyon - clearly reflecting the misfortunes endured by pioneers who first tra-versed, inhabited and mined the region during the end of the 1800’s.

DEATH VALLEYDEATH VALLEY is a long, low is a long, low depressiondepression set in set in largely barren and unpopulated country of largely barren and unpopulated country of desert plains and rocky ridges, east of the desert plains and rocky ridges, east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Over 130 miles long, Sierra Nevada Mountains. Over 130 miles long, but only around 12 miles wide, it runs roughly but only around 12 miles wide, it runs roughly north-south near the California-Nevada border. north-south near the California-Nevada border. From an elevation of 1000 meters at the north From an elevation of 1000 meters at the north end, the land slopes down steadily and for 70 end, the land slopes down steadily and for 70 miles the floor is below sea level, reaching a miles the floor is below sea level, reaching a low point of low point of -86 meters at Badwater, the lowest -86 meters at Badwater, the lowest point in the Western hemispherepoint in the Western hemisphere. The depth of . The depth of the depression is partly responsible for the the depression is partly responsible for the extreme high temperatures, which can exceed extreme high temperatures, which can exceed 130°F in summer. 130°F in summer.

Death ValleyDeath ValleySalt Formations near BadwaterSalt Formations near Badwater

Death ValleyDeath ValleyNatural Bridges Rock FormationsNatural Bridges Rock Formations

Northern Sahara Dune FieldNorthern Sahara Dune Field

Ergs are great “seas” of sand dunes that cover about a quarter of the Sahara.

Sahara Dune FieldSahara Dune FieldLate AfternoonLate Afternoon

Footprints on the Sands of Time. . .Footprints on the Sands of Time. . .

OasisOasis

Oases are small fertile areas surrounded by desert, areas where groundwater lies close enough to the desert surface that plant roots and wells can reach.

Tafilalt

Oasis,

Morocco

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√ What is the one factor that defines a desert?What is the one factor that defines a desert? Where is the lowest point in the western Where is the lowest point in the western

hemisphere? Describe the living conditions.hemisphere? Describe the living conditions. What state is home to the largest US What state is home to the largest US

desert?desert? What are ergs and regs?What are ergs and regs? What is the Sahel? Describe three factors What is the Sahel? Describe three factors

that are affecting the health of the Sahel and that are affecting the health of the Sahel and enlarging the desert even more each year.enlarging the desert even more each year.

Grasslands –Grasslands – Prairies - SavannasPrairies - Savannas

Grassland biomes are large, rolling areas of grasses, flowers and herbs. Latitude, soil and local climates for the most part determine what kinds of plants grow in a particular grassland. A grassland is a region where the average annual precipitation is great enough to support grasses, and in some areas a few trees.

Savannas of Northern AustraliaSavannas of Northern Australia

The rainy season is from December to March, when there are heavy thunderstorms and monsoons. Marsupials, such as pandas and kangaroos, dominate the animal life in this area and live near the trees for food and protection. In other parts of the savanna, saltwater crocodiles as long as 24 feet are very common. Remember Crocodile Dundee?

Pampas of South AmericaPampas of South America

Home of the Gauchos, or South American cowboy, the pampas are found primarily in Argentina and Uruguay. Again, here are few trees because of the many fires that destroy their root systems.

Eco-threatEco-threat The humid Pampas ecosystem is one of the richest The humid Pampas ecosystem is one of the richest

grazing areas in the world. Because of its grazing areas in the world. Because of its temperate climate and rich, deep soil, most of the temperate climate and rich, deep soil, most of the Pampas has been cultivated and turned into Pampas has been cultivated and turned into croplands. Unfortunately, domestic livestock and croplands. Unfortunately, domestic livestock and farming have severely affected the pampas. farming have severely affected the pampas. Fertilizers and overgrazing are a serious threat to Fertilizers and overgrazing are a serious threat to the pampas. There are only a very few the pampas. There are only a very few pristine pristine remnants of the legendary remnants of the legendary "ocean of grass""ocean of grass" that that was the Pampas. It is considered to be one of was the Pampas. It is considered to be one of the most endangered habitats on earth. the most endangered habitats on earth.

North American PrairieNorth American Prairie The grassland community, or prairie, makes up The grassland community, or prairie, makes up

the heart and soul of the Great Plains.  From the the heart and soul of the Great Plains.  From the foothills (or piedmont) of the Rocky Mountains, foothills (or piedmont) of the Rocky Mountains, where the shortgrass prairie covers the high where the shortgrass prairie covers the high plains, to Illinois, where the tallgrass prairie plains, to Illinois, where the tallgrass prairie formerly extended, and from Saskatchewan, formerly extended, and from Saskatchewan, Canada, to Texas, the Canada, to Texas, the PrairiePrairie dominates the dominates the center of the North American continent. center of the North American continent. 

Since most of our wheat farms are in this area of Since most of our wheat farms are in this area of the great Midwest, it is often referred to as the the great Midwest, it is often referred to as the Breadbasket of the United States.Breadbasket of the United States.

Prairies of North AmericaPrairies of North America

There are extremes of climate, with temperatures ranging as much as 130°F from winter to summer. Annual rainfall varies from 10” on the high plains to 45”at the edge of the eastern deciduous forest. Weather systems, such as tornadoes and wind storms, move swiftly across the flattened Great Plains, carrying cold air from Canada or raising huge dust storms during the hot, dry summer. There is great biodiversity and abundance of life. In fact, almost ¾ of bird species in the US breed on the Grasslands of the Great Plains. Many habitats are endangered.

Savannas of AfricaSavannas of Africa

The savanna is a rolling grassland with few trees that lies between the desert sahel and the rain forest. Savannas have long, dry winters and very wet summers, but the temperature is always around 70° F.

In the Serengeti Plains of Tanzania, the grasslands have many acacia trees and support populations of zebras, lions, giraffes, and elephants.

√√Quick Check√Quick Check√

In what countries are grasslands found? In what countries are grasslands found? Describe how these might differ.Describe how these might differ.

Where are the grasslands of the US found? Where are the grasslands of the US found? Why is that area called the “breadbasket” of Why is that area called the “breadbasket” of the country?the country?

What are some different terms used to What are some different terms used to describe the different types of grasslands?describe the different types of grasslands?

Tropical Rain ForestTropical Rain Forest

The tropical rain forest is a forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth and annual rainfall between 50” and 260”; thus they are very humid. Temperature varies between 68° and 93°F. Almost all rain forests lie near the equator.Rainforests now cover less than 6% of Earth's land surface. Scientists estimate that more than half of all the world's plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests. Tropical rainforests produce 40% of Earth's oxygen.

Rain Forest BiomeRain Forest BiomeMany of the trees have straightMany of the trees have straight trunks that don't branch out fortrunks that don't branch out for100 feet or more, as there is 100 feet or more, as there is little light in this area. Most of the little light in this area. Most of the trees have smooth, thin bark trees have smooth, thin bark because there is no need to because there is no need to protect the them from water loss protect the them from water loss and freezing temperatures. It and freezing temperatures. It also makes it difficult for epiphytesalso makes it difficult for epiphytes(non-parasitic hangers-on!) and (non-parasitic hangers-on!) and plant parasites to get a hold on plant parasites to get a hold on the trunks. the trunks.

Rain Forest LayeringRain Forest Layering

There are four very distinct layers of trees in a There are four very distinct layers of trees in a tropical rain forest:tropical rain forest:

emergentemergent – huge trees 100- 240 feet tall that peek – huge trees 100- 240 feet tall that peek out over the tops of the others;out over the tops of the others;

upper canopyupper canopy – trees 60-130 feet tall that use – trees 60-130 feet tall that use most of the upper light and provide homes for most of the upper light and provide homes for most of the forest animals;most of the forest animals;

understoryunderstory - trunks of canopy trees and smaller - trunks of canopy trees and smaller trees in a predominately shady and humid area;trees in a predominately shady and humid area;

forest floorforest floor – thin, poor quality topsoil, very little – thin, poor quality topsoil, very little light and growthlight and growth

Our Debt to RainforestsOur Debt to Rainforests The density of species is so great that one hectare The density of species is so great that one hectare

(2.47 acres) may contain over 750 types of trees, (2.47 acres) may contain over 750 types of trees, and 1500 other varieties of plants.and 1500 other varieties of plants.

25% of Western pharmaceuticals are derived from ingredients in the rainforests, yet scientists have only tested about 1% of the plants in

the forests.

Indigenous tribesIndigenous tribes have contributed much have contributed much to our knowledge of medicinal value ofto our knowledge of medicinal value of the rainforests, and these tribes are beingthe rainforests, and these tribes are being eradicated as their homes are destroyed.eradicated as their homes are destroyed.

Did you know. . .Did you know. . . One and one-half acres of rainforest are lost every One and one-half acres of rainforest are lost every

second. second. Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land

surface; now they cover only 6%, and experts surface; now they cover only 6%, and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years. be consumed in less than 40 years.

We are losing 137 plant, animal and insect We are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day – about 50,000 species species every single day – about 50,000 species per year - due to rainforest deforestation. As the per year - due to rainforest deforestation. As the rainforest species disappear, so do many possible rainforest species disappear, so do many possible cures for life-threatening diseases. cures for life-threatening diseases.

The Endangered RainforestsThe Endangered RainforestsRain forest cleared for soya productionin Para, Brazil

A steam winds through an area cleared by loggers in Mato Grosso, Brazil

√ √ Quick CheckQuick Check √ √

What special contributions do the rainforests What special contributions do the rainforests make to our earth?make to our earth?

What are the four layers of the rain forest?What are the four layers of the rain forest? What is the meaning of the term What is the meaning of the term

indigenousindigenous?? What factors are threatening the health and What factors are threatening the health and

existence of the rain forests?existence of the rain forests? In what latitudes are the rain forests found?In what latitudes are the rain forests found?

The Blue Marble is truly the The Blue Marble is truly the Blue Marvel!Blue Marvel!

Each of us has the responsibility to be a Each of us has the responsibility to be a good good custodiancustodian (caretaker) of our Earth: (caretaker) of our Earth:– By not polluting, carelessly littering, and By not polluting, carelessly littering, and

trashing our community and roadways;trashing our community and roadways;– By not wasting water, electricity, food, fuel, By not wasting water, electricity, food, fuel,

and other precious resources;and other precious resources;– By not using or buying more than we need;By not using or buying more than we need;– By understanding that each individual must help By understanding that each individual must help

to keep our Earth healthy, beautiful, and to keep our Earth healthy, beautiful, and productive for the generations that come after productive for the generations that come after us.us.

This we know ... The earth does not belong  to man; man belongs to the earth.

All things are connected like the blood that unites one family. Man did not weave the web of life; he is merely a strand in it.

Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself. American Indian Credo