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Transcript of The ASD Puzzle Autism Spectrum Disorders Strategies for the Music Classroom Carole Pearce Nelson...
The ASD Puzzle Autism Spectrum Disorders
Strategies for the Music Classroom
The ASD Puzzle Autism Spectrum Disorders
Strategies for the Music Classroom
Carole PearceNelson Elementary School
Music Therapist –Board Certified (MT-BC)
Masters in Music Education
Carole PearceNelson Elementary School
Music Therapist –Board Certified (MT-BC)
Masters in Music Education
OBJECTIVESThis training will address:
OBJECTIVESThis training will address:
1. General Characteristics about A.S.D.2. Knowing Your Students3. Music Room Considerations4. Lesson-Planning5. Knowing Your Musical Elements –
Sensory Adaptations6. “The Melt-down” – Behavior Strategies7. Assessment8. Performance Groups9. Resources
1. General Characteristics about A.S.D.2. Knowing Your Students3. Music Room Considerations4. Lesson-Planning5. Knowing Your Musical Elements –
Sensory Adaptations6. “The Melt-down” – Behavior Strategies7. Assessment8. Performance Groups9. Resources
Pervasive Developmental Disorder (Autism Spectrum
Disorder) DSM-IV
Pervasive Developmental Disorder (Autism Spectrum
Disorder) DSM-IV
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (Heller’s Syndrome)
Rett’sDisorder
Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified
Asperger’s DisorderAutistic
Disorder
Features of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Features of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Repetitive behaviors, interests and activities
Differences in socialization
Differences in communication
Autism
Pervasive Developmental Disorder- Not Otherwise
Specified (PDD-NOS)
Pervasive Developmental Disorder- Not Otherwise
Specified (PDD-NOS)
Does not meet all of the criteria for diagnosis
Often considered a milder form of autism
Doctors often are more likely to give diagnosis of PDD than autism to very young children
Does not meet all of the criteria for diagnosis
Often considered a milder form of autism
Doctors often are more likely to give diagnosis of PDD than autism to very young children
Comparison of Autism and Asperger’s Disorder
Comparison of Autism and Asperger’s Disorder
Autism Generally below
normal IQ General diagnosis
before age 3 Delay in language
onset About 50% are non-
verbal Limited grammar
and vocabulary
Autism Generally below
normal IQ General diagnosis
before age 3 Delay in language
onset About 50% are non-
verbal Limited grammar
and vocabulary
Asperger’s Disorder Generally normal IQ General diagnosis not
until age 3 or after Language onset time
normal All are verbal Average grammar
and vocabulary
Asperger’s Disorder Generally normal IQ General diagnosis not
until age 3 or after Language onset time
normal All are verbal Average grammar
and vocabulary
Comparison of Autism and Asperger’s Disorder
Comparison of Autism and Asperger’s Disorder
Autism Deficits in reciprocal
social interactions 1/3 have seizures
(primarily adolescents)
Sensory problems Obsessive interests
Autism Deficits in reciprocal
social interactions 1/3 have seizures
(primarily adolescents)
Sensory problems Obsessive interests
Asperger’s Disorder Deficits in reciprocal
social interactions Seizures
commensurate with general population
Sensory problems More occurrence of
“high-level” obsessive interests
Asperger’s Disorder Deficits in reciprocal
social interactions Seizures
commensurate with general population
Sensory problems More occurrence of
“high-level” obsessive interests
Accommodations Information
Accommodations Information
Augmentative communication device/visuals – Students should bring these to class!
It is their voice!
Augmentative communication device/visuals – Students should bring these to class!
It is their voice!
Communication StrategiesCommunication Strategies
Big Mac Tech Talk
Communication book
AAC Device
PREVENTING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
PREVENTING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
Find out what the classroom teacher is using
Have the classroom teacher include a slot for music
Give the icon, if earned, prior to leaving class
Find out what the classroom teacher is using
Have the classroom teacher include a slot for music
Give the icon, if earned, prior to leaving class
Individual Behavior ChartIndividual Behavior Chart
•Use objects/icons that interest students •It could be a stamp, a sticker, or a picture
•Remember, not all students like stickers or consider stickers important to work for
Music Room Considerations
Music Room Considerations
Safety First – Physical Layout
Labeling the roomRules and Boundaries
Safety First – Physical Layout
Labeling the roomRules and Boundaries
Room OrganizationRoom Organization
What do you see?What do you see? Vocabulary is at
student eye level The chairs are “quiet” Everything has an
assigned area Add a photo to the
chair where the student is assigned
Add a visual schedule Add visual class rules
Vocabulary is at student eye level
The chairs are “quiet” Everything has an
assigned area Add a photo to the
chair where the student is assigned
Add a visual schedule Add visual class rules
Room organization to promote independenceRoom organization to promote independence
Keep small items in bins with picture labels
Keep small items in bins with picture labels Label where classroom
tools are kept
Label where classroom
tools are kept
Picture labels could be added to shelves for instrument
and book organization to promote independence
Picture labels could be added to shelves for instrument
and book organization to promote independence
Visual Boundaries Visual Boundaries
Painter’s tape and furniture provide boundary lines between areas of room
Designated work spaceDesignated work space
Visuals to assist withrules and boundries
Visuals to assist withrules and boundries
Label what should not be touched
Individual seats labeled
Simplify rules; use picture supports
Universal “No” Sign
RulesRules
Lesson PlanningLesson Planning
The RoutineVisualsTransitions
The RoutineVisualsTransitions
Create a Predictable and Visual Routine
Create a Predictable and Visual Routine
Classroom ScheduleClassroom Schedule Individual Picture SchedulesIndividual Picture Schedules
Checklists or reminder cards that are posted in the work
area
Checklists or reminder cards that are posted in the work
area
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
Rationale: This provides the student with
autism the opportunity to understand and anticipate schedule transitions.
Rationale: This provides the student with
autism the opportunity to understand and anticipate schedule transitions.
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
Arrange picture symbols on your
chalkboard or dry-erase board in any order (e.g., an icon for warm-up, others for songs and activities for the day).
Have the student with autism choose the order in which these activities will occur.
Arrange picture symbols on your
chalkboard or dry-erase board in any order (e.g., an icon for warm-up, others for songs and activities for the day).
Have the student with autism choose the order in which these activities will occur.
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
Classroom Music Example Using Picture Symbols
As each activity is completed, take the icon down and put in a “Complete” box
or envelope.
Allow all the students in the class, not just the student with autism, to take turns choosing the icons.
As each activity is completed, take the icon down and put in a “Complete” box
or envelope.
Allow all the students in the class, not just the student with autism, to take turns choosing the icons.
IT’S ALL ABOUT…IT’S ALL ABOUT…
…being sensitive to your students’
reactions to music elements!!!!!!
…being sensitive to your students’
reactions to music elements!!!!!!
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC FOR SENSORY ADAPTATION
THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND!!!!!!
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC FOR SENSORY ADAPTATION
THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND!!!!!!
What one brain perceives as sounding pleasing, another brain may perceive as sounding irritating.
Fear results in fight or flight. A brain that is over-stimulated will fight the external sounds or tune them out. It is our job to make the music “connect” to the student.
The elements of music are often the perfect tools to reduce fear, engage a student and eventually help the student adapt. Learning cannot take place until this occurs.
What one brain perceives as sounding pleasing, another brain may perceive as sounding irritating.
Fear results in fight or flight. A brain that is over-stimulated will fight the external sounds or tune them out. It is our job to make the music “connect” to the student.
The elements of music are often the perfect tools to reduce fear, engage a student and eventually help the student adapt. Learning cannot take place until this occurs.
ADAPTING TEMPOADAPTING TEMPO
Think of the student’s current energy level.
Start there and gradually work towards the desired energy level (accelerando or ritardando – very effective)
Slow – can induce calmness, can be used to see how long a student can stay focused.
Fast - can animate the system, effective for improving motor skills (fine-motor skills such as instrument playing, gross-motor skills such as movement activities).
Think of the student’s current energy level.
Start there and gradually work towards the desired energy level (accelerando or ritardando – very effective)
Slow – can induce calmness, can be used to see how long a student can stay focused.
Fast - can animate the system, effective for improving motor skills (fine-motor skills such as instrument playing, gross-motor skills such as movement activities).
The Greeting Song
The Greeting Song
“Hey Hello”“Hey Hello”
ADAPTING RHYTHMADAPTING RHYTHM
Begin with…Pulse – beat, meter, patterns of strong and weak beats. The simplicity of this is very appealing to students.
Transition to…Patterns – rhythmic patterns keep the brain alert once it has processed the pulse. Chants are effective for students who are non-verbal because they break down language into patterned syllables.
Advance to…Perseveration (Repetition) – an ostinato, a repeated pattern; can be a driving force to make the brain pay attention and finally give in and adapt to the new stimulus, try adding another layer for texture
Begin with…Pulse – beat, meter, patterns of strong and weak beats. The simplicity of this is very appealing to students.
Transition to…Patterns – rhythmic patterns keep the brain alert once it has processed the pulse. Chants are effective for students who are non-verbal because they break down language into patterned syllables.
Advance to…Perseveration (Repetition) – an ostinato, a repeated pattern; can be a driving force to make the brain pay attention and finally give in and adapt to the new stimulus, try adding another layer for texture
Quick Reaction Games
Quick Reaction Games
“Beat Circles”Dalcroze-Based ActivityHelp to keep attentionSpontaneous, ImprovisationalGood for transitionsGood for variety of levels in one groupDevelopmentally SequencedTeacher Led or Student LedMany variations and adaptations for curriculum
“Beat Circles”Dalcroze-Based ActivityHelp to keep attentionSpontaneous, ImprovisationalGood for transitionsGood for variety of levels in one groupDevelopmentally SequencedTeacher Led or Student LedMany variations and adaptations for curriculum
TONE COLOR CONSIDERATIONS
TONE COLOR CONSIDERATIONS
What sounds pleasing to one person may be irritating or problematic for another.
Certain tone colors or frequencies may elicit behavior problems. Document.
Students who have difficulty discriminating between sounds often have the same problem in speech.
What sounds pleasing to one person may be irritating or problematic for another.
Certain tone colors or frequencies may elicit behavior problems. Document.
Students who have difficulty discriminating between sounds often have the same problem in speech.
InstrumentsInstruments
“The Best Band”Safety FirstThink of physical limitations, fine-motor skills and eye-hand coordination.Consult classroom teacher, ESE teacher, Physical Therapist or Occupational Therapist for adaptations.Primary Instrumental Activities – start/stop, steady beat, fermata, tempo changes, formIntermediate Instrumental Activities – note values, meter, rhythm patterns, complex tempo changes, form
“The Best Band”Safety FirstThink of physical limitations, fine-motor skills and eye-hand coordination.Consult classroom teacher, ESE teacher, Physical Therapist or Occupational Therapist for adaptations.Primary Instrumental Activities – start/stop, steady beat, fermata, tempo changes, formIntermediate Instrumental Activities – note values, meter, rhythm patterns, complex tempo changes, form
INSTRUMENTS FOR SENSORY ADAPATIONINSTRUMENTS FOR
SENSORY ADAPATION
Keyboard InstrumentsString InstrumentsPercussion InstrumentsWind InstrumentsVocalizationRecorded Music
Keyboard InstrumentsString InstrumentsPercussion InstrumentsWind InstrumentsVocalizationRecorded Music
See Handout “Instruments for Sensory Adaptation”
EFFECTIVE USE OF FORM
EFFECTIVE USE OF FORM
The structure of music is appealing to students because it is orderly and predictable like a routine.
Musical form aids in the development of attention span:
Music – evolves, peaks, resolves.Task – created, organized, completed
Attention for some students may be minutes, for others, only seconds. Document and ask for assistance in setting realistic goals for length of attention.
Think of form in varying lengths: one measure… then…one phrase…then…one verse… then…one piece. Plan according to your student’s present level and gradually increase.
The structure of music is appealing to students because it is orderly and predictable like a routine.
Musical form aids in the development of attention span:
Music – evolves, peaks, resolves.Task – created, organized, completed
Attention for some students may be minutes, for others, only seconds. Document and ask for assistance in setting realistic goals for length of attention.
Think of form in varying lengths: one measure… then…one phrase…then…one verse… then…one piece. Plan according to your student’s present level and gradually increase.
Movement ActivitiesMovement Activities
Primary: “Teddies to Turtles”Animal and transportation themes are effective.Proprioception: awareness of body motion/partsOpposites (basic and music elements)
Intermediate: “Meter Circles”Isolate basics of a music element and gradually progress to more difficult concepts within the element.Count how many repetitions it takes for the whole class to get it right.
Primary: “Teddies to Turtles”Animal and transportation themes are effective.Proprioception: awareness of body motion/partsOpposites (basic and music elements)
Intermediate: “Meter Circles”Isolate basics of a music element and gradually progress to more difficult concepts within the element.Count how many repetitions it takes for the whole class to get it right.
More on Movement More on Movement Use at the right time in the lessonStart at their energy level and
gradually go in the direction you wantTo help control and calm downTo help motivateGood order: In seat…then….standing
in place….then….locomotorUse as a reinforcement for good
behavior!
Use at the right time in the lessonStart at their energy level and
gradually go in the direction you wantTo help control and calm downTo help motivateGood order: In seat…then….standing
in place….then….locomotorUse as a reinforcement for good
behavior!
ADAPTING MELODY ADAPTING MELODY
Before speech, there were basic, instinctive human calls which contained inflection. They did not involve cognitive processing.
Melodic contours which are step-wise create a sense of anticipation, waiting for a sense of resolution.
Melodic contours that are erratic with leaps create a sense of restlessness.
Melody connects vocal sounds into self-expression then into word meanings.
Before speech, there were basic, instinctive human calls which contained inflection. They did not involve cognitive processing.
Melodic contours which are step-wise create a sense of anticipation, waiting for a sense of resolution.
Melodic contours that are erratic with leaps create a sense of restlessness.
Melody connects vocal sounds into self-expression then into word meanings.
ADAPTING HARMONYADAPTING HARMONY
“Yankee Doodle”For some students, music with a thick harmony is over-stimulating.
Live Music: Gradually reduce or increase the texture.
Recorded Music: It is the color or mood of the harmony that has the most effect on a student. Take this into consideration when planning. Listen especially for sudden changes in harmony and stop music before that point.
“Yankee Doodle”For some students, music with a thick harmony is over-stimulating.
Live Music: Gradually reduce or increase the texture.
Recorded Music: It is the color or mood of the harmony that has the most effect on a student. Take this into consideration when planning. Listen especially for sudden changes in harmony and stop music before that point.
ADAPTING DYNAMICSADAPTING DYNAMICS
Since dynamics indicate a state of emotion, predict how your students will react to recorded music especially.
Students with poor muscle control will demonstrate extreme dynamics or erratic changes when playing instruments. Be ready!
Activities involving crescendo and decrescendo can help to address this lack of motor control.
Dynamic changes also help students to attend and stay engaged.
Since dynamics indicate a state of emotion, predict how your students will react to recorded music especially.
Students with poor muscle control will demonstrate extreme dynamics or erratic changes when playing instruments. Be ready!
Activities involving crescendo and decrescendo can help to address this lack of motor control.
Dynamic changes also help students to attend and stay engaged.
“The Melt-Down!”Behavior Strategies“The Melt-Down!”
Behavior Strategies
THE BIG IDEA…..
“Behavior is Communication
!”
THE BIG IDEA…..
“Behavior is Communication
!”
Choice Board ExampleChoice Board Example
First / Then CardFirst / Then Card
Transition StrategiesTransition Strategies
Use a visual schedule with an all done envelope
Pre-warn students of ending activities and any change in routine
Create a predictable routine (ex. Opening song/activity, closing song/activity)
Use a visual schedule with an all done envelope
Pre-warn students of ending activities and any change in routine
Create a predictable routine (ex. Opening song/activity, closing song/activity)
Use a Time TimerUse a Time Timer
Use a traditional timer
Social/Behavioral Strategies
Social/Behavioral Strategies
Power Cards
Rules
Social Stories
Power Cards
Rules
Social Stories
What is a Power Card?What is a Power Card?
“…the power card strategy is a visual aid that incorporates the child’s special interest in teaching appropriate social interactions including routines, behavior expectations, the meaning of language and the hidden curriculum”
Elisa Gagnon
“Power Cards”
“…the power card strategy is a visual aid that incorporates the child’s special interest in teaching appropriate social interactions including routines, behavior expectations, the meaning of language and the hidden curriculum”
Elisa Gagnon
“Power Cards”
Social StorySocial Story
ADDITIONAL IDEAS ONBEHAVIOR AND INSTRUCTION
ADDITIONAL IDEAS ONBEHAVIOR AND INSTRUCTION
Characteristic of ASD Instead of ........ Try ............
Difficulty initiating, participating in and sustaining peer relationships
Letting the students choose groupsPre-assign groups prior to stating the demands of group work (monitoring interactions)
Lack of sharing their own interests and reciprocating with sharing interests of others
Unstructured cooperative groups
Pre-teach lessons
Assign jobs or parts
Offer a speaker pass to define reciprocal classroom participation - some students with AS may need forewarning to develop their response prior to being called upon (scripted participation)
Sensory ideas that can be used within a natural
environment
Sensory ideas that can be used within a natural
environment
Wearing head phones or ear plugs
Quiet squeeze or fidget toys
Using construction toys that snap or push together
Pushing crates, chairs, carts or other heavy, large objects
Move and sit disc
Wearing head phones or ear plugs
Quiet squeeze or fidget toys
Using construction toys that snap or push together
Pushing crates, chairs, carts or other heavy, large objects
Move and sit disc
MORE ABOUTBEHAVIOR AND INSTRUCTION
MORE ABOUTBEHAVIOR AND INSTRUCTION
Develops routines and rituals
Fast-paced transitions from one music task to
another
Give time frames for tasks.
Gauge work with time and ability (how many questions does the student really need to answer to demonstrate knowledge of the content)
Use visual timers, songs, or countdowns to cue transitions.
Keep a student folder
ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT
• Consider the IEP!! You have the right to see it and know what is expected from each student!
• Talk to the ESE teachers! • Use the Accommodations Form for testing
situations.• Ask an aid or teacher for help when administering
written or computer tests.• Be open-minded about how students demonstrate
knowledge during activities in the music room.• Subtle movements of hands, feet, head, knees, even
blinking!• Humming certain parts of a phrase on pitch, usually
resolution pitches.
• Consider the IEP!! You have the right to see it and know what is expected from each student!
• Talk to the ESE teachers! • Use the Accommodations Form for testing
situations.• Ask an aid or teacher for help when administering
written or computer tests.• Be open-minded about how students demonstrate
knowledge during activities in the music room.• Subtle movements of hands, feet, head, knees, even
blinking!• Humming certain parts of a phrase on pitch, usually
resolution pitches.
Performers with AutismPerformers with Autism
Some Ideas for Assisting Performers with Autism
Some Ideas for Assisting Performers with Autism
Rehearsal Strategies(Band/Orchestra/Choir):
Rehearsal Strategies(Band/Orchestra/Choir):
Simplify your rehearsal language from the podium
Practice rehearsal routines (e.g., where to sit,
where to keep music, etc.) outside of class
Ask for assistance from ESE or Classroom teachers
Simplify your rehearsal language from the podium
Practice rehearsal routines (e.g., where to sit,
where to keep music, etc.) outside of class
Ask for assistance from ESE or Classroom teachers
More Rehearsal StrategiesMore Rehearsal Strategies
Provide music in other forms (e.g., recordings, smart music, etc.)
Simplify parts (e.g., provide a reduced instrument part written by the instructor)
Visit concert venues prior to performance and practice performance routines
Provide music in other forms (e.g., recordings, smart music, etc.)
Simplify parts (e.g., provide a reduced instrument part written by the instructor)
Visit concert venues prior to performance and practice performance routines
Peer AssistancePeer Assistance
Have students help with equipment issues,
music organization, and expectations
Have peer work with the student privately
Have students help with equipment issues,
music organization, and expectations
Have peer work with the student privately
BIG IDEAS TO MEMORIZE!!BIG IDEAS TO MEMORIZE!!
Flight or Fight!!!! BEHAVIOR IS COMMUNICATION!
Meet them musically at their energy level!!
DOCUMENT behaviors associated with certain situations or musical stimuli!!
Address therapeutic needs as a way to access music learning goals!
MUSIC is one of the most effective tools in changing behavior and encouraging learning!
Flight or Fight!!!! BEHAVIOR IS COMMUNICATION!
Meet them musically at their energy level!!
DOCUMENT behaviors associated with certain situations or musical stimuli!!
Address therapeutic needs as a way to access music learning goals!
MUSIC is one of the most effective tools in changing behavior and encouraging learning!
Resources to ConsiderResources to Consider
Hourigan, Ryan M. “Teaching Music to Performers with Special Needs.” Teaching Music 15, no. 6 (2008): 26–29.
Iseminger, Scott H. “Keys to Success with 16, no. 6
Hourigan, Ryan M. “Teaching Music to Performers with Special Needs.” Teaching Music 15, no. 6 (2008): 26–29.
Iseminger, Scott H. “Keys to Success with 16, no. 6
ResourcesResources
CARD-USF http://card-
usf.fmhi.usf.edu/
Autism Society of America http://www.autism-
society.org
Autism Society of Florida http://www.autismfl.com/
NIMH Information page on autism
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/autismmenu.cfm
CARD-USF http://card-
usf.fmhi.usf.edu/
Autism Society of America http://www.autism-
society.org
Autism Society of Florida http://www.autismfl.com/
NIMH Information page on autism
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/autismmenu.cfm
Autism Help.info http://
www.autismhelp.info/main.htm
CDC Autism Information Center
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/ddautism.htm
First Words Project FSU http://firstwords.fsu.edu/
Indiana Resource Center for Autism articles to download
• http://firstwords.fsu.edu/ - http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/
irca/ftrainpapers.html
Autism Help.info http://
www.autismhelp.info/main.htm
CDC Autism Information Center
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/ddautism.htm
First Words Project FSU http://firstwords.fsu.edu/
Indiana Resource Center for Autism articles to download
• http://firstwords.fsu.edu/ - http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/
irca/ftrainpapers.html
ResourcesResources
John Wobus Autism Resources site
http://www.vaporia.com/autism/
OASIS Online Asperger Syndrome Information & Support
http://www.udel.edu/bkirby/asperger/
Tony Attwood http://
www.tonyattwood.com.au/
Autism Internet Modules http://www.autisminternetmodules.org/
John Wobus Autism Resources site
http://www.vaporia.com/autism/
OASIS Online Asperger Syndrome Information & Support
http://www.udel.edu/bkirby/asperger/
Tony Attwood http://
www.tonyattwood.com.au/
Autism Internet Modules http://www.autisminternetmodules.org/
MAAP Services for the Autism and Asperger Syndrome
http://www.maapservices.org/
Autism Asperger Publishing Company
http://www.asperger.net/
Future Horizons http://www.futurehorizons-
autism.com/
Florida Inclusion Network www.floridainclusionnetwork.
com
Jessica Kingsley Publishers http://[email protected]
MAAP Services for the Autism and Asperger Syndrome
http://www.maapservices.org/
Autism Asperger Publishing Company
http://www.asperger.net/
Future Horizons http://www.futurehorizons-
autism.com/
Florida Inclusion Network www.floridainclusionnetwork.
com
Jessica Kingsley Publishers http://[email protected]
ResourcesResources
Berger, D. (2002). Music therapy, sensory integration and the autistic child. United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley Publishing.
Ryan Hourigan and Amy Hourigan. Teaching Music to Children with Autism: Understandings and Perspectives Music Educators Journal September 2009 96: 40-45, doi:10.1177/0027432109341370
Margie La Bella, MT-BC, MA. “Music Therapy and Education”, www.musictherapytunes.com
Berger, D. (2002). Music therapy, sensory integration and the autistic child. United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley Publishing.
Ryan Hourigan and Amy Hourigan. Teaching Music to Children with Autism: Understandings and Perspectives Music Educators Journal September 2009 96: 40-45, doi:10.1177/0027432109341370
Margie La Bella, MT-BC, MA. “Music Therapy and Education”, www.musictherapytunes.com
QuestionsQuestions