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The Basics of Teamwork

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3

Teams in OrganizationsFacts and Myths

Late in the evening of May 1st, 2011, two MH-60 Black Hawk helicopters embarked from Jalalabad Air Field in Afghanistan on a covert mission into Pakistan to kill Osama bin Laden. Twenty-three Navy SEALs from Team 6, the Naval Special Warfare Development Group, were on board. The plan was for the SEALs to drop from the helicopters into the bin Laden compound, overpower the guards, and shoot to kill. During the 90-minute helicopter flight, the SEALs rehearsed the well-planned operation in their heads. The mission was a well-orchestrated plan complete with dress rehearsals, practice sites, and months of planning. A replica of the bin Laden compound had been built and the team spent 5 full days practicing maneuvers, followed by more weeks of rehearsals in a stretch of desert in Nevada with elevation equivalent to Abbottabad. The Osama mission was one of almost 2,000 missions conducted over the previous two years and was so well practiced that one SEAL likened the routine to “mowing the lawn.” The SEALs created a checklist of code words that had a Native American theme, representing different stages of the mission, and “Geronimo” to signify that bin Laden had been found. From the time the team landed, it took 18 minutes to find and kill Osama and 20 minutes to complete the intelligence-gathering.1

1Schmidle, S. (2011, August 8). Getting Bin Laden: what happened that night in Abbottabad. The New Yorker. newyorker.com

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4 Part1 • TheBasicsofTeamwork

The capture of binLaden is an example of effective teamwork: careful selection andrecruitmentofteammembers,relentlessplanning,rehearsal,timelines,anddeliverables.Theseelements—aswellasasharedgoalandaninterdependentgroupofpeople—arethe defining characteristics of teams.Whereasmost businesspeople do not completeoperations like that of the capture of bin Laden, they do engage in missions thatinvolve significanteconomicandsocialstakes.

Virtuallyeveryonewhohasworked inanorganizationhasbeenamemberofateamatonetimeoranother.Goodteamsarenotamatterofluck;theyresultfromhard work, careful planning, and commitment from the sponsoring organization.Designingeffectiveteamsisaskillthatrequiresathoroughunderstandingofteamsto ensure that the team works as designed. Although there are no guarantees, under-standingwhatmakes teamsworkwill naturally lead to better andmore effectiveteams. This book introduces a systematic approach that allows leaders,managers,executives,trainers,andprofessionalstobuildandmaintainexcellentteamsintheirorganizations.

Oursystematicapproachisbaseduponscientificprinciplesoflearningandchange.Implementing change requires thatmanagers audit their ownbehavior to seewheremistakesarebeingmade,considerandimplementnewtechniquesandpractices,andthenexaminetheireffects.Unfortunately,accomplishingthesetasksinatypicalorga-nizationisnoteasy.Thischaptersetsthestageforeffectivelearningbydefiningwhata team is—it’snot always clear!Wedistinguish four typesof teams in organizationsin termsof theirauthority.Weexpose themostcommonmythsabout teamworkandsharesomeobservationsfromteamleaders.Weprovidetheresultsofourassessmentonhowteamsareusedinorganizationsandtheproblemswithwhichmanagersaremostconcerned.Theproblemscitedbythesemanagerscutacrossindustries,fromdoughnutcompaniestohigh-techfirms.

What Is a team?

A work teamisaninterdependentcollectionofindividualswhoshareresponsibilityfor specific outcomes for their organizations.Not everyonewhoworks togetheroris inproximitybelongstoateam.Ateamisagroupofpeoplewhoareinterdepen-dentwithrespecttoinformation,resources,andskillsandwhoseektocombinetheireffortstoachieveacommongoal.AsissummarizedinExhibit1-1,teamshavefivekeydefining characteristics. First, teams exist to achieve a shared goal. Simply put, teamshavework todo. Teamsproduce outcomes forwhichmembers have collec-tiveresponsibilityandreapsomeformofcollectivereward.Second,teammembersare interdependent regarding a common goal. Interdependence is the hallmark ofteamwork. Interdependencemeans that teammembers cannot achieve their goalssingle-handedly, but instead must rely on each other to meet shared objectives.There are several kinds of interdependencies, as teammembersmust rely on oth-ersforinformation,expertise,resources,andsupport.Third,teamsareboundedandremainrelativelystableovertime.Boundednessmeanstheteamhasanidentifiablemembership;members,aswellasnonmembers,knowwhoisontheteam.Stability refers to the tenure of membership. Most teams work together for a meaningful

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Chapter1 • TeamsinOrganizations 5

lengthof time—longenough toaccomplish theirgoal.Fourth, teammembershavethe authoritytomanagetheirownworkandinternalprocesses.Wefocusonteamsinwhichindividualmemberscan,tosomeextent,determinehowtheirworkgetsdone.Thus,althoughaprisonworkcrewmaybeateaminsomesense,theprisonershavelittleauthorityintermsofmanagingtheirownwork.Finally,teamsoperateinalargersocial system context.Teamsarenotislandsuntothemselves.Theydotheirworkinalargerorganization,oftenalongsideotherteams.Furthermore,teamsoftenneedtodrawuponresourcesfromoutsidetheteamandviceversa—somethingwediscussinPartIIIofthisbook.

A working group, by contrast, consists ofpeoplewho learn fromone another,shareideasbutarenotinterdependentinanimportantfashion,andarenotworkingtowardasharedgoal.Workinggroupsshare information,perspectives,and insights;makedecisions;andhelppeopledotheirjobsbetter,butthefocusisonindividualgoalsandaccountability.Forexample,agroupofresearcherswhomeeteachmonthtosharetheir new ideas is a working group.

Why should organIzatIons have teams?

Teamsandteamworkarenotnovelconcepts.Infact,teamsandteamthinkinghavebeen around for years at companies such as Procter&Gamble andBoeing. In the1980s, the manufacturing and auto industries strongly embraced a team-orientedapproachwhenU.S. companies retooled to competewith Japanese companies thatwere quickly gainingmarket share.2 For example, during collaboration on the B-2stealthbomberbetweentheU.S.AirForce,Northrop,and4,000subcontractorsandsuppliers in the early 1980s, teamswere employed tohandledifferentparts of theproject.3

2Nahavandi,A., &Aranda, E. (1994). Restructuring teams for the reengineered organization. Academy of Management Review, 8(4),58–68.3Kresa,K.(1991).Aerospaceleadershipinavortexofchange.Financier, 15(1),25–28.

• Teamsexisttoachieveasharedgoal.• Teammembersareinterdependentregardingsomecommongoal.• Teamsareboundedandstableovertime.• Teammembershavetheauthoritytomanagetheirownworkandinternalprocesses.• Teamsoperateinasocialsystemcontext.

exhIbIt 1-1 Five Key Characteristics of TeamsSource: alderfer, c. P. (1977). Group and intergroup relations. In J. r. hackman & J. L. Suttle (eds.), Improving life at work (pp. 227–296). Palisades, ca: Goodyear; hackman, J. r. (1990). Introduction: Work teams in organizations: an oriented framework. In J. hackman (ed.), Groups that work and those that don’t. San Francisco, ca: Jossey-Bass.

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Managersdiscoveredalargebodyofresearchindicatingthatteamscanbemoreeffective than the traditional corporatehierarchical structure formakingdecisionsquicklyandefficiently.Evensimplechangessuchasencouraginginputandfeedbackfromworkerson the linecanmakeadramatic improvement.For instance,qualitycontrol (QC)circlesandemployeeinvolvementgroupsencourageemployeepartici-pation.4Itisamarkoftheseprograms’successthatthiskindofthinkingisconsideredconventionalwisdomnowadays.AlthoughtheseQCteamswereworthyeffortsatfos-tering theuseof teams inorganizations, the teamsneededfor therestructuringandreengineeringprocessesofthefuturemaybequitedifferent.Accordingtoonestudy,team-basedprojectsfail50to70percentofthetime.5

Atleastfourchallengessuggestthatbuildingandmaintainingeffectiveteamsisofparamountimportance.

Information technology

Asrecentlyas10yearsago,virtualteamswererathernovel;nowtheyarestandardfare.Inthecollaborationeconomy,employeesareknowledgeworkersandteamsareknowledgeintegrators.Oneofthechallengesoftheinformationeraisinfindingtheinformation that is locatedwithin the company, or connecting and communicatingwithotherswhomaybeworkinghalfwayacrosstheglobe.Whatdopeoplelookforin experts?They look for expertise, trustworthiness, communication skills,willing-nesstohelp,yearsofexperience,andawarenessofotherresources.Forexample,atAT&T, internalactivitiesand interactionshappenonTSpace,which includesblogs,wikis,forumsandSharePointsites.Becausemanypeoplearereluctanttolearn newtechnologies,professionaltrainingonnewmediaincreasesinternaladoption.6

Inthecollaborationeconomy,theroleofmanagershasshiftedaccordingly;theyarenolongerprimarilyresponsibleforgatheringinformationfromemployeesworkingbelowthemintheorganizationalhierarchyandthenmakingcommanddecisionsbasedon thisinformation.Theirnewroleistoidentifythekeyresourcesthatwillbestimple-menttheteam’sobjectivesandthentofacilitatethecoordinationofthoseresourcesforthecompany’spurposes.

The jobs of the team members have also changed significantly. This can beviewedasathreatorachallenge.Forexample,in2012,theU.S.CensusBureauesti-matedthat13.4millionpeople,or9.5percentofallworkers,workedfromhomeatleast1dayperweek.That’supfrom7percentoftheworkforcein1999.7 Decisions maynowbemadefarfromtheirtraditionallocation;indeed,sometimestheyareevenmadebycontractors,whoarenotemployeesofthecompany.Thisdramaticchangeinstructure requires an equally dramatic reappraisal of how companies structure theworkenvironment.

4Cole,R.E.(1982).DiffusionofparticipatingworkstructuresinJapan,SwedenandtheUnitedStates.InP.S.Goodmanetal.(Eds.),Change in organizations(pp.166–225).SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.5Greenberg, J., & Baron, R.A. (2008).Behavior in organizations (9th ed.).Upper Saddle River,NJ: PearsonEducation.6Miller,L.(2011,January25).Gettingpast‘no’onyourwaytoasocialmedia‘yes’.PR Daily Europe. prdaily.com7U.S.CensusBureau.(2012,October4).Census Bureau report shows steady increase in home-based workers since 1999. census.gov.

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Competition

Informationtechnologyhasalsoallowedcustomersandclientstogainimmediateaccessto knowledge and information about products and services. This knowledge createsgreater competitionamongcompaniesvying for customersandmarket share.At least65 percentofatypicalcompany’sbusinesscomesfromexistingcustomers,anditcostsfivetimesasmuchtoattractanewcustomerthantokeepanexistingcustomersatisfied.8 Withsomuchat stake, companiesaggressivelycompete inawinner-take-allbattle formarketshare.Thus,bringingoutthebestinteamswithinthecompanyhasbecomeevenmore important.Thismeansthatpeoplecanbeexpectedtospecializemore,andtheseareasofexpertisewillgetevermorenarrowandinterdependent.Thisisthecorestructureofateam-basedapproachtowork.Forexample,theAppleiPhoneholds73percentofcellphoneprofitsworldwide.9TheteamthatdevelopedtheiPhoneincludedover200engi-neersandinvolvedthousandsofothers.Thiscoordinatedtaskwasdifficultbecausetheapplicationshadtoworktogether.Thusteamworkwascriticaltocoordinateactivitiesofthevariousgroups.EngineerswhodevelopedtheiPhoneworked throughthenightoncoding,hardlysleepingfordays.Productmanagersworkedhardtomakedeadlines,andthetensionwashighintheofficeasdoorswereslammedandargumentsbrokeoutinthehallways.10

globalization and Culture

Another challenge is globalization.Anincreasinglyglobalandfast-pacedeconomyrequirespeoplewithspecializedexpertise,yetthespecialistswithinacompanyneedtoworktogether.Asacquisitions,restructurings,outsourcing,andotherstructuralchangestakeplace,theneedforcoordinationbecomesallthemoresalient.Changesincorporate structureand increases in specialization imply that therewillbenewboundariesamong themembersofanorganization.Boundariesbothseparateandlinkteamswithinanorganization,althoughtheboundariesarenotalwaysobvious.11 Thesenewrelationshipsrequireteammemberstolearnhowtoworkwithotherstoachieve their goals. Teammembersmust integrate through coordination and syn-chronizationwith suppliers,managers,peers, andcustomers.Teamsofpeoplearerequired toworkwithoneanotherand rarely (and, in somecases,never) interactinaface-to-facefashion.Withtheabilitytocommunicatewithothersanywhereontheplanet (andbeyond!),peopleandresources thatwereonceremotecannowbereachedquickly, easily, and inexpensively.Thishas facilitated thedevelopmentofthevirtualteam—groupslinkedbytechnologysoeffectivelyitisasiftheyareinthesamebuilding.Furthermore,culturaldifferences,bothprofoundandnuanced,canthreatentheabilityofteamstoaccomplishsharedobjectives.

8U.S.SmallBusinessAdministration.(2012).Keeping customers satisfied. sba.gov.9Elmer-DeWitt,P.(2012,May3).With8.8%marketshare,Applehas73%ofcellphoneprofits.CNN Money. cnnmoney.com10Vogelstein,F. (2008, January9).Theuntoldstory:Howthe iPhoneblewup thewireless industry.Wired. wired.com11Alderfer,C.P.(1977).Groupandintergrouprelations.InJ.R.Hackman&J.L.Suttle(Eds.),Improving life at work(pp.227–296).Palisades,CA:Goodyear;Friedlander,F.(1987).Thedesignofworkteams.InJ.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handbook of organizational behavior.UpperSaddle,NJ:PearsonEducation.

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multigenerational teams

Multigenerationalteamsrefertothefactthatpeopleofdifferentgenerationsworkinfundamentallydifferentwaysandhavedramaticallydifferentnormswhenitcomestocollaboratingandteaming.Thisislargelyduetotheshapingexperiencessomegenera-tionshavehadwithtechnologyatayoungagethathaveaffectedhowtheythinkandwork.Forexample,borninthemid-1980sandlater,GenerationYprofessionals(alsoknownasmillennials)arethefastest-growingsegmentoftheworkforce.12 Sometimes, communicatingwithsomeonefromadifferentgenerationcanbeaschallengingascom-municatingwith someone fromadifferent culture.Unlessmanagers and companiestakethetimetounderstandthedifferentworkandvaluesystemsoftheothergenera-tions,theyaredoomedtobedisappointedandfrustrated.Moreover,mixedgenerationsintheofficecanoftenleadtoawkwardface-to-faceinteractions.Forexample,millenni-alshavebeenreferredtoasthe“newofficemoron”byBusinessweekbecausetheydon’tknowhow todress,usea landline,orbeprofessional ina meeting—using their cellphonestotextorbrowsetheInternet.13Valuestoconsiderinteamscomposedofdiffer-entgenerationsareasfollows:theimportanceoffamily,achievementorientation,teamversusindividualorientation,andtheneedforfeedback,attention,andcoaching.

types of teams In organIzatIons

Organizations rely on team-based arrangements to improve quality, productivity,customer service, and the experience ofwork for their employees.However, teamsdiffer greatly in their degree of autonomy and control vis-à-vis the organization.Specifically,howisauthoritydistributedintheorganization?Whohasresponsibilityfortheroutinemonitoringandmanagementofgroupperformanceprocesses?Whohasresponsibility for creating and fine-tuning thedesignof the group?14 Consider the fourlevelsofcontroldepictedinExhibit1-2.

manager-led teams

Themosttraditionaltypeofteamisthemanager-led team. In the manager-led team, themanageractsastheteamleaderandisresponsiblefordefiningthegoals,methods,andfunctioningoftheteam.Theteamitselfisresponsibleonlyfortheactualexecutionof their assigned work. Management is responsible for monitoring and managingperformance processes, overseeing design, selecting members, and interfacing withtheorganization.Examplesofmanager-ledworkteamsincludeautomobileassemblyteams, surgery teams, sports teams, and military teams. A manager-led team typically hasadedicated,full-time,higher-rankingsupervisor,asinacoal-miningcrew.

Manager-led teamsprovide the greatest amount of control over teammembersandtheworktheyperform;theyallowtheleadertohavecontrolovertheprocessandproductsoftheteam.Inaddition,theycanbeefficient, inthesensethatthemanager

12Kane,S.(2012).GenerationY.about.com13Whyetiquetteschoolsarethriving.(2010,October14).Businessweek. businessweek.com14Hackman,J.R.(1987).Thedesignofworkteams.InJ.W.Lorsch(Ed.),Handbook of organizational behavior. UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall.

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doestheworkofsettingthegoalsandoutliningtheworktobedone.Inmanager-ledteams,managersdon’thavetopassivelyobservetheteammakethesamemistakestheydid.Theseteamsalsohaverelativelylowstart-upcosts.However,therecanbesomekeydisadvantages,suchasdiffusionofresponsibilityandconformitytotheleader.Inshort,membershave lessautonomyandempowerment.Manager-ledteamsmaybe ideallysuitedforsimpletasksinwhichthereisacleargoal,suchastaskforcesorfact-findingteams. The capture of bin Laden, presented in the chapter-opening vignette, is anexampleofamanager-ledteam,withVice-AdmiralBillMcRaven,theSEALinchargeoftheJSOC(JointSpecialOperationsCommand).Otherexamplesincludesurgicalteams,flightcrews,andstagecrews.

self-managing teams

In self-managing or self-regulating teams,amanagerorleaderdeterminestheoverallpurpose or goal of the team, but the team is at liberty tomanage themethods bywhichtoachievethatgoal.Self-managedteamsareincreasinglycommoninorganiza-tions.Examplesincludeexecutivesearchcommitteesandmanagerialtaskforces.Self-managingteamsimproveproductivity,quality,savings,andemployeemorale,aswell

Design of theOrganizational Context

Design of the Team asa Performing Unit

Monitoring andManaging PerformanceProcesses

Executing the Task

Manager-LedWork Teams

Self-ManagingWork Teams

Self-DesigningWork Teams

Self-GoverningWork Teams

Area of ManagementResponsibility

Area of TeamResponsibility

exhIbIt 1-2 Authority of Four Illustrative Types of Work TeamsSource: hackman, J. r. (1987). the design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsch (ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior. Upper Saddle river, NJ: Prentice hall.

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ascontributetoreductionsinabsenteeismandturnover.15Thesebenefitshavebeenobservedinbothmanufacturingandservicesettings.Forexample,gamingdevelop-mentcompanyDoubleFinewasheadedforbankruptcyaftertheirmostpopulargamewascancelled.Inanunprecedentedself-managingmove,theownerassignedpeopletoseveralteamsandgaveeachteam2weeksinwhichtheywerefreetodevelopnewgameprototypes.TheprocesswascalledAmnesiaFortnight.Notably,teammemberswerenotlockedintoanyonespecificjob;rather,programmerscouldbecomeproduc-ersandartistscouldbecomedesigners.Stafferswereabletoexploretheircapabilitiesanddiscoverhidden talents.After the2weeksended,DoubleFinedeveloped fournewgames,whichsavedtheircompany.16

RuthWageman formally studied 43 self-managing teams in the Xerox serviceorganization.17AccordingtoWageman,sevendefiningfeaturesemergedinthesuperblyperforming teams but not in the ineffective teams, including the following: clear direction, a team task, rewards, material resources, authority to manage their work, goals,andstrategicnorms(seeExhibit1-3).

A study of self-managing companies revealed that they performedmuch bet-terthandidotherswhentherecessionof2008hit,andtheyalsocreatedmorejobs.18 Self-managingteamsbuildcommitment,offerincreasedautonomy,andoftenenhancemorale.Thedisadvantageisthatthemanagerhasmuchlesscontrolovertheprocessandproducts,makingitdifficulttoassessprogress.Self-managingteamscanalsobemore time consuming.

self-directing teams

Self-directing or self-designing teamsdeterminetheirownobjectivesandthemeth-odsbywhich toachieve them.Managementhas responsibilityonly for the team’sorganizational context.Self-directed teamsoffer themostpotential for innovation,enhance goal commitment andmotivation, and provide opportunity for organiza-tional learning and change. However, self-directed or self-designing teams areextremelytimeconsuming,havethegreatestpotentialforconflict,andcanbeverycostlytobuild.(Forastep-by-stepguidetosettingupself-designingteams,seeThe New Self-Directed Work Teams.19) Furthermore, it canbe extremelydifficult tomoni-tor their progress. Other disadvantages include marginalization of the team andlack of team legitimacy. However, self-directed teams are often capable of greataccomplishments.

Self-designingteamsmaybeideallysuitedforcomplex,ill-defined,orambiguousproblemsandnext-generationplanning.Somecompanieshave“freetime”policiesthat

15Stewart,G.I.,&Manz,C.C.(1995).Leadershipandself-managingworkteams:Atypologyandintegrativemodel. Human Relations, 48(7),747–770.16Makuch,E.(2012,March8).HowamnesiafortnightsavedDoubleFine.gamespot. gamespot.com17Wageman,R.(1997b,Summer).Criticalsuccessfactorsforcreatingsuperbself-managingteams.Organizational Dynamics, 26(1),49–61.18Groom,B.(2012,July2).Expansion:Chiefexecutivesexpresscautionaboutpaceofgrowthinthesector.Financial Times. ft.com19Orsburn,J.D.,Moran,L.,Musselwhite,E.,&Zenger,J.H.(2000).The new self-directed work teams.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.

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allow employees to pursue novel projects they feel passionate about.According toGoogle,byallowingemployeestohave“20percenttime”fortheirprojects,severalsuc-cessful launches including Gmail electronic mail service, the Google News service,GoogleMaps,andsocialnetworkingsiteOrkutwerepossible.Similarly,atSouthwestAirlines,self-directingteamsareacorevalue.Thecompanylimitstheemphasisonfor-mal organizational structure and instead trusts decision making to the individualworkerormanagementcommittee.Whenawell-knownauthorforgothisidentificationcard needed to board the plane, the empowered team member was able to assure his identity fromthebackcoverofoneofhisbooks,andpermitted theauthor toboardthe plane,preventingadreadedflightdelay.Inatraditionaltop–downstructure,theteammemberwould have to call hermanager,who thenmay have to call anothermanager, but the power of the self-directing team circumvented the bureaucratic

1. Clear direction• Canteammembersarticulateacleardirection,sharedbyallmembers,ofthebasicpurposethat

theteamexiststoachieve? 2. A real team task

• Istheteamassignedcollectiveresponsibilityforalltheteam’scustomersandmajoroutputs?• Istheteamrequiredtomakecollectivedecisionsaboutworkstrategies(ratherthanleavingit

toindividuals)?• Arememberscross-trained,abletohelpeachother?• Doestheteamgetteam-leveldataandfeedbackaboutitsperformance?• Istheteamrequiredtomeetfrequently,anddoesitdoso?

3. Team rewards• Countingallrewarddollarsavailable,aremorethan80percentavailabletoteamsonlyandnot

toindividuals? 4. Basic material resources

• Doestheteamhaveitsownmeetingspace?• Cantheteameasilygetbasicmaterialsneededforwork?

5. Authority to manage the work• Doestheteamhavetheauthoritytodecidethefollowing(withoutfirstreceivingspecialauthority):

• Howtomeetclientdemands• Whichactionstotakeandwhen• Whethertochangetheirworkstrategieswhentheydeemnecessary

6. Team goals• Cantheteamarticulatespecificgoals?• Dothesegoalsstretchtheirperformance?• Havetheyspecifiedatimebywhichtheyintendtoaccomplishthesegoals?

7. Strategy norms• Doteammembersencourageeachothertodetectproblemswithouttheleader’sintervention?• Domembersopenlydiscussdifferencesinwhatmembershavetocontributetotheteam?• Domembersencourageexperimentationwithnewwaysofoperating?• Doestheteamactivelyseektolearnfromotherteams?

exhIbIt 1-3 Critical Success Factors for Self-Managing TeamsSource: Wageman, r. (1997b, Summer). critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational Dynamics, 26(1), 49–61.

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hassle.20 By reducing bureaucracy, self-directed teams help the bottom line.AtW.L.Gorecompany,9,500employeesacross50locationsworkwithoutformalhierarchies,no bosses, and minimal job titles. Associates choose their work and negotiate roles with teammembers.Manufacturing facilities are cappedaround200workers tokeep thefocuson“wedecided”insteadof“theydecided.”Thecompanyscoreshighinannuallistsofbestplacestoworkandinnovationleaders.21

self-governing teams

Self-governing teamsandboardsofdirectorsareusuallyresponsibleforexecutingatask,managingtheirownperformanceprocesses,designingthegroup,anddesigningtheorganizationalcontext.Theyhavewidelatitudeofauthorityandresponsibility.Inmanycompanies,thepresidentorchiefoperatingofficerhasbeenreplacedwithanexec-utive,self-governingteam.22Forexample,LPNFounderDovSeidmanstoodinfrontofhisexecutiveteamandtoreupthetraditionalorganizationalchartandannouncedthatallmemberswouldnow“report”tothecompanymission.Thecompanyismanagedthroughelectedemployeecouncilsandisresponsibleforrecruiting,performanceandresourcemanagement,andconflictresolution.23

Yet, there are trade-offs involvedwith each of these four types of teams. Self-governingandself-directedteamsprovidethegreatestpotential intermsofcommit-ment and participation, but they are also at the greatest risk ofmisdirection.Whendecisionsarepusheddowninorganizations,teamgoalsandinterestsmaybeatoddswithorganizationalinterests.Unlesseveryoneintheorganizationisawareofthecom-pany’s interests andgoals,poordecisions (oftenwith thebestof intentions)maybemade.Anorganizationthatchoosesamanager-ledgroupisbettingthatamanagercanrunthingsmoreeffectivelythanateamcan.Ifitisbelievedthattheteamcandothejobbetter, a self-governingor self-designing teammaybeappropriate.One implica-tionofthisisthatthemanager’straditionalroleasacollectorofinformationislessandlessimportant.However,itisimportanttothinkaboutthedirectionofmovement.Oneinvestigation testedpredictions fromStructuralAdaptationTheoryon the longitudi-naleffectsofcentralizingversusdecentralizingdecision-makingstructuresinteams.24 Resultsfrom934-personteamsdocumentedthatitwasmoredifficultforteamstoadapttoacentralizeddecision-makingstructureafterformallyworkingwithinadecentral-izedstructurethanitwastoadaptintheoppositedirection.

20Nayab,N. (2011,August 24). How employee empowerment has pushed companies ahead.Bright Hub. brighthub.com21LaBarre,P.(2012,March5).Whennobody(andeverybody)istheboss.CNNMoney. management.fortune.cnn.com.22Ancona,D.G.,&Nadler,D.A. (1989). Top hats and executive tales:Designing the senior team.Senior Management Review, 31(1),19–28.23Seidman,D.(2012,June26).Workinprogress:Workinginaself-governingoffice.Financial Times. financial-times.com24Hollenbeck, J.R.,Aleksander,P. J.,Ellis,S.E.,Humphrey,A.S,Garza,&Ilgen,D.R. (2011).Asymmetryinstructuraladaptation:Thedifferentialimpactofcentralizingversusdecentralizingteamdecision-makingstructures, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114(1),64–74.

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some observatIons about teams and teamWork

Thereisa lotoffolkloreandunfoundedintuitionwhenitcomestoteamsandteam-work.Wewant to set the record straight by exposing someof the observations thatmanagersfindmostuseful.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,obviously,butwebelievethefactorsonthislisthavethemostvalueforleaderswhenitcomestounderstandinghowteamsperform,change,andgrow.

teams are not always the answer

Whencompaniesareintrouble,theyoftenrestructureintoteams.However,organiz-ing people into teamsdoes not solve problems; if not done thoughtfully, thismayevencausemoreproblems.Perhapsitisforthisreasonthat37Signals,aWebapplica-tioncompany,instilleda“monthoff”policyunderwhichemployeestakeamonthofffrom coming into the office and insteadwork onmock-ups or prototypes of newproducts. They are free to work wherever they want. By having a full month todedicate to innovationwithout the hassle and interruptions of teammeetings andadministration,individualscaninnovate.25

Teamscanoutperformthebestmemberofthegroup,buttherearenoguarantees.Admittingthe inefficiencyof teamsishard,especiallywhenmostofuswouldliketobelievetheGestaltprinciplethatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts!Teamsare not a panacea for organizations; they often fail and are frequently overused orpoorlydesigned.Inthebestcircumstances,teamsprovideinsight,creativity,andcross-fertilizationofknowledgeinawaythatapersonworkingindependentlycannot.Inthewrongcircumstances,teamworkcanleadtoconfusion,delay,andpoordecisionmaking.

managers fault the Wrong Causes for team failure

Imagineyourselfinthefollowingsituation:Thewonderfulteamthatyouputtogetherlast year has collapsed into lethargy. The newproduct line is not forthcoming, con-flict has erupted, and there is high turnover.What has gonewrong? If you are likemostmanagers,youplacetheblameononeoftwothings:(1)external,uncontrollableforces(e.g.,abadeconomy),or(2)thepeopleontheteam(e.g.,difficultpersonalities).Convenientlyforthemanager,bothof theseproblemsdonotdirectly implicatepoorleadership.However,accordingtomostresearchinvestigations,neitherofthesecausesistheactualculprit.Mostteamproblemsarenotexplainedbyexternalproblemsorper-sonalityproblems.Faultyteamdesignisakeycausalfactorinunderperformingteams.

Themisattribution error is thetendencyformanagerstoattributethecausesofteamfailuretoforcesbeyondtheirpersonalcontrol.Leadersmayblameindividualteammembers,thelackofresources,oracompetitiveenvironment.Whentheleaderpointstoaproblemteammembertheteam’sproblemscanbeneatlyandclearlyunderstoodasemanatingfromonesource.Thisprotectstheleader’sego(and,insomecases,theman-ager’sjob),butitstifleslearninganddestroysmorale.Itismorelikelythattheteam’spoorperformanceisduetoastructural,ratherthanpersonal,cause.Furthermore,itislikelythatseveralthings,notjustone,areatwork.

25Fried,J.(2012,May31).Workplaceexperiments:amonthtoyourself.37Signals. 37signals.com

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managers fail to recognize their team-building responsibilities

Manynewmanagersconceiveoftheirroleasbuildingthemosteffectiverelationshipsthey canwith each individual subordinate; they erroneously equatemanaging theirteamwithmanagingtheindividualpeopleontheteam.26Thesemanagersrarelyrelyongroup-basedforumsforproblemsolvinganddiagnosis. Instead, theyspendtheirtimeinone-on-onemeetings.Teamworkisexpectedtobeanaturalconsequence.Asaresult,manydecisionsarebaseduponlimitedinformation,anddecisionoutcomescanbackfireinunexpectedandnegativeways.Leadersneedtohelpmanagerslearnaboutteamwork.

experimenting with failures leads to better teams

Itmayseemironic,butoneofthemosteffectivewaystolearnistoexperiencefailure.Forexample,TwitterwasbornoutofafailedprojectcalledOdeo.TwitterfounderEvanWilliamsandhis teamwerestruggling togetexcitedaboutapodcastingservice thatdidn’toffereverythingthatiTunes—amajorcompetitor—did.Sureenough,soonafteritwasintroduced,Odeofailed.So,WilliamsandhisteamtooktheexperiencefromOdeoand developed a completely new social media that allowed people to send simpleupdatesviatext.27Afailedteameffortshouldbeviewedasacriticalsourceofinformationfromwhichtolearn.However,whenyouaretheonefailing,failureishardtoembrace.Thetruemarkofavaluedteammemberisawillingnesstolearnfrommistakes.

Surprisesandambiguityareoftenacauseoffailure,soitisimportanttoexaminehowteamscanbestdealwithsurpriseandtheunexpected.OneinvestigationexaminedhowSWATteamsandfilmproductioncrewsdealwithsurprisesandupsetsbyengaginginorganizationalbricolage—inwhichtheyrestructuretheiractivitiesbyroleshifting,reorganizingroutines,andreassemblingtheirwork.28

Conflict among team members Is not always a bad thing

Manyleadersnaivelyboastthattheirteamsaresuccessfulbecausetheyneverhavecon-flict.However,itisafallacytobelievethatconflictisdetrimentaltoeffectiveteamwork.Infact,conflictmaybenecessaryforeffectivedecisionmakinginteamsasitcanfomentaccuracy,insight,understanding,trust,andinnovation.

strong leadership Is not always necessary for strong teams

Acommonmythabout leadership is that to functioneffectively, teamsneedastrong,powerful,andcharismaticleader.Ingeneral,leaderswhocontrolallthedetails,manageallthekeyrelationshipsintheteam,haveallthegoodideas,andusetheteamtoexecutetheir“vision”areusuallyoverworkedandunderproductive.Teamswithstrongleaderssometimessuccumbtoflawedanddisastrousdecisionmaking.

26Hill, M. (1982). Group versus individual performance:Are N + 1 heads better than one? Psychological Bulletin, 91,517–539.27Miller,C.(2012,October30).WhyTwitter’sC.E.O.demotedhimself.New York Times nytimes.com28Bechky,B.A.,&Okhuysen,G.A. (2011).Expecting theunexpected?HowSWATofficersandfilmcrewshandle surprises. Academy of Management Journal, 54(2),239–261.

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AswediscussinChapter11,aleaderhastwomainfunctions:adesignfunction,meaningthattheleaderstructurestheteamenvironment(workingconditions,accesstoinformation, incentives, training, and education), and a coaching function,meaningthat the leader has direct interaction with the team.29

good teams Can still fail under the Wrong Circumstances

Teamsareoftendepictedasmavericks:buckingauthority,strikingoutontheirown,andaskingforpermissiononlyafterthefact.Suchcasesdooccur,buttheyarerareandtendtobeone-shotsuccesses.Mostmanagerswantconsistentlysuccessfulteams.

Tobesuccessfulinthelongrun,teamsneedongoingresourcesandsupport.Byresources,wemeanmorethanjustmoney.Teamsneedinformationandeducation.Intoomanycases,teamstackleaproblemthathasalreadybeensolvedbysomeoneelseinthecompany,butalackofcommunicationpreventsthiscriticalknowledgefromreach-ingthecurrenttaskforce.

To lay the best groundwork for teams, it is important to consider the goals andresourcesof the team:Are the team’sgoalswelldefined?Doeseveryoneknowthem?Arethegoalsconsistentwiththeobjectivesofothermembersoftheorganization?Ifnot,howwilltheinevitableconflictbemanaged?Doeseveryoneontheteamhaveaccesstotheresourcesnecessarytosuccessfullyachievethegoal?Istheorganizationalhierarchydesignedtogiveteammembersaccesstotheseresourcesefficiently?Ifnot,itmightbenecessarytoreconsiderthegovernancestructurewithinwhichtheteammustoperate.Whataretherightsoftheteammembersinpursuingtheirduties,whocantheycontact,andwhat information can they command? It is also important toassess the incentivestructureexisting for teammembersand for thoseoutside the teamwithwhomteammembersmustinteract.Aretheteammembers’incentivesaligned?Areteammembers’incentivesalignedwiththoseofthegroupandtheorganization,forinstance,tocooperatewithoneanotherandtofullyshareinformationandresources?Thereisnocookie-cuttersolutiontoteamstructure.Forinstance,itmaybeappropriateforteammemberstocom-petewithoneanother(inwhichcase,cooperationmaynotbeanachievablefeatureofthegroupdynamic).Choosingthestructureofthegroupandtheincentivesthatmotivatetheindividualsinsideitareessentialfactorscontributingtothesuccessofanyteam.

retreats Will not fix all the Conflicts between team members

Teamsoftengetintotrouble.Membersmayfight,slackoff,orsimplybeunabletokeepupwiththeirresponsibilities,potentiallyresultinginangryordissatisfiedcustomers.Whenconflictarises,peoplesearchforasolutiontotheteamproblem.Acommonstrategyistohavea“team-buildingretreat,”“corporatelove-in,”or“ropesandboulderscourse”whereteammemberstrytoaddressunderlyingconcernsandbuildtrustbyengaginginactivi-ties—likerockclimbing—thatarenotpartofwhattheyordinarilydoasateam.Ateamretreat is a popularway for teammembers to buildmutual trust and commitment.Aretreatmayinvolveteammembersspendingaweekendcampingandengagingincoop-erative,shared,structuredactivities.However,unlessretreatsaddressthestructuralanddesignproblemsthatplaguetheteamdaytodayintheworkenvironment,theymayfail.

29Hackman,J.R.(2002).Leading teams: Setting the stage for great performances.Boston,MA:HarvardBusinessSchool Press.

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Forexample,onecompanyfacingleadershipissuesdecidedtohaveaconsultantrunateam-buildingretreat.Theemployeesplayedgamesthatputthemintodifferentrolessothey could understand each other more and the issues they were facing day to day.However,theretreatdidnotaccomplishthecompanygoalbecausetheemployeesdidnot discuss the games process. One employee commented that it was too bad the leadership was not stronger at the company because on paper it was the perfect job, but afterexperiencingyetanotherbadteam-buildingexperience,shedecidedtoleavethecompany.Anotherexampleofanonproductiveworkretreatcamewhenalargenonprofitcompanyhadalotofdiscordbetweenemployees.Tohelpresolvethis,theexecutivedirectoraskedthestafftoparticipateinaretreatbygoingintothewoods,standinginacircle,andholdingastonetoexpresstheirnegativefeelings.Needlesstosay,thediscordcontinued.30

Designproblemsarebestaddressedbyexaminingtheteaminitsownenviron-mentwhileteammembersareengagedinactualwork.Forthisreason,itisimportanttotakeamorecomprehensiveapproachtoanalyzingteamproblems.Retreatsareofteninsufficient because they encouragemanagers to attribute team failures to interper-sonaldynamics,ratherthanexaminingandchangingdeeper,moresystemicissues.

What leaders tell us about theIr teams

Togain amore accuratepictureof the challenges leaders face in their organizationswhendesigning, leading,andmotivating teams,weconductedanassessment, span-ning 15years, of over 1,300 executives andmanagers fromavarietyof industries.31 Herearesomehighlightsofwhattheytoldus.

most Common type of team

Themostcommontypeisthemiddlemanagementteam,followedbycross-functional,operations, and service teams. Cross-functional teams epitomize the challenges out-linedearlierinthischapter.Theyrepresentthegreatestpotential,intermsofintegratingtalent,skills,andideas,butbecauseoftheirdiversityoftrainingandresponsibility,theyprovidefertilegroundforconflict.

team size

Team size varies dramatically, from 3 to 100 members, with an average of 11.92.However,themodalteamsizeis8.Thesenumberscanbecomparedwiththeoptimumteam size.Aswediscuss later in the book, teams shouldgenerallyhave fewer than10 members—morelike5or6.

team autonomy versus manager Control

Mostofthemanagersinourassessmentwereinself-managingteams(52percent),fol-lowedbymanager-ledteams(42percent),withself-directingteams(6percent)distinctlyless common (see Exhibit 1-4). There is an inevitable tension between the degree of

30Balderrama,A.(2012,June18).Theworstteam-buildingexperienceyou’veeverhad.CareerBuilder. career-builder.com31Thompson,L.(2013).Leading high impact teams.TeamleadershipsurveyfromtheKelloggSchoolofManagementExecutiveProgram.NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,IL.

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managercontrolinateamandtheabilityofteammemberstoguideandmanagetheirownactions.Manager-ledteamsprovidemorecontrol,butlessinnovationthanwhatstemsfromautonomy.Wedonotsuggestthatallteamsshouldbeself-directing.Rather,itisimportanttounderstandthetrade-offsandwhatisrequiredforeachtypeofteamtofunctioneffectively.

team longevity

Teamsvaryagreatdealintermsofhowlongtheyhavebeeninexistence.Onaverage,teamsareinexistencefor1to2years(seeExhibit1-5).

the most frustrating aspect of teamwork

Managersconsideredseveralpossible sourcesof frustration inmanaging teams.Themostfrequentlycitedcauseoffrustrationandchallengeinteamsisdevelopingandsus-taininghighmotivation,followedbyminimizingconfusionandcoordinationproblems

100%

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exhIbIt 1-4 Team Autonomy Versus Manager ControlSource: thompson, L. (2013). Leading high impact teams. team leadership survey from the Kellogg School of Management executive Program. Northwestern University, evanston, IL.

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exhIbIt 1-5 Team LongevitySource: thompson, L. (2013). Leading high impact teams. team leadership survey from the Kellogg School of Management executive Program. Northwestern University, evanston, IL.

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(seeExhibit1-6).WediscussissuesofmotivationinChapter2;also,wefocusonteamcompensationandincentivesinChapter3.Weanalyzeconflict(andwaystoeffectivelymanageitwithinateam)inChapter8andaddresscreativityinChapter9.Notsurpris-ingly,amongtheskillsonthemost-wantedlistformanagerialeducationaredevelopingandsustaininghighmotivation,developingcleargoals,fosteringcreativityandinnova-tion,training,andminimizingconfusionandcoordinationproblems.Consequently,wedesignedthisbooktopreparemanagersandreeducateexecutivesinhowtoeffectivelydealwitheachoftheseconcerns.

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ngexhIbIt 1-6 The Most Frustrating Aspects of TeamworkSource: thompson, L. (2013). Leading high impact teams. team leadership survey from the Kellogg School of Management executive Program. Northwestern University, evanston, IL.

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developIng your team-buIldIng skIlls

Thisbookfocusesonthreeskills:accuratediagnosisofteamproblems,research-basedintervention,andexpertlearning.

skill 1: accurate diagnosis of team problems

It isdifficulttoidentifyasinglemeasureofteamfunctioningbecauseteameffective-nessishardtodefine.Forexample,perhapsyourorganizationbeatthecompetitioninwinningalargecontract,butthecontractwasultimatelynotveryprofitable.Wasthisavictoryorafailure?Whatwillbetheimplicationsforfuturecompetition?

Manypeoplemakethemistakeoflookingforcausesaftertheyfindeffects.Inthescientificliterature,thisisknownassampling on the dependent variable.Forexam-ple, ifyourgoal is to identify thedeterminantsofasuccessful team, itmayappearusefultolookforeffectiveteamsinyourorganizationandthentrytodeterminewhatiscommonamongthem.Thissoundslogical,untilyourealizethattheremaybemanycommonfactorsthathavenothingtodowithmakingateamsuccessful.Ortheremaybecommonfeaturesthatinterferewithgoodteamworkbutarenonethelessdifficulttodetect—perhapspreciselybecausetheyarecommontoalltheteams,successfulornot.Oneimportantexampleof this is the institutionalbackgroundof thecompany,forexample,takingcertainestablishedpracticesforgranted,suchasoperatingproce-dures,informationsources,andevencontractualrelationships.Inthiscase,theteammaybeeffective,butnotaseffectiveasitmightotherwisebe.Amanagerwhoisalsoentrenched in the institutional frameworkof the companymayperceive a teamaseffective,whileoverlooking itsshortcomings.Thus, it isessential tobeas indepen-dentandcriticalaspossiblewhenanalyzingteameffectiveness.

Howdoyouavoidthetrapofsamplingonthedependentvariable?Fromamethod-ologicalpointofview,youcandooneoftwothings:(1)identifya preexistingbaselineor controlgroup—thatis,acomparisongroup(inthiscase,unsuccessfulteams)—andlookfordifferencesbetweenthetwo;or(2)doanexperimentinwhichyouprovidedifferentinformation,education,communication,andsoon toonegroup (randomlyassigned)butnottheother.Thenlookfordifferences.Unfortunately,mostexecutivesdonothavethe time or resources to do either of these things. This bookprovides insights basedupon research that hasdone these things before adrawingof conclusions.However,nothingcansubstituteforathoughtfulunderstandingoftheenvironmentinwhichtheteamoperates,theincentivesfacingteammembers,andsoon.Wediscussthesefactorsthroughout this book.

Another problem is called hindsight bias,or the“Iknewitallalong”fallacy.32 Thisisthetendencytobelievethatsomethingseemsobvious,eveninevitable,afteryoulearnaboutitwhenyouhavenotpredicted(orcannotpredict)whatwillhappen.Thiscanresultinanunfortunateformofoverconfidence:Managersthinktheyknowevery-thing,wheninfacttheydon’t.Weoftenseemanagersengageinposthocjustification

32Fischhoff, B. (1975).Hindsightdoesnot equal foresight: The effect of outcomeknowledgeon judgmentunder uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1,288–299.

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ratherthancarefulreasoning.Thebestwaytoavoidthistrapistoreadactivelytolearnaboutotherpossibilities,criticallyexamineyourassumptions,andbeopentoachangeofmindonceyouhavethefacts.Asyoureadthisbook,somethingswillsurpriseyou,butmuchwill seem obvious.As a general principle, do not rely on your intuition;rather, test your assumptions.

skill 2: research-based Intervention

Foreverymanagerialproblem,thereareadozenpurportedsolutionsandquickfixes.Howcanamanagerknowledgeablychooseamongthem?Theanswer,wethink,isthescienceofteamwork.

Teamandgroup-relatedresearchisbasedonscientifictheory.Group-relatedresearchaccountsforoverone-sixthofalltheresearchinsocialpsychologyandone-thirdofthemostcitedpapersinsocialpsychologyjournalsfocusongroupsandteams.33Theinter-ventionspresentedinthisbookhaveakeyqualitygoingforthem:Theyareall theorybasedandempiricallysound.Thismeansthattheyarenotbasedonnaive,intuitiveper-ceptions;rather,theyhavebeenscientificallyexamined.Thisisknownasevidence-based management.34Thisbookwaswrittentoprovidemanagerswithup-to-date,scientificallybasedinformationabouthowbesttomanagetheirteams.

skill 3: expert learning

Effective managers make mistakes, but they don’t make the same mistakes twice.Expert learning involves theability to continually learn fromexperience.Oneof thegreatfallaciesaboutlearningisthatpeoplereachapointwheretheyhaveacquiredalltheknowledgetheyneed;incontrast,greatleadersarealwayslearning.Inthisbook,we use a model that we call expert learningtorefertohowmanagerscancontinuallybenefit, even from themostmundane experiences.ConsiderChrisArgyris’sdistinc-tionbetweensingle-loopversusdouble-looplearning.35 According to Argyris, single-loop learningislearningthatisprimarilyone-dimensional.Forexample,aleadermaybelievethatshehasnothingtolearnfromasubordinatebutthatthesubordinatecanlearnfromher.Therefore,theinteractionsbetweentheleaderandthesubordinatewillbeprimarilyone-directional,or single loop. Incontrast,Argyrisargues thateffectiveleaders engage in double-loop learning processes,which involve a reciprocal inter-change between leaders and teams. Thismeans, of course, that not only do leaderscoach, direct, and instruct their teams but also that teams help their leaders learn.

Anotherimportantaspectoflearningistheuseofexamplestoillustrateandcon-veyconcepts.Experientialandexample-basedlearningismoreeffectivethandidactic(lecture-based) learning.36 An important key to whether knowledge is actually used or remains inert iswhatWhitehead, over 80 years ago, called the inert knowledge

33Abrams,D.A.,DeMoura,G.R.,Marques,J.M.,&Hutchison,P.(2008).Innovationcredit:Whencanleadersopposetheirgroup’snorms?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(3),662–678.34Pfeffer,J.,&Sutton,R.(2006).Evidence-basedmanagement.Harvard Business Review, 84(1),62–74.35Argyris,C.(1977a).Doublelooplearning.Harvard Business Review, 55(5),115–125.36Nadler,J.,Thompson,L.,&VanBoven,L.(2003).Learningnegotiationskills:Fourmodelsofknowledgecreationandtransfer.Management Science, 49(4),529–540;Gentner,D.,Loewenstein,J.,&Thompson,L.(2003).Learningandtransfer:Ageneralroleforanalogicalencoding.Journal of Educational Psychology, 95,393–408.

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problem.37Thekeytounlockingthepervasiveinertknowledgeproblemlies inhowthemanagerprocessestheinformation,andwhenmanagerslinkexamplestoconcepts,they learn better.38Thus,inthisbook,weattempttoprovideseveralwaysoflookingatthesameproblemviaacombinationoftheory,research,andrealbusinesspractices.

a WarnIng

Webelievethatteamwork,likeotherinterdependentsocialbehaviors,isbestperfectedinanactive,experimental,anddynamicenvironment.Thus,tofullybenefitfromthisbook, it isnecessaryforyoutoactivelyengageinteamworkandexamineyourownbehavior.Itmayseemsomewhathereticaltomakethepointinatextbookthatteam-buildingskillscannotbelearnedexclusivelyfromatextbook,butwedosoanyway.

Westronglyurgeyoutoworkthroughthemodelsandideaspresentedhereinthecontextofyourownexperience.Wecanthinkofnobetterwaytodothisthaninaclass-roomsettingthatofferstheopportunityforonline,applied,experientiallearning.Itiseasytowatch,analyze,andcritiqueotherteams,butmuchmorechallengingtoengageineffectiveteambehavioryourself.Wehopethatwhatyougainfromthisbook,andtheworkyoudoonyourownthroughteam-buildingexercises,istheknowledgeofhowtobeaneffectiveteammember,teamleader,andteamdesigner.Inthelongrun,wehopethisbookwillhelpyouindevelopingyourownexperience,expertise,andmodelsofhowyoucanbestfunctionwithteams.

37Whitehead,A.N.(1929).The aims of education.NewYork:Macmillan.38Thompson, L., Loewenstein, J.,&Gentner,D. (2000).Avoidingmissed opportunities inmanagerial life:Analogicaltrainingmorepowerfulthanindividualcasetraining.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82(1),60–75.

Chapter Capstone

There is no foolproof scientific formula fordesigningandmaintaininganeffectiveteam.Iftherewere,itwouldhavebeendiscoveredby now. In some ways, a team is like the humanbody:Nooneknows the exact regi-menforstayinghealthyovertime.However,wehavesomeverygood informationaboutthe benefits of a lean diet, exercise, stressreduction, wellness maintenance, and early detectionofdisease.Thesamegoesforteam-work.Justaswerelyonsciencetocuredis-easeandtoadvancehealth,thisbooktakesanunabashedlyscientificapproachtothestudyand improvementof teamwork inorganiza-tions. There is a lot ofmisperception about

teams and teamwork. Intuition and luck can onlytakeussofar;infact,ifmisapplied,theymaygetus intotrouble. Inthenextchapter,weundertakeaperformanceanalysisofteam-work, asking these questions: How do weknow a healthy and productive teamwhenweseeit?Whatarethebiggest“killers”and“diseases” of teams?And, more important,whatdoweneedtodotokeepateamfunc-tioning effectively over time? In Chapter 3, wedealwith thequestionof incentivesandrewards for good teamwork. Part II focuseson internal team dynamics, and Part IIIfocusesonthebiggerpicture—theteamintheorganization.

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