The Architecture of Oman

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Much of Oman's existing vernacular architecture standsun-

occupied. I do hope that this book helps to change this. These

buildings deserve rehabilitation and preservation. They are both very

beautiful and of great importance as a record of thecultural context

of the urban fabric, the architectural heritage and the social customs

of Oman. The material presented here persuades me that the Omani

people's pride in their traditional way of life is themain guarantee of

continuity in the urban context. I pray that the professionaIs under-

stand how important it is that this cultural identity informs future

housing policy.

Th e scale of vernacular architecture in Oman is always human.

This fact derives from the use by master craftsmen and builders of

parts of their body as units of measurement during the building

process. Local materials have served generations of Omani master

builders well, by translating their skilland imagination into an arch-

tecture integrated with the natural environment from which they

have gained so much of their inspiration. The materials- stone, mud-brick, wood, lime and a mud plaster, known as sdmj, particular to

Oman - have provided the craftsman with the means to produce an

architecture distinguished, for example, by the contrast of expressive

details and decoration against the massive solidity of the rendered

walls. Such detailingcan be seen in the wide variety ofdrdyish (win-

dow niches), masbr~biwabwooden window screens) and ornate

carved doors.

FOREWORD b



Introduction



architecture until the time that historical events began to

impinge, establishing cities, capitals and borders, and

fostering specific cultural identities and destinies. In

Muscat and Dhofar architecture amalgamated into urban

townhouse styles bearing a relationship to those of Aden

and Ha&mut respectively. In the late nineteenth centu-

ry, a modified vernacular type developed in Muscat in

parallel to the colonial style, typified by the British

Embassy which stood until 1995 near the Diwan of the

Royal Court. Though differences between the vernacular

Muscat house and, for example, the mansions of a1

Manzafah in lower Ibra' may be immediately obvious,

their shared architectural language is more specific than

that of the urban enclaves of any neighbouring area. The

types of vernacular architecture are sustained through-

out the Sultanate.

A spirit of minimalism and austerity, associated with

the nature of the 'Iba& sect,' dominates the vernacular

architectural styles and forms of the Sultanate. In turn,

this ethos disciplines and refines the extent and form

of urban growth, and is embodied in the understated

style of the modem buildings of Muscat. Legislation,

unprecedented in the Gulf region, restricts the scale of

buildings, both in the number of storeys and in the limi-

tation of high-rises to commercial areas. Elsewhere in

2

achieving development which would be equitable

throughout the country. The plan provided for the

expanding population to be accommodated in modern

towns, and encompassed the creation of new urban cen-

tres and roads, the institution of modem health care,

education and social reforms, and encouraged enterprise

and investment in the Sultanate's new administrative and

economic structure.'

Architecturally, until 1970 Muscat and other towns

in the Sultanate consisted of clusters related in form and

organisation to the vernacular urban settlements of

Arabia and North Africa. Walls surrounded cities and

some towns; the architectural fabric consisted of local

materials; the height of buildings was resmcted to three

storeys (four in the case of distinguished town palaces

and mansions); and socio-economic life was centred

around aibal communities engaged in a combination of

fishing, trade, agriculture and grazing, according to the

location and historic links of each settlement.

Sadly, I was unable to fulfil my immense desire to

experience the towns of the various regions in the

Sultanate while they were still mhabited. The need to

interact with the architecture and to observe the socio-

economic environment specific to each walled town

or quarter - how each piece of the urban fabric was

T HE A RCHI T E CT URE OF O M A N



heritage of Oman proved unsatisfactory.

This bookdoes

not attempt to be a definitive recordof Omani architecture. Rather, it is the result of research

into and documentation of the prominent architecture of

selected towns and quarters in the Sultanate visited by

the author over a relatively brief period, 1993-97. The

book is intended to establish a reference point and pro-

vide a formal framework that may assist, and hopefully

inspire, architects, urban policy-makers, academics and

artists. Further, more specific research into this rich but

relatively neglected field is required to redefine and

recognise the cultural heritage that accompanies the

architectural tradition. Unfortunately many of the archi-

tectural surveys originally planned for this book proved

impossible to conduct

I have chosen to arrange the book according to

the modem regional administrative divisions of the

Sultanate, as they are well suited to the task of defining

architectural enclaves and styles. These are Muscat (the

capital), al Biilnah (the coast), Musandam (a northern

peninsula separated from the rest of the Sultanate by a

part of the United Arab Emirates), al Dakhiliyyah ('the

interior'), al Zahiiah (also a region of the interior), al

Sharqiyyah (the eastern region) and Dhofar in the south.

INTRODUCTION

architectural design with the vernacular architecture

of the prominent cities in the Sultanate.At

the sugges-tion of Hasan Fathy, a team from the Architectural

Association School of Architecture -its members were

Omar el Farouk, Allan Cain, Farokh Afshar and John

Norton - carried out field research in 1973. Th e study

took place barely three years after Sultan Qaboos had

come to power, at a time when very little change had

occurred in the living patterns of most Omanis. Thevast

majority of Oman's towns and villages, and their build-

ing methods, had remained unaltered for centuries. The

material which they gathered provides an invaluable

reference point, as it contains information on much

architecture that has subsequently disappeared. An

abridged version of their unpublished monograph

appears in Chapter 1of this book.

Because of their detailed knowledge of the impor-

tant forts and palaces which they restored, I also invited

Dr Enrico d'Errico and Olivier Sednaoui to contribute

to the book.

3

Salma Samar Damluji

LondmL,October 1997



C H A P T E R I I

Traditional Architecture and

Settlement Patterns



TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS 7

Regional Styles and Building Traditions

)rbove:Close-upof thewalls of nl Fiqayn E a t nearMnnah



the H a b tyle of neighbowingYemen and firrally the

buildings of EastAfrica, is also discernibleinmany of the

regional variations. Whereas some of these intluences

are expressed with direct references (most obviously, the

Pormguese fortifications at Muscat and the &hami

influencein Dhofar), others are more vague.An exami-

nation of the architecture oftowns uch as Na m, Misfst

a1 'Abriyyin and alMubyrib demonstrates the impor-

tance of establishing references for each style, though

the styles themselves are ultimately specific to Oman.

Other towns, such as alMinzafah, illustrate an estab-

lished and formal domestic architectural style within a

developed urban town centre, with possible influences

that may have been brought in by wealthy merchants

from Zanzibaror East Africa. To define fullythe over-

lapping influences requires further research into the

culturalinflux that occurred during the eighteenth and

nineteenth centuries (including research into the social

fabric that was attached to the architecture), which is

beyond the scope and speciality of this book.

Above

Theshrine of Muhammlld bm 'A7i n Mirbaf cemetery, which has n typtcd

Hndrami drsrgn. ir a c l o r s ~xmple of Ulemf/uences behuemDhofor ond

southern Yemm. Cross-refeencer are rare on m e r orch,femnol iweis,

~spedaliynmqms and reIzpw buildings

Below leftand right

Detnih from the town o fM i r a t a7 ' A w n n oiH~wd'proM'nce



10 T HE A RCHI TE CT URE O F OMAN

F a r left

Detnil of a c m d wiwdw meen r rmT a h o w n M&8F

Evenwhen obviousinfluencesdo occur, the detail-

ing of the buildings- uchas the carvedwindowscreens,

the doors, the carvedmud, limeplaster andstuccowork,

and the painted ceilings and calligraphicinscriptions -expresses important stylistic variations owing to the

differing interpretations of local master builders and

craftsmen. Local types became establishedin the archi-

tecture of the different regions, which employed local

building materials, technology, design and town plan-

ning forms thatvary remarkablybetween the coast and

the interior, andbetweenthe easternandsouthernparts

of the country.Yet despitethe regionaldifferences,the

Left

Detail ofan enolhoncedwr to orre of TEqah'r old hours

Bdor ilnd botmm

Thermvatu l mosque of&arat rrl i'irni', Adm



opp*

&hi1 of the intnnnl fW& of he he - s t o r e y hovres in tke

town of @IMudaybi

T% deserted t m f H y n d HmyBhrm inA&. Sinsle- and dwble-stow

residentid buildinn were conrtrudcd in the c o n e - s W bm d .~~ la r r e seilztul tsaunditionczi - t p pmm Gtain throughout the

imegralsburturc of the town

R i l M

Remnants of a stone wall shmving the raw- niche,Mirbdt

the absenceof documentation,where the populationhas

relocated to themodem urban environmentof thenewly

T R A D I T I O N A L ARCHITECTURE A N D SET T L EMEN T PAT T ERN S 13

but of the urban centresof the Sultanatein general, and

forms the basis of the followingdescriptionof buildingtechniques.

According to ShaykhM h n d , he masterbuilder

was traditionally responsible for designing the houses

of ordinary people. The houses belonging to the 6lite

were designed to a large extent by the owners them-

selves.Examplesofhouses builtforshaykbss t i l l s d v e n 'many towns.

Once the plan of the buildingwas determined and

marked out on site, the foundation trencheswere dug.

These varied in depth from 60 centimetresto 1metre.

For the foundationsthemselves, courses of stoneset in

sftt-zzjimemortarAwere used if the owners could afford

it;ifnot, the stonecourseswould bearrangedin anashlar

setting (closely packed stonewith no mortar) known in

Muscat asa17afi.Foundationswerebetween20 centirne-

tres and 1metre deep, dependingon theowner's means.



LADlTlONAL ARCHITECTURE A N D SETTLEMENT PATTERNS 27

TheBuraymiOasis

Buraymi Oasis, which gives its name to the surrounding

area, is on the frontier with Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia

and is the largest of several oases.It is not far from the

western end of a1 Jabal a1Akhdar. Located in the hot con-

ditions of the desert, the oasis environment modifies this

climate;it is cooler than its surroundings due to the pres-

ence of trees and irrigation, but humidity is higher. In

1973,each oasis settlement obtained its water from afalaj

system, supplied by a nearby mountain.Al Buraym was

undeveloped, although its neighbouring settlement of al

'Ayn in the United Arab Emirates had developed into a

substantial and wealthy town with oil revenues. Poor road

linkswith the rest of Oman, however, conmbuted to the

discrepancies between al Burayrm and a1'Ayn.

Once again, water was the main factor that influ-

enced the original settlement pattern of al Buraymi, and

houses were generally built on land not suitable for culti-vation and above the level atwhichfa@ carried water into

the settlement. Themain owns and villages wereal l situ-

ated around the date gardens, including themq and the

forts. Th e streets were quite wide, providing little shade,

and even secondary streets were not narrow enough to

provide protection from the sun. Buildings were either

one- or two-storey structures. Bnraymirtiq wasa com-

TheMuscat,M UM ndRuwlCapitalRegion

This region covers the capital area from As Sib, at the

southernend oftheBatinah coast, to the mountainswhich

ru n into the sea at the southeast, cuttingoff the area from

the coast further west. There are four natural bays, two

accommodatingMuscat, the capital of Oman, and two

Mu & , whichin 1973was the new and expandingport.

The region is close to the B a k a h coast and hence

has a similar general climate, though this ismodified by

the surrounding bare rocky mountains. This is best

exemplified in Muscat, where the town's protected har-

bour openson to the sea,while the rest of the settlement

is surrounded on three sides by steep rock faces. The

light-coloured stone mountains around Muscat act as

reflectors for solar radiation, focusing heat on to the

town even after nightfall because of the heat storage

capacityof the rocks.Muscatissaid to have temperatures

5°C higher than those of the surroundingcountryandtherefore dependson localdailyland and sea breezes.

In 1973,Muscat and Muuab were the only two

major established townsin the north of Oman, the latter

with more room for expansion than Muscat, which was,

however,the traditional seatof governmentIn both, the

ideal settlement climaticallywas one of narrow shaded

streets that also allowed for air movement between the



advantage. However where the car had begun to pene- Tpicalwindowsin theindigenoushouses ofMuscat

trate, the result was congestion.The houses in M u dand Mu& had multi-level openings;

an

example iswere closelygrouped, both physicallyand socially, into shown here from Najwm House on the beachfront of

communalclusters.The most identifiablegroupingwas Mu@&.Thishousehad thicklimestone wallswhich, due

that of the Lawstip Quarter, theresidential clusterbuilt

28

by the earlyIndianmerchant community in the post-

Portuguese era. There are two access gates to this area,

leading to narrow alleys. The houses are two or three

storeyshigh and form a protectivewall around the area,

with no openings at street level. At the time of thestudy,many of these buildings were in poor condition.

In both Muscat and Muwah, the high population

and the scarcity of available land for building had

resulted in a relatively dense settlement pattern, albeit

exhibiting the differences mentioned above.Thismeant

that natural ventilation through the settlement was

THE ARCHITECTURE O F OMAN

restricted,and other means had been found to encourage

airmovement and cooling. The courtyard housewasone

example, trapping cooler night-time air in the base of the

courtyard. Another was window openings designed to

facilitate air movement and to help keep interiors cool.

A b v ePrivmC housewitn Onretewhdms , Mac@

Bettarn left

sem'muhnwinsclim#tic r e s p m , typid t m ow , Mwmt

Bettam rylt

Theharv of@%? 'AU NapBnl; g m d mdWtpwrplanr



T R A D I T I O N A L A R C H I TE C T U R E A N D S E T T LE M E N T P A TT E R N S 29

the sea, to blow into the dwelling,but it was necessaryto

exclude solar radiation which would otherwise raise

indoor temperatures. Two shadingdevices were used,

one of which was a wooden awning-type consauction

and the other a gypsum-plaster lattice window. The

latticewindows of Muscat and Mutrah were generally

elaborate, finely-detailedgypsumpanelsset into thewall.

Their purposewas to allow daylight to enter and air to

circulate, and to afford aview while excluding glare and

solar radiation, aswell as maintainingvisual privacy. Inthe housesof the Muscatmu@& area, latticeopenings

were usually found in the upper portionsof the window,

or ashigh window and ventilationopenings. Because of

the air's high moisture content, the sky reflects a great

deal of light and skies are much brighter than in dryer

climates. The lattice-work screens(similarin functionto

the 'arish screens on the Ba!inah coast) protect the eye

fromits harsh glare. Openingshigh up in roomsarealso

necessary to allow for the escape of warm air which col-

lens in the upper reaches ofa room due to convection.

Another elaboratewindow design was found in the

windows of Bayt al Zawawi (also known as Mughabb) in

Muscat, which had incorporatedan evaporative cooling

system. The coolingunit used a porous, unglazed water



TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE A N D SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

Architecture in the Landscape

James Parry

Musondmn is one of he few places inOman where raznfall lewlr me adequnhto czllmv searanal

cultivation.T m m s me conslmcted to secure maximum bolqit from the mndff



38 THE A R C H I TE C T U R E O F O M A N

I

LocationofWater

Thegeography of northern Oman is characterized by

the C O ~ M U O U ~ hain of mountains that runs south from

the Straits of Hormuz parallel to the coast, until finally

dwindling just inland from $iir, on the edge of Ja'lan.

Although there are no major breaks in t h i s chain, it is

scored by a series of geological weaknesses which act as

drainage linesandalsoprovideavaluableopportunityfor,?*.

communicationroutes.These two aspects areabsolutely- .

central to the development of settlementandagriculturein Oman and, until the 1970s, it was in this region,

,-

- immediatelyeither side of the mountain range, that the

country's greatestpopulation densitywasm befound.

The drainage lines take the form of gravel-based

... . wadis, which fan out intowider alluvialbasins once they

- leave the resmctivetopography of themountainsproper.-

.

.

.' On the western side of the mountains the wadis flow

, ? - inland to the desert, whereas on the eastern side they

. flow towards the sea, creating Oman's most productiveR

Y ; . agricultural region, al B s ~ a h . owever, nowhere do.= ,.- " these wadis run constantly at surfacelevel and most are

. e-. . , dryfor at leastpart ofthe year. Alternative,more reliable,. ,--

. sources of water are therefore required and must be. ',,, - -. -~ - - , . found bytappingunderground aquifers.

Oman's wells are of little importance architecturally,

their structures being of quite rudimentary canstruction.

Of much greater interest is the country's most renowned

means of water management: the famous system ofwater

channels, referred to collectivelyasa$@?.

TheABjIn such an arid country, the location, catchment, storage

and distribution of water is of the utmost importance,requiring ingenuity and skilful management. Over the

centuries, large-scale hydraulic systems have been dev-

eloped in much of interior Oman in order to exploit

precious water resources." These systems rely on conduits,

which are constructed both below and above ground

level. In Oman, the word apr f l is used as a genericterm for

all water conduits, whatever their provenance and design.

Costa identifies three different types of&:hose chan-

n e b g surface flow and run-off, those tapping springs,

and those draining water-soaked suhsoil."The last two

are essentially subterranean and, strictly-speaking,

termed qamzt.An open channel is usually calledghayl."

Some of Oman's@-j run or more than 30 kilome-

tres, but most are between 3 and 10 kilometres long.An



Opposite

F d a j ntManal, showing (on right) themdGd, the sporl heap reuitinrfrom

excavmons to bring theground lwcl down to that of the f W

Bdow ee

Fdaj el 'AWt - the demon's falay-near Mq i d a1 KafF, o typical streetside falnl

TR A D I T I O N A L A R C HI TEC TUR E A N D SETTLEMEN T PA TTER N S 41

The dismbution of the water transported by a ah j

must be designed sequentially to cater for the range of

different uses and to avoid pollution from one use to

another.Alinearutilization patxem is therefore employed;

&e prerequisite is that drinkingwater is taken from the

fahj as soon as it is collected from below ground, so that

it is as cleanas possible.

Oman's are its lifeblood. The filaj channels

bring the possibilities of life itself to an otherwise

desolate and forbidding landscape. They dictate when,where and how the human inhabitants can make prod-

uctive use of difficult terrain; they determine the extent

and character of settlement patterns; and they involve

the design and construction of particular featnres requir-

ing formidable engineering and architectural skills.

Although primarily functional, many of these features

are of architectma1value, upon which forethought and a

degree of aesthetic concern have been lavished.

A& are of great symbolic value and oken enjoy

an almostvenerated statuswithin the local community.



42 THE ARCHITECTURE O F O M A N

Fah z j waterdislribufion

ILis is particularly so in the case of the u r n , or mother

channel, a source initially located by a water diviner andfrom which a network of smaller distributaries will

usually stem. Celebrated a j@ such as Falaj D ~r is t

Nazwa are part of local folklore and have assumed

iconographic significancefar beyond their dady function

as providers of water.'* Collectively,Oman's a j@ com-

prise the single most imporrant u d p g actor in the

large-scale deve10pment of both land and water resources

was the hallmark of their imperial conquests. Anextensive construction programme, based on the precepts

and design of the irrigation system in their homeland,

would have been the obvious approach in a country of

similar terrain and climate. Furthermore, we knowfrom

contemporary chronicles that the Persians deliberately

sabotaged many aj7q in the face of the advancingarmies



extended by the Achaemenids, but its roots are almost

certainly earlier."

Following the expulsion of the Persians and the

advent of Islam, Oman's aflej suffered mixed fortunes.

There is no evidence to suggest that any extension of the

network took place, nor indeed that anydung other than

basic maintenance was carried out, until the period of the

Ya'xribah imamate (1035-1157/1625-1744). On the

contrary,it seems that the extent and quality of the coun-

my's ajhii went into a steep decline, with frequent

disruption and even total destruction during periods of

civil strife. By the time of the Ya'aribah imams, theneed

for a comprehensive rehabilitation of the country's irri-

gation resource and agricultural base was paramount

Culturally, the Ya'aribah dynasty is an interesting

period, arguably the 6rstGoldenAge of the Omani state

and a time when the arts and agriculture alike flourished.

There were developments of great architectural sign-

ificance, such as the comprehensive redesigning and

expansion of towns such as Nazwa, al&m~%'nd Birkat

al Mawz, and the construction of many of Oman's cele-

brated form. The majority of Oman's most significant

historic buildings date from this period. The basis for

such cultural and material prosperity was the relative

TRADI TION AL ARCHITECTURE AN D SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

SettlementPatterns

Considerable studyhas been conducted into the origin

and development of traditional settlements in Oman.'*

These can be summarized as being of two basic types;

coastal and interior.As far as the latter is concerned, the

mostfrequentpattern is for anoasissetdementto develop

at a point where water and cultivable land coincide.

Fertile soil is almost as rare, if not rarer, in Oman than

fresh water and a location blessedwith the presence of

both isanenviablespotindeed. Itwas thereforenecessary

to defend such sites from covetous neighbours and so

settlementswere generally located on the nearest high

ground (usually a rocky outcrop), with the cultivated

fields spread out aroundandbelow. The elevatedposition

of the houses allowed psychologicaland physical domi-

nation of the site, aswell assomedegreeofprotection in

the eventof flash floods. The vastmajority of the interi-

or settlementsofOmanmirror thispattern.

43

Derelict hama rnT d f i hmvingbd&q mom h i l f o w he f&l



At locations where water and dt ivable soil did notcoincide, then it was often possible to bring the water to

the fields by means of afilaj. Even when the two core

commodities were naturally present in the same place,

there was often the need to fashion and develop them m

suit the needs of the local population. The aF.3 system

played a key role in thisprocess also.

In

44

avoided problemsin transportingwater m the home and

allowed a degree of domestic comfort. For example, theseventeenth-centuryrehabilitation ofthe a&3 and town

of a1 Ha- involved the consuuction of some of the

granderhouseswith their frontage actuallyover thefihzj,

to allowfor rooms in whicb bathing couldbe carriedout

pri~ately.'~imilar houses (now ruinous) can be seen at

Tantxf.Equally, the forts ofJabrin and Bayt a1Rudaydah

in Birkat al Mawz were each sewed by afalaj running

straight through the centre of the building. That at

Jabrin isnow dry, but thef&j f Bitkat alMawz remains

in good condition.

The centralityof water in Oman, and the key role

played by the a f i 3 in its procurement and distribution,

has resulted in the latter often serving as a broker and

vehicle forpeace in times ofdispute. Intemibal rivalries

and feudinghad to be periodicallysetasidedueto mutu-al dependence on a shared watersupply.Nowhere isthis

more evident than in Izki, a classic oasis settlement

served by oneof the greatesta f i 3 ofall, alMalki.

Comprised of two historically distinct and tradi-

tionally antagonisticsettlements- lN b nd alYarnan

- Izkidepended on a unified irrigationsystem. Despite

THE ARCH ITECTURE OF O M A N



M U S C AT : T R A D I T I O N A L C I T Y A N D G R E AT ER C A P I T A L 57

- safraatviewamasMuscat bay S-8 QIA h a l m

ospowc & vinv of ffie dd dn/ of Mucatwith IalciiiFort in he wrgmund

Util 1970, Muxat and the rest of Oman were vir-

tually separate entities; Muscat (Masqat) and

M u ~ a b ,wo miles to the west, were geographically and

country, he embarked on an extensive programme of

infrastmctural renewalandurbandevelopmentofwhich

Muscat, the capital, was naturally a focus.During the



50 THE ARCHITECTURE OF OMAN

m



urban and culturalvalues ofIslamiccities, whicharenot

segregatedinto public andprivate districts, andwas gov-

erned by hisdesire to integratethe oldtown's fabricinto

MUS CAT : T RA DIT ION AL ClT V AN D GRE AT ER CAP IT AL

anymodemisingscheme.A two-volume research docu-

ment entitled 'Muscat City Planning' included astudyof

Muscat's architectural character, examining in depth its

architectural details, historic monuments and public

buildings includingmosques,thestip, citywalls and gates:

The report byJohn R. HarrisArchitectsremained

open to a number of different development options.

They considered the possibility ofMuscatcontinuingas

the seat of government, and perhaps 'coupled with its

role as capital pecoming] a cultural centre . . . [with]

commercialdevelopment. . everelyrestricted'. In tbis

scenario, the oldcity ofMuscatwouldbe devoted large-

lyto publicbuilLZlngsandresidences forthe elite. On the

otherhand, a new capitalmightbe established elsewhere,

in which case they proposed that old Muscat and theneighbonring area of Si&b, on the bay, be developed as

a touristcentre, retaining as manyofthe attractive older

buildings as is possible' andnecessitating 'considerable

and sympatheticrenovation' - though he also suggested

that 'the larger ones could be incorporated into hotels'.'

Social and culturalissues formed the basis of both

I 9



60 TH E A R C HITECTU R E O F O M A N

Hams went one step further, proposing that

Mugah be extended south andwest into thevalley hom

Ruwi to Darsayt Thisproposed developmentsite,whichI e called 'GreaterM u d , would become the commer-

cial centre of the entire area,with anew town centre of

publicand community buildings locatedat Bayta1Falaj,

an old fortified palace at the northern end of the Ruwi

plain. Harris's proposalsfornew buildingwereprimarily

designed according to the demands of modem urban

development.Thoughhe acknowledgedthe importanceof traditional spatial organisation in his proposals for

three schemesof dwellingunits- courtyard core hous-

ing, low-cost housingandhousing overshops- he plans

did not fullyconsiderthe nuancesembedded in the over-

all structure of the old city fabric. Th e expression was

linear in form and the repetition of the units somewhat

predictable.Nonetheless, within theparametersofmod-

ern construction and design Harris succeeded in

interpretingthe socialvaluesandtraditionalelements of

Arab architecture in a new yet sympatheticform.

Both proposals envisagedthe creation ofanetwork

ofroadsto senrice the new areasandseparate them from

the old walled towns ofMuscat and M u ~ a h . owever,

while Hams did not object to the ribbon development



guidelinesfor property layouts so as to incorporatethe

traditionalcomtyard element intoprivate housing andto

allow fm adequate space between buildings. Neither

Harris's nor Makiya's proposals were carried out to the

letter, but they undoubtedly influenced the direction

taken bythe Diwan of the Royal C o w and themunici-

palities' planningdepartments.

In addition, both practiceswereresponsiblefor the

constmctian or renovation of a number of important

buildings, landmarksin the developmentofMuscat and

its environs.JohnHarrishad experimentedwithmodem

materials before any planning resmctions existed in

Oman. Among the first buildings he designed was the

OttomanBank(later known as Grindlay'sBank), the 6rst

reinforced concrete snucnue in Oman, completed in

1968.Thefirmhad to arrangeforOinan's fi tst shipment

of sulphate-resisting cement and reinforcing steel, an

occasion recorded byk E.Jones, Harris's residentpart-ner in Oman for twelveyears: T h e arrivalof the shipin

M u d arbour caused mch a s t i ~hat senior govern-

MUSCAT TRADIT IONAL CITY A ND GREATER CAPITAL 61

ment officials actually attendedon the quayside."The

bank buildingwaswell received because it acknowledged

traditional Omani design, incorporatingsuch architec-

tural features as the intricatewooden screenedbalcony

(derivedfromthe traditionalArabmmbsab@yab)and the

pointed arch,yetithad a uniquelymodemidentitysym-

bolic of Oman's new functionas a centre of commerce.

In theJohn Harris brochure it is cited as 'an example of

a well-mannered building which respects its distin-

guished neighbours'. Built just outside the main gate

which leadsinto the centreofoldMuscat, the bank isan

interesting example of a carefully designed modern

building in an area of traditional buildings of greater

architecturalimpomce.

Hatrisdescribesthe principal design consideration

of the OttomanBank as climatic: heat, light andthermal

movementwere signijicantfacto~~.n 'upside-down' 0s

roof, combinedwith asun shadeaboveafreelyventilatedair space,provided i d a t i o n firomthe outsideheat. As

seasonal rainfall is frequent but heavy, floodwater



gargoyleswere incorporatedandused to punctuate the for theMinistryofSocialAffairs and Labour, completed

fagade.Th e external rendering issimple, since stability in 1991 on a prominent site atA1Khuwayr adjacent to

was of prime importance in view of the high levels of the diplomaticquarter and the avenueofminisma, washumidityandsalinityin theMuscat air. the winning design in an architectural competition. Its

Among Hams's other buildings are the &st girls' s t r u c d einforcedconcreteframe,which projects two

schoolin Muscat, alNahda hospital, low-cost bachelor metres &omthe faceofthe building, is described as 'pro-

flats, the Omani Tribal School, a clinic at Hayma, the viding additional solar shielding to the main glazed

English School, twostorey housing at alQunn and a areas': Th epointed archesthat takeup the height of the

number ofcommercialbuildings. In 1972 heundertook fagade reflect the more elaboratestylethat the practice- .--the renovation of one of the vernacular buildings in adopted in its lateryears, characteristic ofa new wave of

M u d , a house locallyknown as Bayt Barandi or Bayt modemisingIslamicarchitecturalforms.

Nasib. Other publicbuildingsconstructed bytheHarris MohamedMakiya's important projects in Muscat

practice include the main post office and government includethe renovation ofBayt a1Jrayzah (1976),Bayt al

administrativeoffices, a terminalatAl SibInternational Khajiyyah(1977)and BabWaljat(1974),oneofh e ty

Airport and the national headquarters for the gates ofoldMuscat. He also designed the new Minishy

DevelopmentCouncilof Oman. Hams's newbuilding of Finance, Bayt a1 M&+, completed in 1977."

64 THE ARCHITECTURE O F OMAN



Abore

Md i y o As~~i(~te'pr .$ps~Ior stredFcape below the a t em elmm.On of

MUSCAT TRAD ITION AL CITY AN D GREATER CAPITAL 65

Standing just outside Bsb Waljat, Ba y a1Mtlliyyah is

constructed out of stone, both in keeping with the

architecture of the old city and appropriate forthis arge-

scale, impressive building. Makiya felt that i t was better



66

their ownrestorations.' His idea is to teach localcrafts-

men 'to build in the original vernacular style, and to

supply them with facilitiesand reasonablypricedmate-

rialsso that they can reconstructtheir ownvillages':

Makiya gave three conferencesand set up an exhi-

bition in Muscat to explainhis approach. 'I suggested

that the municipality should provide workshops that

would producewindows, doors, toilet facilities,etc., to

blueprint designs at a non-profit price.Local craftsmen

couldthen incorporatethesepre-cast units and this stan-dard of design in newbuilding.' Makrya'sphilosophyis

that 'building comesout of the people and the environ-

ment, rather than out of the often unsympathetic,

academicapproachthat architectstend to employ.Thatis

why I spent so much time researching the traditional

architectureof the area andbuildingupmyownknowl-

edgeof local techniques,materialsanddesigns.'

Thoughhe did recommendplanningregulationsto

resmctbuildingheight andensure the useofvernacular

styles,Makiya consideredhismethodologyof conserva-

tion quiteunusual in that he sought to disseminatehis

ideas rather than provide a 'set text' of instructions or

regulations. Hard and fastruleswould, he felt, onlybe

restrictiveand stiflethe diversityofOmanicities,where

THE ARCHITECTURE OF OMAN



Modem Development

The 1980s saw an increase in construction so rapid that

the preservation of Oman's architectural heritage was

threatened. Consequently, the Ministry of Land Affairs

(subsequently he Minisay of Housing) issued instruc-

tions requiring new building to comply with prescribed

'Islamic' forms. Ink E. Jones's opinion the regulations

were too extreme, consisting of 'fairly arbitrary require-

ments for castellations on building parapets, gotbic and

curved arches over windows and a general referral to a

type of building which never red y ead~ted'.~

The Development Council and Daimler-Benz ser-

vice buildings, which were built according to the

stringent new regulations, show little synergy between

the old style and the new materials; the use of castella-

tion, in particular, is redundant at best.Also in the spirit

of the new regulations, a proposal was made for the

'beautification' of the National Bank of Oman, whichhad been built by a German h u s i n g an imported pre-

fabricated profiled cladding system. This was never

carried out due to the expense it would involve.k E.

Jones reports that 'a direct consequence of thiswas a res-

olution that no further "modem" buildings would

receive Municipahty approval, and tbis effectively meant

specified the form and style of boundary walls and gates,

main enay doors(givingoptions for arched or flat lin-

tels), railings and motifs in solid wood and perforated

w d panels, roof parapets using screens and perforated

panels in concrete rendering and wood, screens and

enclosures to create privacy and conceal modem instal-

lations such as air-conditioningunits, and balconies with

instructions for screening where they faced neighbours

or were used for drying clothes.A sheet on the appropri-

ate method of constructing arches included ten types of

pointed, segmental and one semicircular arch. A section

on window detailing (which employs aluminium-framed

glass windows) suggests ornamental relief panels emu-

lating stucco-workin decorative woodenmasbrabiyyabor

'arabesque' patterns, and louvres; only an Indian point-

ed arch and a semicircular arch are shown. Finally,

elevations of four different villas are used to illustrateexterior w d reatments, indicating the types of mason-

ry to be used: concrete block-work or Omani calcium

silicate bricks, with only 'very limited use' of stone, gran-

ite and marble. The type of paint is specified, and more

importantly the colours to be used for exterior walls:

white, light buff and silvergrey.

M U SC A T T R A D I T I O N A L C I T Y A N D G RE A TE R C A P I TA L 67

The Architecture of Oman

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