The Archaeologist 59

Winter 2006Number 59

This issue:

ENVIRONMENTALARCHAEOLOGY

Submergedforests from early prehistoryp10

Views of aMidlandsenvironmentalofficerp20

Peatlands in perilp25

The flora ofRoman roads,towns andgardensp32

The ARCHAEOLOGIST

Institute of Field ArchaeologistsSHES, University of Reading, Whiteknights

PO Box 227, Reading RG6 6ABtel 0118 378 6446fax 0118 378 6448

email [email protected] www.archaeologists.net

1

Contents

Editorial

From the Finds Tray

Finishing someone else’s story Michael Heaton, Peter Hinton and Frank Meddens

IFA and Continuous Professional Development Kate Geary

Presentation and interviews Lynne Bevan

Submerged forests from early prehistory Martin Bell

Experimental earthworks Martin Bell

New developments in the field of human remains Simon Mays

Environmental sampling and the evolution of the Nene Valley Ian Meadows

Under the microscope: New advances in soil and sediment micromorphology Charlotte Pearson

Environmental Archaeology in the Commercial Sector – ethos and practice Michael J Allen,

Catherine Chisham & Chris Stevens

Views of a Midlands environmental officer Angela Monkton

Environmental archaeology at Birmingham Royston Clark and Andrew Howard

Marine historic environment explored: England’s Historic Seascapes project Brian Hession,

Mags Christie and Deanna Groom

Peatlands in peril Richard Brunning

Monarchs and meals: food provisioning and consumption at Windsor Castle Polydora Baker

Osteological work at the Museum of London Archaeology Service Natasha Powers

A soldier’s life? Multiple cranial trauma from medieval London Don Walker

Environmental archaeology and the Greater London Sites and Monuments Record Jane Sidell,

Yvonne Edwards and Barry Taylor

The flora of Roman roads, towns and gardens Gill Campbell and Allan Hall

Costing the earth Michael Heaton

Parliamentary select committees Christopher Catling

Archaeological science guidelines from English Heritage Andrew David

International Council of Archaeozoology books Umberto Albarella

New books reviewed

New members

Members news

Letters

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O N T E N T SC

MA in Practical ArchaeologyProvides the background and practical experience needed to work as a professional archaeologist, covering all aspects of

field and post-excavation work.

MA in Landscape Archaeology and GeomaticsA unique programme offering tuition in British landscape history, GIS, advanced 3D visualisation, field survey and

remote sensing.

MSc in Environmental Archaeology andPalaeoenvironments

This new MSc includes courses in palaeoenvironments, palaeoentomology, archaeobotany, palynology and human and

animal bone.

All candidates will prepare a dissertation as part of the MA/MSc degrees.

For further information please contact Jo Adams:0121 414 5513

[email protected]

birminghamarchaeology

IFA

REGISTERED

ORGANISATIO

N

Birmingham ArchaeologyUniversity of Birmingham,

Edgbaston,Birmingham,

B15 2TT

Cirencester 2006:Aerial Archaeology Training Course

1–9 July 2006English Heritage’s Aerial Survey and Investigation team is organising an intensive nine-day course for an international group of participants,based in Cirencester, Gloucestershire. Students will learn how to interpret archaeological and non-archaeological features on aerial photographs and carry out small landscape analysis projects. They will also develop their interpretation skills in the air, flying from Kemble Airfield; they will learn how to organise and plan aerial reconnaissance flights and how to take

aerial photographs for the benefit of the historic environment.

This will be the first Culture 2000 funded aerial archaeology training school in Britain, as part of the European Landscapes: Past, Present, Future project.Previous aerial survey training schools, since 1995, have all been based on mainland Europe.The school, and the overall project, aim to deliver a range of activities including the promotion of landscape studies using airborne

remote sensing techniques.

All participants will be resident at the Royal Agricultural College near Cirencester and the accommodation and meal cost will be £650 (950 euros).Travel costs to and from the course are the participant’s responsibility.The course will be taught in English and be open to participants from all

European Union countries.

For more information and details of how to apply please contact [email protected].

(Culture 2000 Project 2004-1495/001-001 CLT CA22)

page 22

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page 24

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W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

2 3T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t

Environmental archaeology has long been known to add hugely to archaeologists’ understanding ofthe past, and the dreaded buckets of ‘soil samples’have been routinely collected for nearly fifty years.But technical problems abounded and so, perhapsmore seriously, did communication problemsbetween archaeologists putting together sitenarratives and their colleagues doing a verydifferent sort of scientific work in a distantlaboratory. Things are certainly improving now,with much better proximity of functions andaspiration, and refined techniques coming onstream all the time.

This issue of TA could only expect to give asnapshot of work in progress, but it does pick up onsome exciting pieces of work. These includediscovery of Mesolithic forests, footprints andshelters around the Severn estuary; EnglishHeritage work on the flora of Roman Britain and onwhat the medieval royals liked to eat; theexpanding work programme of BirminghamArchaeology (from new Neolithic trackways inYorkshire to the horrors of mass graves inSrebrenica); and a medieval Londoner’s survival ofa series of wounds, any one of which should havekilled him. We learn too about the problemsbesetting young archaeologists who would love tokeep up a career in archaeobotany or otherenvironmental work but cannot find consistentemployment (a common tale for specialists), and of

optimism that at last Greater London’senvironmental data might be pulled together in away that will help broader archaeologicalunderstanding.

IFA, like the rest of the archaeological community,has been working to get the best results from theHeritage Protection Review. It has also providedinput to the DCMS Select Committee inquiry intoProtecting, preserving and making accessible ournation’s heritage. Once again we have stressed theimportance of revising planning guidance to makeissues such as full publication of excavations,proper treatment and archiving of finds, andfunded outreach work all part of normal developer-funded archaeological work.

Urgent news now from IFA is that the AnnualConference is approaching (11-13 April), and youneed to move fast for your cheaper Early birdbooking rate. For this you need to get anapplication form (download from IFA website orapply to office) in by 11 March. Hope to see plentyof you in Edinburgh!

Alison [email protected]

Ed

it

or

ia

l

Contributions and letters/emails are always welcome. It

is intended to make TA digitally available to institutions

through the SAL/CBA ie-publication initiative. If this

raises copyright issues with any authors, artists or

photographers, please notify the editor. Articles should

be sent as an email attachment, which must include

captions and credits for illustrations. The editor will edit

and shorten if necessary. Illustrations are very important.

These are best supplied as originals or on CD, scanned

at a minimum of 500kb. More detailed Notes for

contributors for each issue are available from the editor.

Opinions expressed in The Archaeologist are those of

the authors, not necessarily those of IFA.

EDITED by Alison Taylor, IFA,

SHES, University of Reading,

Whitenights, PO Box 227

READING RG6 6AB

DESIGNED and TYPESET by

Sue Cawood

PRINTED by Charlesworth

Notes to contributors

Themes and deadlines

Spring: Archaeology of medieval Britain

deadline: 30 March 2006

Summer: Identity

deadline: 15 June 2006

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

FROM THE FINDS TRAY

New contact details for applications to excavatehuman remainsThe address to apply for this permission (previously‘Home Office licence’) is now Coroners Division,Department for Constitutional Affairs, 4 AbbeyOrchard Street, London SW1P 2HT. The Burial Grounds Survey contact number is Tel: 0207 340 6661, Fax: 0207 340 6680. Useful contacts areTony Woolfenden, Head of Unit – 0207 340 6655,[email protected] Doyle, PS – 0207 340 6656,[email protected]

Environmental specialists wanted!The IFA’s Standards and Guidance for the collection,documentation, conservation and research of archaeologicalmaterials defines such materials as including ‘environmentalmaterial, biological remains (including human remains) anddecay products’. Along with artefacts, building materialsand industrial residues they complete the archaeologicallyrecovered ‘finds’ record. IFA Finds Group has not had anenvironmental specialist on the committee for a many yearsnow and is very much aware of this gap. This is mostobvious when raising issues associated with training needsand seminars. Are you an environmental specialist whowould consider joining the committee to address thisimbalance? Or would you consider forming a group, to actin parallel with the Finds Group or as another IFA specialinterest group?

This year’s seminar and hands on training session will befocused on glass, but we would like to include some aspectof environmental evidence for training after that. Thehuman bone training sessions run a few years ago wereparticularly popular. Please contact Nicola Powell, Secretary,IFA Finds Group [email protected] ifyou’re interested and with your comments.

Wales/Cymru Group dayschoolThe Group’s IFA dayschool in Machynlleth departed from thenormal format to bring in a workshop element. The subjectmatter was CPD – Continuing Professional Development –led by Kenneth Aitchison and Kate Geary. They gave anoverview of CPD, why and how, while Jonathan Berry fromCadw and Charlotte Berry, an archivist, gave personal viewson how CPD worked for them. The afternoon was spent insmaller groups looking at how to construct a personaldevelopment plan and to log CPD. A proforma personaldevelopment plan and CPD log, as well as furtherinformation and advice on the IFA CPD Scheme, can bedownloaded from the Training pages of the IFA website.

RCAHMS and SMR co-operationOn 7 November, the Chair of RCAHMS,Professor John Hume, and Councillor JeanMcFadden, Glasgow City Council, launched theStatement of Co-operation between theRCAHMS and the Scottish SMRs. One area of co-operation is that of online resources, and intandem with the launch of the Co-operationStatement, a new version of PASTMAP wasunveiled, incorporating information from someof the local authority SMRs alongside nationaldatasets from RCAHMS, Historic Scotland(scheduled monuments and listed buildings) andScottish Natural Heritage (historic gardens anddesigned landscapes). PASTMAP can be found atwww.pastmap.org.uk.

Copies of the Statement can be obtained fromRCAHMS at: John Sinclair House, 16 BernardTerrace, Edinburgh EH8 9NX.www.rcahms.gov.uk

Diana Murray (Secretary RCAHMS),

Carol Swanson (Chair, ARIA) and Ian

Shepherd (Chair, Scottish SMR Forum)


Illegal tenderingDan Johnston MIFA drew IFA’s attention to aninterview on the BBC’s Today programme in whichSimon Williams, Director of Investigations at theOffice of Fair Trading, reported on a recentinvestigation into tendering practice amongstconstruction firms in the East Midlands. It isapparently common to submit artificially hightenders where a firm does not want to win a job.This practice has apparently been found in thecourts to be unlawful, and may constitute fraudand/or collusion between contractors (ie potentiallya criminal rather than civil offence). While the OFT’sgreatest concern arises where money changes handsbetween contractors as part of a price-fixing cartel,archaeologists should be aware of the potentialillegality of submitting a high tender in order to stayon a client’s tender list.

The 2006 Portable Antiquities SchemeConference: Advancing archaeologicalknowledge. 11 April 2006, 10.00–17.00, BP LectureTheatre, British Museum, LondonPapers will examine the contribution ofPAS to small finds research, theunderstanding of particular sites and thebroader historic environment, as well asthe benefits of working with conservatorsto further our understanding of finds andsites that have come to light through theScheme. The conference is FREE butbookings are essential.

For further details or to book a placecontact Claire Costin on 0207 323 8618 [email protected]

Study Group for Roman Pottery NewsThis year’s SGRP Conference will take place from 30 Juneto 2 July in Ghent. A ‘Graham Webster Memorial Grant’will be available from the Group, contributing towardstravel and attendance costs. The Study Group is alsoinstituting anannual ‘John Gillam Prize’ prize for anoutstanding item of work in the field of Roman potterystudies. The Group would be pleased to hear about anywork (eg pottery reports – grey literature and otherwise,synthetic studies, student dissertations and theses, etc),appearing over the past two years, that may be worthy ofconsideration. For more details see the Study Groupwebsite (http://www.sgrp.org/) or contact the Groupsecretary, Jane Evans ([email protected]).

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Apologies from IFA databaseIFA’s database crashed after Christmas, just as all the addressesfor the Yearbook were being updated. The office (mostly KathrynWhittington) did sterling work re-checking all the correctedforms that members had sent in, but we have to warn you inadvance that it is still possible mistakes went unnoticed. Whenyour Yearbook does arrive, can you let us know with greatpatience if we have got you wrong for any reason?([email protected], or usual Reading address).

FROM THE FINDS TRAY

Heritage Lottery Fund Success!IFA has heard that our bid to HLF to fund workplacelearning bursaries in archaeological skills development hasbeen successful, and between eight and ten bursaries,covering salary and expenses, will be available each year.The bursaries will be open to archaeologists across the UKand designed to meet clearly defined skills needs in theheritage sector. They will be structured around the newlydeveloped National Occupations Standards inArchaeological Practice and may contribute towards aformal qualification. Placements have been offered by avariety of heritage organisations and cover a diverse rangeof archaeological skills including Finds and environmentalwork, Field survey and desk based assessment, HistoricEnvironment Records and agri-environment work, Archivemanagement and digital preservation, and Teaching andmuseum work.

From time to time archaeologists’ clients farm

out post-excavation work to organisations other

than the one that conducted the field work. The

Committee on Working Practices in Archaeology

recently reviewed this practice and concluded

that in general it is not something that should

be encouraged.

There are a number of reasons for this, includingintellectual property and copyright issues, and thecosts of archaeologists familiarising themselves with the excavations. Perhaps most significant is that the process of project design,evaluation, excavation, assessment,analysis and publication worksbest as a seamless exercise ofinvestigative and analyticalendeavour. Compartmentalisationencourages a mechanistic approachat the expense of intellectualengagement, and changes ofpersonnel can damage academicand public benefit. Of course there are occasions when it is appropriate for an organisation to analyse and publish the work of another, for example in the case of clearincompetence, undue delay, or extortionatelyincreasing costs. More respectably, a handover canbe expected when several organisations work on aseries of sites best analysed and published in asingle enterprise.

Steps can be taken to protect the archaeologistagainst a client market testing if a change ofcontractors is merely a device for reducing cost; andalso to protect the client against an unwarrantedprice hike. Contractual documents should stipulatethat work remains with the original archaeologicalorganisation if a contractor has given a binding‘fixed’ cost for the whole project (often a riskyapproach). In this case the client would be in breachof contract in giving the work to someone else.However, if the archaeologist is seeking to adjust thepost-excavation costs, the client has a right to

renegotiate or re-tender it, whether such right isexplicit in the contract or not. It is possible to use a‘cost variation’ clause if post-excavation estimateschange by more than a given percentage followingassessment: it may be sensible to involve anindependent consultant to advise on or manage theprocess. Provisions regarding copyright could bemade in such circumstances. Such clauses could beincluded as ‘special conditions’ under 16.1 of the ICEConditions of Contract for Archaeological Investigation(see TA 54, 8).

Matters may get complicated when work has beeninitiated under a letter of commission. Where thisapproach is followed the ‘Written Scheme of

Investigation’ clearly is the vehicleby which intentions are madeexplicit, with details of projectreview stages, funding andpayment schedules. The clausesincluded as ‘special conditions’referred to above should sensiblybe cross-referred to in the ‘WrittenScheme of Investigation’.

Accommodating the legitimateinterests of the archaeologist in

charge of a field project is another relevant issue. Thedynamics of potentially contradictory gains, of thesupervisor’s rightful stake versus that of the client,generally mean that commercial interests carry mostweight. Nevertheless the desirability of making theoriginal site director’s input in the post-excavationprocess explicit in IFA Standard and guidancedocuments should be considered.

The IFA proposes to prepare sample clauses forinsertion into the Conditions of Contract, to add aclause to the Standard and guidance documents, andto explore the possibilities of training archaeologistsin construction contracts. Comments from memberswould be welcome.

Michael HeatonPeter HintonFrank [email protected]

Finish ing someone e lse ’s storyMichael Heaton, Peter Hinton and Frank Meddens

...the process of project

d e s i g n , e v a l u a t i o n ,

excavation, assessment,

analysis and publication

works best as a seamless

exercise of investigative

and analytical endeavour.

C P D

7T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t6

Continuous professional development (CPD) is themeans by which archaeologists develop their skillsthroughout their working lives. We all ‘do’ CPD butnot many of us seem to record it. I set out to find outwhy.

The IFA published its CPD scheme in March 2000. Asurvey in 2002 found that the majority of members • were aware of the IFA’s CPD recommendations• had considered their CPD needs• were undertaking CPD activities• valued CPD as a means of personal and

professional development

It also found that• few systematically recorded their CPD• few had visited IFA’s CPD web-pages• CPD was rarely integrated into staff appraisal or

recruitment systems • few received feedback from their employers on

their CPD activities

Most agree that we need to maintain and developour skills and professional competence throughoutour working lives, but why is it important that werecord it?

Po t en t i a l and p r omot ion?Firstly, producing a personal development plan(PDP) and CPD log is a useful exercise in itself. Itrequires a realistic assessment of where you are inyour career and what you would like to achieve. It

allows you to identify training and developmentneeds and to look for ways to meet them.Development needs may be linked to your currentwork or to future professional or personalaspirations. You may be able to meet some yourselfthrough focused reading, research and personalstudy; others, you will need help with. By recordingyour CPD activities and linking them to yourpersonal development plan, you can measure yourprogress and document your achievements. YourPDP can also be a starting point for discussionswith your employer on career development (andpromotion!) where a formal appraisal process doesnot exist and, where it does, demonstrate yourcommitment and skills (and potential).

Va lue o f i n fo r ma l l e a r n ingIdentifying training needs which will not be metcan be de-motivating, and is an obstacle to morewidespread use of CPD. What is the point of havinga PDP and CPD log if development opportunitiesare simply not available? One of the biggeststrengths of CPD as a process, however, is that itrecognises informal learning and can be tailored tosuit individual circumstances. A lot of learning inarchaeology takes places informally, on-the-job, andthis is just as valid a CPD activity as attending aconference or going on a course.

Whilst creating a personal development plan andidentifying your career development needs is verymuch a personal commitment, we also need to look

more widely at the role of employers, IFA and othertraining providers. Employers need to integrateCPD recording into their own systems of staffappraisal, as a number of RAOs have started to do.

Development of a profess ional inst i tut ionIFA is taking another look at its CPD scheme, in linewith recent developments. Compulsory CPD iscrucial to further development as a professionalinstitute and is fundamental to many of theinitiatives we are currently working on. Any newvocational qualifications are likely to beunderpinned by the concept of CPD recording and anew on-line system has been developed with this inmind. Even development of a professionalmembership route for obtaining CSCS cardsdepends on members being able to demonstratetheir competence through CPD.

Tra in ing work shopsWith this in mind, we have been developingworkshops and presentations to support membersand RAOs in the recording of CPD and itsintegration into training agenda more generally. IFAis working with Prospect to train union learningrepresentatives who will also be able to championthe cause of CPD and provide practical advice onlearning opportunities. We will also be promotinglearning opportunities wherever we can, especiallythe day schools and workshops of the IFA’s national, regional and special interest groups.Wherever possible, we will link training

opportunities to national occupational standards forarchaeological practice and we will work with othertraining providers to make this become morecommonplace.

Fe e dback?There are plenty of horror stories out there aboutlack of training and career developmentopportunities and it is important that you keepletting us know where things are not working asthey should. It would be nice, though, to publishgood news from time to time as well. I have comeacross numerous examples of good practiceinstigated by individuals and employers as part ofmy research and hope to publish accounts of someof these in future editions of TA. If you have anytraining or career development initiatives youwould like to promote, please let me know so thatthey can be included.

Kate GearyIFA Training and standards [email protected]

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

I F A A N D C O N T I N U O U S P R O F E S S I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T

Kate Geary

C P D

T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t

Before the interviewBe well informed and do your research. Mostemployers have websites and the internet is oftenthe best place to find out about the organisation andtheir major projects and publications before yourinterview. The internet can also provide informationabout new areas of work, especially heritage basedor museum posts. One of our subscribers got aHeritage Lottery funded oral history post in thisway.

Look at the job description in detail, identifyingreasons why you fulfil all or most of the criteria andare the right person for the job. Think about ways ofdemonstrating this at interview. Don’t worry aboutnot fulfilling all the criteria – just be honest.

On the dayTo have reached the shortlist you must haveconvinced the employers that you are a goodcandidate, although interviewers may already haveselected favourites. Still, performance on the day isthe key. Remember too that it is just as importantfor you to learn about this organisation as for themto learn about you. Make sure you get all theinformation you need, and use this to gauge if thisis really the place you want to be.

AppearanceObviously this will depend to some extent on the

kind of job. For any managerial job, or if you will bedealing with the public, a suit is best and a jacket is

virtually essential for both sexes, but do wearsomething you feel comfortable in. Even if you arelooking for temporary excavation work don’t dressas you would on site. Pay attention to grooming.Clothes, hair and fingernails should be clean. Someinterviewers have prejudices about appearance –tattoos, unusual hairstyles, multiple piercings etc.Though none of these are known to affect diggingor any other ability, unfortunately they might preferto appoint a more conventional looking person. Iam not saying that you should compromise yourprinciples, but it does not hurt to tone yourappearance down – until you get the job, of course.

ArrivalAim to arrive about 10 minutes before yourinterview. Do not arrive too early and hang aroundin the organisation’s main office – this apparentlyannoys interviewers. Go for a coffee and have afinal check of your appearance. It goes withoutsaying that you should be courteous to other staffyou encounter – apart from the issue of goodmanners, their opinion may carry more weight thanyou think. And you may soon be working withthem!

PresentationsSometimes you have to give a presentation ahead of formal interview. Careful preparation is needed.Don’t try too hard to demonstrate your breadth ofknowledge. Focus on a few well chosen case studiesand use the presentation as a vehicle to showcaseyour skills and winning personality. People not onthe interview panel might attend the presentation,all with their own agenda and obsessions. Somewill be there simply to ask difficult questions. Donot be defensive, however stupid the question.Getting reactions out of you is part of the game. Ask them to repeat themselves if you failed to catchwhat they said or understand what they meant.Many people use PowerPoint, but even if you have

just a few slides and overheads make sure youraudiovisual needs will be met on the day. It isgalling to be held up by technical difficulties, sotake back up. You only need a small number ofvisuals to provide a backdrop and illustrate mainpoints. Be selective and use a few glamorousphotographs or images, perhaps including yourselfdigging an interesting site.

Too much PowerPoint text can be distracting. Shortheadings are a better means of signposting but, onthe other hand, you could just do without them andtalk. A radical idea I know, but it worked in thedays before computers. Never read out what theycan see on the screen. Never read directly from apage, but there is nothing wrong with having a listof your main points in front of you. Look up at theaudience but avoid prolonged direct eye contactwith anyone or you might lose your momentum.

InterviewsBody language can be revealing, but beware ofspending too much time analysing this or you couldbecome paranoid. Apparently you should not fiddle with your ear or your nose – a sign of a shiftypersonality – so, even if they itch, leave them alone.Be open and positive, and have some eye contactwith all the interviewers.

In the same way that being too monosyllabic in yourresponses is bad, so is holding forth and gushing likea geyser. Resist the impulse to over-elaborate or trytoo many jokes. Similarly, you might have worked atthe Unit from Hell (who hasn’t?) but the interview isnot the place to criticise past or current employers.Do not sabotage your chances by appearing bitter,even if you worked in a nest of vipers. Remember,success is the best form of revenge.

Many employers now ask you to discuss your faults as well as positive traits. Try not to phraseyour answers in a negative way. Demonstrate how you have dealt with an area of weakness orinexperience, or a problematic situation, presentingit as a lesson learned. This will make you appearresourceful, flexible and adaptable, willing to learn new skills or change your perspective. Thinkof tough questions and how to answer them. If you are hoping to move into a new area of work,show how your experience has prepared you, how aspects of your work have led you to thispoint.

Psychometric testingThis is now all the rage. If you have to undergo thisby filling out a very curious questionnaire, do notworry because everyone fails or appears weird.They will just choose the least weird one, accordingto some arcane criteria.

Coping with failureAssuming there are four shortlisted candidates forone job, three will be disappointed. If you wereunlucky it does not mean that you are useless, orcursed, or that you should give up archaeology. It just means that one person had more skills orexperience or just performed better on the day. Orthe panel made the wrong decision.

Never take rejection personally. Remember, if youwere interviewed you were a contender. With yournext application you might be the contender. Goodluck!

Lynne BevanJIS [email protected]

C a r e e r S u r g e r y with Doctor Lynne Bevan

I n t e r v i e w s a n d P r e s e n t a t i o n s

C a r e e r S u r g e r y

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 98 9

Following the positive feedback from my CV article in

TA 57 I now offer advice about presentations and

interviews based on the personal experiences of JIS

subscribers related to me over the years.

10 T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t

Submerged coastal forests are sites where one

can walk in an ancient landscape, through trees

which stood in prehistory. Scattered on the

woodland floor is the debris of flint working,

bones, and footprints of prehistoric people and

animals. These remarkable and evocative sites

were well known to the naturalists of the

Victorian period yet today they remain a little

appreciated resource. Most of those dated in

Wales and South West England are later

Mesolithic and Neolithic, a significant finding,

given that Mesolithic sites with preserved bone

assemblages, organic remains and

environmental evidence are extremely rare. The

Mesolithic is the least investigated period in

British prehistory, impoverished by comparison

with the wetland riches of the Netherlands,

Denmark and Germany.

Skeletons of Mesolithic treesRecent excavations at Goldcliff East and other sitesin the Severn Estuary demonstrate the potential.Here Mesolithic activity began c. 5700 Cal BC in anextensive oak and hazel forest which covered thebed of the present estuary. As watertables rose theforest died, the skeletons of trees were left standing,first in reed swamp and then accumulatingsaltmarsh. Some oaks and reeds are charred,suggesting Mesolithic communities manipulatedthe coastal environment, just as they burnt themoorlands of upland Britain. Mesolithic activityfocused on a bedrock island, surrounded at varioustimes by swamp and saltmarsh. On the island edgea succession of Mesolithic activity areas was buriedand preserved by rising sea-level and estuarinesediments. The complex of sites is sealed by asecond submerged forest dated 4200 Cal BC.

Children’s footprintsThe forests themselves often contain oaks and arekey sites for dendrochronological sequences inprehistory. Palaeoenvironmental studies offer majoropportunities for comparing a range of datasets. Wehave mapped the tree types present, investigatedthe plant macrofossils of the woodland floor, thepollen and insects and the relationships betweenthese changing ecologies and the patterns of humanactivity. Occupation horizons preserve bones, fishbones and scales, seeds and even human intestinalparasites. Of special significance, given theirextreme rarity in Britain, is a small collection ofworked wood objects. Around the island, stratifiedin saltmarsh sediments, are the footprints ofMesolithic people, deer and birds. A notably highproportion of the footprints are of children.

11

Submergedforests fromearlyprehistory

Martin Bell

The submerged forest at

Borth, West Wales.

Photograph: Martin Bell

Excavating a charred oak tree which

grew c 5700 Cal BC in the

submerged forest at Redwick, Wales.

Photograph: Edward Sacre

Excavation of a Mesolithic

settlement stratified below

a submerged forest at

Goldcliff, Wales.

Photograph: Edward Sacre

Mesolithic human footprint in estuarine silts stratified

between Mesolithic submerged forests dated 5700 and

4200 Cal BC at Goldcliff, Wales. Photograph: Edward

Sacre

Tracks, buildings and seasonal herdingThe significance of submerged forests and intertidalpeats is not limited to the Mesolithic. Previous workat Goldcliff included excavation of eight buildingsand 19 trackways within coastal peats. Fourrectangular buildings of middle Bronze Age datehave also been excavated on intertidal peat atRedwick in the Severn Estuary. Such buildingsappear to have been used during seasonal pastoralactivity on the wetland. Surrounding the buildingsare the footprints of cattle, some sheep and onceagain a child. Work is now underway onpalaeochannels at Peterstone in the Severn Estuary,not this time a submerged forest but a coastalwetland. Here the channels contain wood posts anda hurdle, probably part of a fish trap. Pottery, bonesand wood artefacts were deposited in the channelsfrom adjacent settlement areas in the late Neolithicto middle Bronze Age.

Such discoveries highlight the potential of othersites where artefacts have been found withsubmerged forests and wetland sequences, but onlysome HERs include even a selection of thesubmerged forests and intertidal peats that areexposed. A rapid survey for English Heritage in1996 recorded 103 sites scattered throughoutEngland and 30 were also documented in Wales,where a recent review contained 59.

Erosion and damageSea-level rise is increasing erosion, and some sitesare being damaged by programmes to upgrade seadefences. One problem is that most sites are onlyexposed when storms sweep away sand and silt.These intertidal exposures provide a glimpse ofwhat lies buried in the reclaimed areas of coastalwetland, inland of the present sea wall. Suchreclaimed areas are often under great developmentpressure because they are close to ports, andextensive areas of former wetland aroundAvonmouth, Cardiff and Newport have beensubject to large-scale development.

Increasing tracts of the coastal zone are alsodesignated for nature conservation. That has thegreat benefit of preserving, and often restoring,wetland habitats, but ‘green development’ is ofteninvolved, such as new lakes and ponds. Currentpolicies of managed retreat, whereby sea walls areset back to create new saltmarsh will also lead toerosion of areas of former wetland. Such erosion can

be both rapid and dramatic as recent experience atPorlock, Somerset demonstrates.

Current work shows that intertidal sites cantransform knowledge, particularly of neglectedperiods such as the Mesolithic. All the moreimportant, therefore, that we fully document sitesseen in the past, flag their potential in the planningprocess and coastal zone management and keep acareful look out for future exposures, particularlyafter major storms.

Martin Bell University of [email protected]

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t 13

ites with exceptional preservation of organic artefacts andenvironmental evidence are rare, but hugely important in

enlarging our picture of the past. Two examples make the point.The outstanding preservation of plant remains and insects belowthe great Neolithic mound of Silbury Hill provides an invaluableinsight into the downland landscape around Avebury. Preservationof the Bronze Age Egtved girl in a tree trunk coffin below a barrowin Denmark, with preserved clothing and organic artefacts,provides one of our most evocative images of a prehistoricindividual. Exceptional burials of this kind, several of which areexhibited at the National Museum Copenhagen, are on sandy well-drained soils. In both the Egtved and Silbury Hill cases thereasons for such exceptional preservation have not been entirelyclear. Only by understanding the reasons why preservation occurswill we be able to predict other sites with the potential forexceptional preservation and manage them in a way which does not compromise the unique burial environment. All this is part ofthe developing agenda of understanding in situ preservation.

E x p l a i n i n g p r e s e r v a t i o n

Experimental earthworks have an importantcontribution to make, as recent work at the LejreExperimental Centre in Denmark shows. Here asuccessful experiment has been carried out by ateam led by Henrik Breuning-Madsen, Mads Holstand Marianne Rasmussen. Preservation at sites suchas Egtved has been investigated by quarter-scaleconstructs of Bronze Age barrows, with turf corescontaining log coffins and pig burials with textilesand copper artefacts. These show that, very rapidlyafter burial, an iron pan envelope can developaround the barrow core as a result of redoxprocesses (oxidation/reduction). The result is awaterlogged anaerobic core in which exceptionalpreservation over extended timescales is possible.Similar circumstances may well account forexamples of exceptional preservation in some Britishbarrows, particularly in the antiquarian literature.Extensive iron pan development was also evident inthe core of Silbury Hill, although not apparently inall those parts of the buried soil where exceptionalpreservation occurred. This is a problem with whichEnglish Heritage is currently grappling as they takeforward plans to stabilise the hill and understand itsunique burial environment after the recent collapseof an earlier excavation shaft.

O v e r t o n D o w n a n d B u t s e r

In Britain there are two main experimentalearthwork projects. Linear earthworks were set upin the early 1960s at Overton Down, Wiltshire andWareham Heath, Dorset. An ambitious projectdesigned to last 128 years, it involved buryingidentical sets of organic and inorganic artefactswhich would be excavated at intervals to monitordecay and preservation processes. Four octagonalearthworks were set up in 1985-1991 by the latePeter Reynolds under the aegis of the ButserExperimental Farm. They did not involve the burialof artefacts but they do bury soils, and changes tothese could be monitored. The buried soils atOverton are similar to those we find underprehistoric earthworks and even here there isevidence of slight iron pan development in themound.

The British and Lejre experiments both demonstratethat many of the key changes to the physical form ofearthworks and the burial environment take placevery rapidly after burial. It is for this reason thatmedium-term experiments of one year to a decadeor two, can play an important part in explainingwhy evidence survives over millennia.

12

Martin BellDepartment of ArchaeologyUniversity of [email protected]

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

E x p e r i m e n t a l E a r t h w o r k sMartin Bell

Excavation of two

experimental barrows at

Lejre Historical and

Archaeological

Experimental Centre,

Denmark in May 2004.

Photograph: Martin Bell,

courtesy of Lejre

The Overton Down, Wiltshire,

Experimental Earthwork excavated in

1992, 32 years after construction.

Photograph: Martin Bell

The buried soil and turf core of the 32

year old Overton Experimental

Earthwork. Photograph: Ed Yorath

S


The project is examining the relationship betweenlanduse of the floodplain and environmental data,which is also be related to data that survives forancient water levels in the form of wells, relictwaterlogging and palaeochannels. The present river level is the product of 18th-century navigationimprovements, which raised surrounding groundwater levels. Advice has been sought from theEnvironment Agency and the Centre for Ecologyand Hydrology so that we can more fullyunderstand the nature and evolution of the watertable.

Extended counting of pollen monoliths to providegreater reliability of the resultant plots, and greatersub-sampling to identify change within theenvironmental record, are included. This evidencewill be used to model characteristics of the flora ofthe Nene Valley against time, supported byadditional radiocarbon dates. Environmental resultsalready suggest the floodplain was wooded, with amix of oak, alder and hazel, until the later BronzeAge. Then came a change to a more open grasslandenvironment which, with cereal cultivation,continues to the present. An episode of Romanviticulture has also been identified from pollen findson sites near Wellingborough.

The project should provide a tool to enableidentification of trends in environmental andhydrological data sets and also gaps that needtargeting in future projects.

Ian MeadowsNorthamptonshire Archaeology

ince March 2005 NorthamptonshireArchaeology and the University of Exeter

have been working on a synthetic survey of theenvironmental and hydrological record for the RiverNene. This ALSF project is joining together data thatalready exists, filling some of the gaps and relatingarchaeological evidence to changes in the hydrologyand environmental conditions. The product willform a basis for understanding the evolution of theNene Valley. This approach is particularlyappropriate in the Nene valley, where a largeproportion of the aggregates have now been takenfrom the valley floor and the archaeological data setis extensive and as near complete as possible.Mineral extraction has produced dozens ofenvironmental samples on numerous excavated sitesbut, despite large projects such as the Raunds AreaProject, little attempt has been made to identifyvalley-wide trends.

Environmental samplingand the evolution of theNene Valley

Ian Meadows

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF

H U M A N R E M A I N S

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Wall trenches for a Roman vineyard in the Nene Valley

© Northamptonshire County Council

The vineyard reconstructed

© Northamptonshire County

Council

Advisory Panel on the Archaeology of Christian burials inEngland

In January 2005 English Heritage and the Church of Englandpublished Guidance for Best Practice for Treatment of Human RemainsExcavated from Christian Burial Grounds in England (www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/16602_HumanRemains1.pdf). Thisincluded a recommendation that there be a panel to providearchaeological advice. This panel, the Advisory Panel on theArchaeology of Christian Burials in England (APACBE), has nowbeen set up, sponsored by the Church of England, English Heritageand the Department of Constitutional Affairs and includingosteologists, archaeologists and museum staff. Advice will includeappropriate consideration of relevant religious, ethical, legal,archaeological and scientific issues. This advice is free. Contacts:Joseph Elders (Chair): [email protected] or Simon Mays(Secretary): [email protected]. Further detailscan be found on the Panel’s website:http://www.britarch.ac.uk/churches/humanremains/index.html

New DCMS code of practice for human remains

In October 2005, DCMS published Guidance for the Care of Human Remains in Museums(http://www.culture.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/0017476B-3B86-46F3-BAB3-11E5A5F7F0A1/0/GuidanceHumanRemains11Oct.pdf) as a response to the report of the DCMS Working Group on HumanRemains and its consultation responses. It is non-statutory guidance which recommends best practice forcollections of human remains over 100 years old held in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (remainsunder 100 years old are covered by the 2004 Human Tissue Act). The guideline is divided into Part 1 (legaland ethical framework), Part 2 (curation, care and use of human remains) and Part 3 (a framework forhandling claims for return of remains). The guidance is mainly aimed at museums, but it is intended that theprinciples should apply to archaeological organisations and university departments who may hold remainson a short or medium term basis. Although drafted with remains of overseas origin in mind, the advice isintended to apply to all human remains. Nevertheless, it was recognised that organisations with differenttypes of collections would need to adapt the code, and for English Christian remains, the document refersreaders to the English Heritage/Church of England guideline (above).

Thorny issues arise for museums when claims are made for repatriation, and more specific guidance may be needed in particular cases. DCMS has therefore set up a Human Remains Advisory Service, from whosemembers individuals would be selected by DCMS to advise museums who require it in specific cases.

Burial law reform

In 2004, the Government issued a consultationreport on burial law reform. Among aspectsconsidered are the regulation of disturbance andexhumation of burials. Specifics under reviewincluded reuse of graves and whether disturbanceof archaeological burials (however defined) shouldbe subject to the same regulatory regime as morerecent burials or be more lightly regulated. TheGovernment aims to make public their plans tobring forward proposals for burial law reform inlate spring/summer 2006. For further informationon burial law see:http://www.dca.gov.uk/corbur/buriafr.htm#2.

Simon MaysEnglish Heritage

S


Soil and sediment micromorphology is a relativelynew technique that is increasingly used inenvironmental archaeology to unravel site stratigraphyat a whole new level. It enables high resolutioninterpretation of the use of space, modes of depositionand micro-scale environmental reconstruction fromdeposits which might previously have ended up onthe spoil heap. In this way, information frompreviously unexplorable microstratigraphies identifiedin field sections is increasingly being accessedunaltered and undisturbed via optical microscopy.

Sampling is in theory straightforward, though asanyone who has ever found themselves striding

across a site clutching mallet, penknife andquantities of clingfilm, driving a kubiena tin into aprofile of dry, gravelly or frozen ground can be alittle different. However, once you have extracted anintact block of undisturbed sediment you are on theway to unlocking the secrets of micro-analysis.

Previously undetected informationWhat usually follows is a lengthy process of dryingand impregnation of the blocks with a traditionalpolyester resin (such as Crystic 17449), followed bycutting, grinding and polishing of relevant sectionsdown to 30μm thick. The finished slides can then beexamined at various degrees of magnification

allowing features and fabrics to be described,quantified and interpreted. Such studies regularlyproduce previously undetected micro-artefactual,biological and mineral traces, or human activity, atan unprecedented resolution.

Lengthy preparationThe main drawback with micromorphologicalanalysis is that sample preparation generally takesso much time that it is inaccessible for thoseworking to tight deadlines. A key contributor to thelengthy preparation process is the nature of Crysticimpregnation resin, which can take well over amonth to cure and requires careful handlingthroughout. This has resulted in waiting lists of ayear or more from many labs.

Best processing timeNew research at the University of Reading’s Schoolof Human and Environmental Sciences has recently focused on protocol development toimprove and, critically, speed up, the manufactureof soil thin sections. Whilst a central part of this

has been the purchase of a Brot oil-cooled diamondgrinder with the capacity to process up to threelarge format (14 by 6.5 cm) sections at a time, thekey development has been the trial of differenttypes of resin in an attempt to find a fast curingalternative to Crystic resin. A full protocol for use of a previously un-trialed, low viscosity epoxy resin, via a purpose designed vacuum system, iscurrently being finalised. Results so far arepromising, bringing the best processing time fromdry block to thin section down to two or threeweeks. Experimental work is also being carried outusing other resins which may have applications forwet sediments and use in the field. The newprotocol should be ready for publication by March2006, along with the launch of a new commercialservice.

For further information, including thin-sectioningprocedures, see WWW.AFESS.co.uk.

Charlotte [email protected]

Under the microscope: new advances in soil and sediment micromorphologyCharlotte Pearson

A fragment of burned

bone from Çatalhöyük.

© W Matthews/

Çatalhöyük Research

Team

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

The same dung deposit under cross-

polarised light showing calcium

carbonate spherulites that form in the

guts of animals during digestion, good

indicators of dung and coprolites. Note

the highly characteristic cross-shaped

extinction of the spherulites. © W

Matthews/Çatalhöyük Research Team

Wendy Matthews (University

of Reading) takes

micromorphology samples of

the complex microstratigraphy

at the Neolithic site of

Çatalhöyük in Konya, Turkey.

© W Matthews/Çatalhöyük

Research Team

Herbivore dung with dietary remains

of grass, reed and leaf phytoliths,

from an animal pen in Çatalhöyük.

© W Matthews/ Çatalhöyük Research

Team

Highly detailed laminations of wall

plasters from Çatalhöyük, thought to

be showing a cyclical sequence of

wall plaster or whitewash coatings and

accumulations of soot. © W Matthews/

Çatalhöyük Research Team

A fragment of charred Ulmaceae wood (A).

Underlying this is a layer of retted grass

matting (B) covering siltloam plaster floor (C).

From Çatalhöyük. © W Matthews/Çatalhöyük

Research Team

These images

illustrate the wealth

of archaeological/

environmental data

that can be found

through microscopic

analysis of soil thin

sections. They were

provided by Wendy

Matthews, University

of Reading, and the

Çatalhöyük Research

Team, Cambridge

A simplified overview of how information

can be extracted via micromorphological

techniques, from extracted block to finished

section. The reality is infinitely richer in

potential and more detailed. © E Skrekou

18 T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t

Environmental archaeologyis now well established incommercial archaeology, itspurpose to help understandand explain the sites we dig.While developers havefunded and facilitated thehuge increase in our

comprehension oflandscape, environmentand economy andenhanced the practiceand study ofenvironmentalarchaeology in itswidest sense, they arenot there to fundresearch. Essentiallythey fund preservationof what they propose todestroy, and there areconstraints andrestrictions for theacademically trained,

university schooled, environmental archaeologist.

However, most environmental applied research canonly be undertaken on any scale by those withaccess to the largest, regularly available andrenewed datasets – namely the commercialarchaeological organisation whose practice mayundertake hundreds excavations all over the countyevery year. Crude estimates from WessexArchaeology alone suggest around 200 to 400 tons ofsoil are routinely processed annually to 0.5mm orless, for charred plant and charcoal remains. Withthis wealth of samples, assessment is an industry inits own right, and a number of units deploypermanent staff. Snails, soils, sediments,geoarchaeology, charred or waterlogged plantremains, charcoals, sea shells and bones for instanceare all ‘on tap’ at Wessex Archaeology. Other keyspecialists, often those requiring sophisticatedlaboratory facilities, such as for pollen, are employedon a contract basis. And the results? Apart from

environment reports annexed to site reports, thecomprehension of archaeologist and general publichas increased significantly, illustrated here by just afew examples of how we have changed perceptionsand assumptions, helped rewrite textbooks andshed light on new understanding of people andplaces.

Complex alluvial landscapesAlluvial landscapes of the Severn Estuary have beenshown to be relatively simple accretions of mudwith continuous planar ‘marker’ horizon of peatwhich can be mapped over kilometres. As moredetailed research questions have been posed, greaterunderstanding of both the geoarchaeologicalconstruct of, and the human adaptation to, thislandscape has emerged. The planar peat horizonsthat we attempted to date and map horizontally arenow seen to be non-planar, discontinuous, and notaltitude/date dependent. Detailed pollen andsediment analysis have allowed intellectualconstructs of how this landscape looked, indicationsthat seasonal summer occupation was restricted tominor ephemeral ‘islands’ in the winter wetland.The Severn Levels were far from marginal areas;they were a crucial seasonal adjunct to residentiallife on the higher drier fringing land. Our concept ofthe prehistoric use of this region has largely evolvedfrom multiple pin pricks, providing not just vertical(time) depth reconstruction, but a spatialreconstruction.

The prehistoric heartland of WessexRoutine analysis of snails and sediments throughoutthe Wessex chalkland allow us to challenge andmodify assumptions of post glacial forest atop thedownlands. Where once we assumed that woodlandwas the precursor of all significant early Holocene(later Mesolithic and Neolithic) occupation, andenvironmental evidence of an open landscape itselfrequired human clearance and opening of primevalwoodland, we now see that when the last glaciersretreated, woodland did not blanket the wholelandscape. Large areas were maintained as grassland,perhaps by grazing herds. Fringing such open spaces

19

was diverse woodland with soft berries, attractingbrowsing herds; both meat and veg for the firsthunters. Without a need to clear woodland, choicesfor settlement location and for herding animals arealready made. Why is Dorchester so rich and densein prehistoric monuments? Perhaps these open areasattracted populations first, and became some of themost densely populated. A similar picture isemerging in Cranborne Chase.

Origins of natural heathlandAcidic heathlands with sandy podzolic soils arehome to intricate and ecologically valued vegetationcommunities of heath, heather and gorse; a landscapeof beauty indeed, but a manscape all the same andnot one of unchanging longevity. Detailed pollen andenvironmental analyses funded via the Wytch Farmoil programme clearly demonstrated the destructionof ancient forests. Deciduous woodland, supportedby thick humic loamy soils, extended across theregion. A woodland that today would be protected,was destroyed by the expansion of Bronze Age andIron Age settlers, opening land for graze and pasture.The destruction was not just loss of the woods, butdeconstruction of ancient soils, leading toacidification, podzolistion and development of theharsh heathland we now acknowledge for its beautyand biodiversity. Similarly, changing options for theStonehenge Visitor Centre and possible routes for theA303 have led to archaeological evaluationinterventions which permit the vegetation cover of awhole landscape to be constructed, not just as anartist’s impression but as a scientific reconstruction,clothing the landscape with its vegetation mosaic,analysing new views of land use.

Where have Beaker settlementsgone?Archaeologists have puzzled at theabsence of Beaker non-funerarysites, of settlement or occupationlocalities other than a smattering ofpits. The clue was provided bypostgraduate research 20 years agoby Martin Bell. One of three holespunched in the chalkland dryvalleys in Sussex revealed a Beakersite buried by metres of hillwash,generated by woodland clearance,creation and tillage of the downs.Subsequent investigations revealeda further 13 such sites, facilitating anew hypothesis of the occurrence,

location, and nature of awhole class of activity insouthern England. Reappraisalof Beaker settlement waspublished by Michael Allen inProceedings of the PrehistoricSociety 2005 (71).

Developing the researchdatabaseThe vast wealth of information created by continualinvestigation, analysis and publication itselfprovides a huge research database. At WessexArchaeology land snails have been identified andanalysed from over 130 sites comprising over 2000samples; 30,000 identifications will constitute thelargest single snail database of its kind. Plans arebeing with the Conchological Society of GreatBritain & Ireland to complete this database andmake it available as research tool.

Commercial sector environmental archaeology isflourishing and generating good science and goodarchaeology – its success relies, however, oncontinued collaborationwith other bodies.

Michael J AllenCatherine ChishamChris StevensWessex Archaeology

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Prehistoric

example of snail

Helicella itala.

Photo: Elaine

Wakefield,

Wessex

Archaeology

Environmental archaeology in the commercial sector –ethos and practiceMichael J Allen, Catherine Chisham & Chris Stevens

Charred Neolithic hazelnut

shells from Peterborough-

ware pits near Old Sarum,

Salisbury dated by C14 to

3340–2930 cal BC.

Photo: Elaine Wakefield,

Wessex Archaeology

Dry Valley deposits in

East Sussex sealing a

Beaker settlement site –

burial is not very deep.

© M J Allen

A reconstruction of the

Stonehenge Landscape

after the erection of the

Stones. © J Brayne

Hundreds of

bulk soil samples

and cores are

processed and

examined at

Wessex

Archaeology

every year.

Photo: Elaine

Wakefield, Wessex

Archaeology


and the problem is only now being addressed.Often the information remains in developer reportsand only the specialist who did the analysis will beaware of comparative work in their area, as I foundwhen assembling the regional resource assessmentfor the East Midlands in 2005.

EAST MIDLAND ENVIRONMENTRoutine sampling is part of most interventions atULAS. Charred plant remains from Neolithic to IronAge sites, Roman sites (particularly corn driers),

position in the university as staff have access touniversity courses and this is now helping staffdevelopment.

SMRs and HERSIt is crucial for specialists to gain knowledge abouttheir particular area, part of the role previouslyfilled by EH regional contractors. ULAS has beenfortunate to work with James Greig, regionalcontractor for pollen and plant macrofossils untilrecently, and has gained immensely from his adviceand help as well as his work on projects. Workingon commercial projects, resources are lacking to givetraining and advice and maintain an archive andbibliography for the region. Curation anddissemination of information is a further problemnow work has become fragmented into differentorganisations. Environmental materials andinformation has been lacking on SMRs and HERs

VIEWS OF A MIDLANDSE N V I R O N M E N TA L O F F I C E R Angela Monckton V

IEWS O

F AM

IDLA

ND

S ENV

IRO

NM

ENTA

L OFFIC

ER

medieval villages, and urban sites of Roman,medieval and post-medieval date have beeninvestigated, but there is little time for research andsynthesis. As part of the archaeology department wehave the advantage of expert advice on possibleresearch questions. I hope to work more on thisaspect as we build a picture of past environment,farming and food in the East Midlands.

PLANT REMAINSIt is also good to work on charred plant remainsfrom other organisations in the midlands. These areefficient at processing the remains, but they usuallylook to external specialists for assessments andanalysis. Waterlogged deposits have also been amajor part of work at ULAS and for this it is vital tohave someone to co-ordinate the specialisms, oftenlong after the excavation. Aggregate Levy fundinghas enabled analysis of two Late Neolithic burntmound sites, thanks to the work of Alex Bayliss andthe EH radiocarbon dating section. These projects(Watermead Park, Birstall and Willington,Derbyshire) have been studied in collaboration withJames Greig and David Smith of BirminghamUniversity. At the former site James Greigdiscovered unusual evidence from pollen and seedsfor a Saxon watermeadow in sediments associatedwith a bridge (TA 52).

We still need the role of the EH regional contractors,but how can they be funded? More archaeologicalorganisations should employ environmentalists buthow can specialists gain experience withoutsupport? The problem is not academic training, butwork experience with mentoring and guidance.Environmental archaeology is an important aspectof modern investigations and experienced specialistsdo not suddenly appear by magic, so unless thereare more job opportunities and a career structurethey may have disappeared just when they areneeded. Like now?

Angela MoncktonUniversity of Leicester Archaeological Services

t a time of rapidly increasing workenvironmental specialists seem to have

the gift of invisibility. Whileenvironmental officers are part of the

structure of larger organisations in the midlands,there is a shortage of experienced specialists to takeon commercial work if the requests for analysis wereceive are anything to go by. Many people train inenvironmental specialisms on masters courses butfew are employed, and it is difficult to haveconsistent employment to build up experience.While the input of English Heritage scientificadvisors has increased the requirement forenvironmental work in project briefs, we have lostthe EH regional contractors who did considerableproject work as well as offering advice and trainingfor would-be specialists. Regional contractorsincluded specialists on the main types of remains,but these posts were cut before all the regionalreviews were completed. Scientific advisors cannotreplace the regional contractors, and it is pot-luckwhich specialism is represented in your region.

EMPLOYMENTUniversity of Leicester Archaeological Services(ULAS) is one of a few organisations that employsan archaeobotanist in the midlands, which issurprising as most excavation projects now requiresome assessment or analysis of charred orwaterlogged plant remains, in addition to co-ordination of sampling and analysis. When severallarge urban excavations were carried out inLeicester it was my fortunate experience to organisesampling, eventually carrying out analysis of plantremains with the generous help and in-servicetraining given by Lisa Moffett, then EH regionalcontractor.

If I have been fortunate to remain employed,although mostly part-time; environmental assistantshave not been so fortunate. A succession of peoplehave worked hard at sample processing, but only afew have moved onto analysis. Others have had tomove back to site work to obtain career progressionand because the work, like mine, has notconsistently been full-time. ULAS benefits from its

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Sampling for pollen at

Willington, Derbyshire.

Photograph: Matt BeamishWorking on pollen in the

laboratory. Wayne Jarvis,

archaeobotanist, is now a site

supervisor. Photograph: John Tate

Processing samples for plant

analysis. John Tate is now

working as a site supervisor.

Photograph: Wayne Jarvis

A


hypotheses relating to a variety of anthropogenicissues including settlement patterns and changes inresource availability. Discovery of a Neolithictrackway and platform has resulted in two seasonsof excavation funded by English Heritage andEnglish Nature. This site is especially significant, asdespite antiquarian reports of archaeological sites inthis area and the impressive resource preserved insimilar landscapes such as the Somerset Levels, noarchaeological sites have previously been recordedon Hatfield Moors. Investigation of this site is on-going and will provide a generic approachapplicable to wetlands worldwide.

Locating mass gravesAn important application of environmentaltechniques, relevant to the modern political world, isforensic archaeology, which the University ofBirmingham has pioneered through the work ofProfessor John Hunter. A team from the IAA led byJohn Hunter and Emma Tetlow visited Bosnia-Herzegovina on behalf of the InternationalCommission on Missing Persons (ICMP) as part of amulti-disciplinary Anglo-American team. The aimwas to locate mass graves linked to the fall ofSrebrenica in July 1995, using non-invasivetechniques. Four known mass grave sites weresubject to botanical and geomorphological survey.The primary aim of the vegetation survey was todefine a specific vegetation ‘indicator group’ usingsite by site analysis and to assess the validity ofvegetation and botanical factors as an interfacebetween aerial/satellite imaging and geophysics. Theinitial application of this approach was extremelysuccessful and further work is planned for May 2006.

Our latest areas of expansion will be

• a new MSc in Environmental Archaeology andPalaeoenvironments for the 2006 academic yearto provide students with skills necessary for acareer or further research in this specialist area. Akey strength will be integration of environmentaltechniques within a broad landscape frameworkutilising our full suite of remote sensing, GIS andvisualisation capabilities.

• reorganising our environmental services to createan integrated ‘one stop shop’ for all archaeo-

The University of Birmingham has been at the forefront ofenvironmental archaeology since the early 1970s, whenSusan Limbrey was appointed to a lectureship in theDepartment of Archaeology and Ancient History (now theInstitute of Archaeology and Antiquity (IAA)). Her Soil

Science and Archaeology (1975) became a standard text bookin environmental archaeology. Based within Earth Sciences,Professor Russell Coope pioneered the study of insectremains to elucidate palaeoclimatic signals andpalaeoenvironments and was instrumental in trainingseveral palaeoentomologists who have contributedsignificantly to science-based environmental archaeology,notably the late Maureen Girling, Harry Kenward andProfessor Paul Buckland.

Leaders for the landscape In recent years IAA has used various fundinginitiatives to expand its environmental skills base,including Strategic Research Fellowships. This hasallowed environmental archaeology to expandwithin the broad framework of a Landscape andEnvironmental Archaeology Group, creating one ofthe largest teams of specialists in the UK dedicatedto teaching and research and tackling projectswhich go beyond the conventional application ofenvironmental archaeological techniques.Birmingham is also a world leader in theapplication of GIS and remote sensing techniques toenvironmental assessment and landscapereconstruction. Current research projects include:reconstructing and visualising the late Pleistoceneand early Holocene palaeo-landscape of the NorthSea Basin, the land bridge which linked the UK tocontinental Europe; modelling the threedimensional development of alluvial landscapesfrom the Trent Valley to Croatia, and visualising theenvironment around Stonehenge.

New Neolithic trackwayIntegrated archaeological, palaeoenvironmental andGIS-based survey by Henry Chapman and BenGearey of the raised mire landscapes of Thorne andHatfield Moors, South Yorkshire has produced afour-dimensional (three spatial dimensions plustime) reconstruction of this important mirelandscape, potentially capable of predicting patternsof human activity on and around the area throughtime. Analyses of wetland morphology, vegetationchange and hydrology have provided theframework for the generation and testing of

environmental needs, be it commercially-fundedor part of a research project.

The Landscape and Environmental ArchaeologyGroup is therefore pioneering an integratedapproach far removed from most people’sperceptions of conventional environmentalarchaeology. Further details of the team and moreinformation on our work can be found at www: ba-env.bham.ac.uk.

Royston [email protected]

Andrew [email protected]

22 23

Environmental archaeologyat BIRMINGHAM Royston Clark and Andrew Howard

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Sampling of Mesolithic submerged

forest at Gravel Banks

Neolithic(?) submerged forest

in the Dyfi Estury

Hatfield Moor. Excavation of a Neolithic

trackway dated to 2900-2500BC

3D image of Holocene river

channel in the North Sea


Waterlogged archaeological deposits are wellknown for their preservative qualities but are theseincredibly important sites at risk? The Somersetpeatlands contain more waterlogged prehistoricscheduled monuments than the rest of Englandcombined, and the Sweet Track and GlastonburyLake Village have produced the largest range ofNeolithic and Iron Age material culture of any sitesin the UK. The area is also thought to contain thelongest lowland peat sequence in England, holdingvital information on changing climate, sea level andthe natural environment, and the effects of humanson the landscape.

Although the Somerset moors have been spared therapid destruction by arable that has occurred on theFens, recent studies showed significant wastage asthe deposits dried out, oxidised and decayedbecause of insufficient irrigation. In response,English Heritage, Somerset County Council and theEnvironment Agency set up the Monuments at Riskin Somerset’s Peatlands (MARIP) project.

At each location small scale excavation allowedextraction of structural wood, pollen, beetles andplant macrofossils to assess their present condition,as previous work on the Sweet Track suggestedthese might be most sensitive to desiccation. Thehydrological regime was also monitored for a year.

The results were interesting but depressing. TwoBronze Age trackways had been completelydestroyed in an area of arable farming. At all otherlocations the water table went below the top of thearchaeological layers at least part of the year. AtMeare Lake Village the low water table had virtuallydestroyed wooden remains, though Glastonburywas the least threatened of all sites. For othermonuments a higher summer water table will berequired to guarantee short term survival, althoughthe very existence of some structures after decadesof seasonal desiccation shows that aspects ofpreservation are not yet fully understood.

The project also answered some research questions,for example a wood and stone causeway betweenStreet and Glastonbury has now been dated to theearly Saxon period. Full palaeoenvironmentalanalysis for locations with little or no previous studywill ensure we have at least some evidence of thesetting of the monuments.

A parallel project has been dating the top ofsurviving peat on different moors. The combinedresults show that each year more is destroyed. Wetgrassland SSSIs on the moors are also mainly in‘unfavourable’ condition but a government target toget them into favourable condition by 2010 isproving a great driver. No such target exists forarchaeology, and once an archaeological site is goneit can never be restored and has disappearedforever. The condition assessment methodology forplant and pollen remains has just been published inEnvironmental Archaeology. The full project resultswill be published in a monograph.

Richard BrunningLevels and Moors ArchaeologistSomerset County CouncilCounty HallSomerset TA1 4DY01823 355517

The pilot project to extend historic landscapecharacterisation into the intertidal zone andout to the limit of UK Territorial Waters isnearing completion at Wessex Archaeology.Begun in November 2004 and supported bythe Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund, theproject has utilised marine environmentaldatasets to characterise human activity overtime in Liverpool Bay.

Although the offshore environments which containand preserve the underwater heritage are subject tonatural processes, the context for those processeshas a strong human dimension. Seascapes has beenexploring marine habitats, models of coastal change,seabed sediments and seabed morphology, inaddition to more conventional historic environmentdata, to describe and define what gives an area ofsea or coast its unique character in terms of thathuman dimension. The project has developed acharacterisation database that incorporates GISmapping and descriptive texts relating to modernsea use, past sea use and archaeological potential.The database can also link in multi-media such asdigital images, view panoramas, and video footage.

The database has been developed on the basis ofgood practice developed by terrestrial historiclandscape characterisation projects. One aim hasbeen to provide a landscape-scale context for theNMR’s 2400 records of shipwrecks, downed aircraft,finds and palaeoenvironmental contexts forLiverpool Bay. As we approach the introduction of amarine spatial planning system, the database willhave a key role in allowing better informed, morefully contextualised historic environment responsesto development proposals by the marine aggregatesindustry and other offshore industries.

The results of the project are to be presented duringthe Maritime Affairs Group session at the IFAAnnual Conference in Edinburgh. Further detailscan be found on: http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/marine/eh/seascapes/ andhttp://www.english-heritage.org.uk/characterisation

Brian Hession, Mags Christie and Deanna GroomWessex Archaeology

arine historic environment explored by England’s Historic Seascapes project

Brian Hession, Mags Christie and Deanna Groom

P e a t l a n d si n p e r i lRichard Brunning

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

The Seascapes GIS

begins to reveal

patterns of human

activity over time

Sampling environmental

remains for assessment beside

the Neolithic Chilton

brushwood trackway

New categories of decay

had to be developed for the

project to enable repeatable

assessments of the condition

of pollen and plant remains.

Here are shown four levels

of erosion of the fruit of

Sparganium erectum

(branched bur-reed).

Photo: Julie Jones

M


Animal bone assemblages recovered from

the Round Tower in 1987 and, following

the great fire in 1992, from the Upper

Ward, were excellently preserved. Many

tens of thousands of fragments were

recovered, of which over 15000 fish, bird

and mammal bones have been recorded,

mainly from kitchens and kitchen middens.

Documentary evidence suggests that the

Round Tower was occupied by the

Constable, a high official responsible for

maintenance and provisioning of the castle,

while the Upper Ward was where the royal

family (Domus Regis) resided.

Castle studies have long focused on the architecturaland military history of these sites, but increasinglyarchaeological data from royal castles and palaces iscontributing to studies of medieval economy andsociety. In particular, animal bone assemblagesprovide opportunities to define elite diet,economies, life styles and other wider themes. Thesebones form one of the richest castle assemblages yetavailable, and are providing insight into foodpreparation and the use of space, diet and status,and management of new food resources.

Diet and s tatusIn medieval royal castles and palaces there werestrict rules regarding what members or guests wereentitled to eat and where they could take theirmeals. A strict etiquette regulated where and for

whom food was prepared. At Windsor a number ofkitchens existed, providing meals for differentgroups of people, including occasional feasts for thepoor. An example of the opulence of royal diet butalso of variation between resident populations isprovided by the species consumed.

In addition to domestic or semi-domestic birdsincluding chicken, goose, duck and pigeons, a widerange of wildfowl was eaten, with at least 28domestic and wild species represented. Highlyprized and restricted fowl such as swan, decorativespecies such as peacock and pheasant, and veryexpensive birds such as heron and bittern arerepresented by a few fragments. However, morewildfowl appears to have been consumed in theUpper Ward (53%) compared to the Round Tower(34%). The abundance of particular wild birds alsovaries. While numbers of grey partridge, woodcock,thrushes and small passerines differ little betweenareas, consumption of teal, waders and quail washigher in the Upper Ward. We know fromcontemporary records that waders such as ploverwere expensive and highly prized by the elite, andthe lower consumption and more restricted access towildfowl in the Round Tower may be indicative oflower status. However, another possibility is that thedecrease in wild taxa may be due to over-hunting,as the assemblage from the Round Tower (late12th/early 13th-mid 14th century) may be later thanfrom the Upper Ward (late 12th century).

New food resourcesIn addition to fowl and geese, pigeons are wellrepresented at Windsor. While some bones may befrom the large wood pigeon Columba palumbus, thesize of others suggests that they are from the smallerpigeons, rock or stock dove. Rock dove, Columba

livia, is considered the wild progenitor of domesticbreeds and feral populations. The domestication ormanagement of pigeons has a long history, but inEngland its practice and popularity increasedduring the medieval period. Pigeon keeping wasoriginally restricted to the gentry, and dovecotes orcolumbaria were erected on manorial properties forthe supply of meat and as a symbol of the owner’sstatus. The young birds (squabs) were generallyconsumed at 4 weeks, when still in down and theirflesh succulent.

Windsor pigeon bones show that adult and juvenilebirds were consumed in both parts of the Castle,but numbers of young birds were much higher inthe Round Tower, perhaps reflecting adoption ofnew and tasty ‘managed’ foods to compensate forthe decline or restriction on wild fowl. However,their consumption in at least equal frequencywould be expected in the Upper Ward also. Thedisparity may reflect the slightly later date of theRound Tower assemblage, reflecting the growingfashion of dove-keeping and adoption of squabs asa new luxury food.

Food preparation, waste and the use of spaceAs well as strict rules about where food preparationcould be undertaken, we know that royal cookswent to elaborate lengths in presentation, forexample swan or peacock might be cooked andthen served in their full plumage at banquets. Itcomes as no surprise that clear patterns of foodpreparation are apparent in the kitchen waste. Fordomestic and wildfowl, the predominance of head,feet and distal wings is striking. Distribution ofspecific identified bone elements also shows thatfeet of large and small fowl were removed in thekitchen areas. In contrast, the main body parts arebetter represented in the halls or courtyards, andthis has been noted at other castle sites andmonastic houses in England and in high status sitesin continental Europe. Further research at Windsorwill focus on the distinct food groups, for exampledifferent size wildfowl, in an attempt to define inmore detail the etiquette of food preparation andpresentation.

Research on castle assemblages is very active, pastand recent work including analyses for CamberCastle (B Connell, S Davis, A Locker), Carisbrooke

(D Serjeantson), Dudley (R Thomas), GuildfordPalace (Sykes 2005), Launceston (U Albarella and S Davis), Porchester (A Grant) and ScarboroughCastle (J Weinstock). Many of these authors havealso contributed to syntheses of medieval animalbone data, and provided me with copies of theirwork.

Polydora BakerSenior ZooarchaeologistEnvironmental StudiesEnglish Heritage Research DepartmentFort CumberlandPortsmouth, P04 [email protected]

o n a r c h s m e a l s :food provisioning and consumption at W i n d s o r C a s t l e

Polydora Baker

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Windsor Castle (A), showing

location of fire damage in the

Upper Ward (B) and Round

Tower (C). Illustration by John

Vallender

Relative abundance of juvenile

and adult pigeon bones in the

Round Tower (A) and Upper Ward

(B) based on Number of Identified

Specimens (NISP). The pattern is

unlikely to result from

preservation or recovery bias.

&M

28 29

The Museum of London Archaeology Service(MoLAS) employs five human osteologists withinits Specialist Services, working on skeletalassemblages almost exclusively from commercial

excavations. The largest involves several thousandmedieval burials from the cemetery of St

Mary Spital, East London. Recording isdue for completion autumn 2006. Othercontract work includes assessments andclient reports on inhumed andcremated assemblages both in-houseand for external clients, supplemented

with occasional call-outs by theMetropolitan Police.

By necessity the commercial osteologist must beversatile, one day producing a client report on aprehistoric cremation assemblage, the nextanalysing a post-medieval cemetery. The osteologistmust always approach the work with an holisticattitude to funerary archaeology, working closelywith others in the post-excavation team.

At assessment level, basic quantification data iscollected together with demographic informationand gross pathological changes. Collation allowsresearch questions to be drawn up prior to analysis.At Whitechapel Road, excavation produced sixtyburials, possibly associated with the nearbyworkhouse. Assessment indicated theywere predominantly adult, hadnumerous fractures and a highrate of vertebral joint disease.Rates of deficiency diseasesappear low. These findingsraise many status relatedresearch aims.

Analysis of human remains at MoLAS uses anOracle inter-relational database that allows directentry recording. Digital photographs and paper-based pathology documents enhance the computerrecords. One of the largest cemetery excavations thisyear at St Marylebone, Westminster resulted inrecovery of c.300 individuals (1740-1840). Evidenceof dentistry, interpersonal violence, surgery andautopsy has been noted alongside a high prevalenceof rickets and a convincing case of smallpoxosteomyelitis. This promises to be a fascinatingpublication project, integrating osteological andsocial historical data.

Specialist analysis for external clients includes over700 late 18th- and early 19th-century individualsfrom St Pancras (Gifford, led by Phillip Emery). Thissite boasts an archaeologically unique porcelaindental prosthesis. Other recent work includesRoman inhumations and cremations, Victorianmedical specimens from the grounds of the RoyalLondon Hospital, on-site evaluation of humanremains from a medieval leper hospital in Ilford,and Middle Bronze Age cremation burials from WestLondon.

Although an interesting individual may warrantparticular comment, the aim of osteological analysisis to produce population-based data fordetermination of demographic and disease patterns,spatially and across time periods. The coming yearpromises to bring further significant skeletalsamples, particularly from post-medievalcemeteries. Effective osteological analysis increasesour knowledge of the social, medical and economichistory of past peoples, allowing us to betterunderstand the evolution of disease and changes inhuman populations through time.

Natasha PowersHuman OsteologistMuseum of London Specialist [email protected]

uman bone specialists frequently employmethods of forensic investigation when studyingtrauma. Several examples of cranial injury havebeen found in the medieval Spitalfields cemetery ineast London, originally a priory burial ground fromwhich over ten thousand skeletons were excavated.Here are the quite dramatic multiple injuries thataffected a medieval male individual (context[26580]) who died between 36 and 45 years of age,c.1350-1630.

Lesion A was a vertical sharp-force blade woundwhich sliced open the parietal and temporal bones.The edges of the wound, which may have beencaused by a sword, axe, or blade of a poleaxe, arerounded rather than sharp, indicating that it ishealed. Lesion B, bisected by Lesion A, is oval andhas depressed the outer surface of the skull. Thisblunt force trauma can result from a blow by a bluntweapon or from an object hitting, or falling onto, thehead. It too is well healed. Lesion C is a large butshallow oval depression or ‘pond’ fracture. Theinjury is fully healed and represents blunt forcetrauma caused by a weapon (or projectile) with asub-oval profile striking the left temporal bone withmoderate force. This type of wound may even becaused by a punch and may be contemporary withLesion A, caused by the follow-through of the fist orthe butt of the sword into the temporal areafollowing the blade strike.

Lesion D, near the topof the head, was apenetrating wound thatperforated the skull,caused by an extremelyhard blow to the headfrom close quarters or afast-moving projectile.The form and angle ofthe hole suggests thatthe object had arounded profile andthat the line of forceoriginated from thefront and above thevictim at an angle of about 45º to horizontal. Greatforce or high velocity was needed to puncture thisthick area of the cranium, and the type andapproximate diameter (15mm) of this injury do notrule out an arrow strike. Two sharp incisions just tothe front of Lesion D may reflect attempts to treatthe wound by lifting soft tissue to allow removal ofbone splinters, reducing the risk of infection.

The cranial lesions show that thisindividual suffered at least twoand possibly four episodes ofcranial trauma, a classicexample of repeat injurydue to interpersonalviolence. Two injuriesfully penetrated thecranium, probablycausing haemorrhageand brain injury, which in many cases would haveproved lethal, but all the woundswere healed at the time of death.

This man’s lifestyle was clearly perilous but hisstatus allowed him a high standard of surgicalintervention and aftercare. This type of treatmentwas available in medieval London, if only to aminority of the population.

Don WalkerHuman [email protected]


OSTEOLOGICALWORK at the

MUSEUM OF LONDONARCHAEOLOGY SERVICE

Natasha Powers

A s o l d i e r ’s l i f e ? Multiple cranial trauma from medieval London

Don Walker

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

St Mary Spital

Period 2: AD 50–250

There were 52

adults and an

unbalanced

distribution between

the sexes. Male and

female age profiles

show a similar

profile, with a peak

number of deaths

occurring in the

36–45 year group

St Mary Spital Period 3: AD 250–410

There were 45 adults: proportions of males

and females were equal. Male and female

age profiles could only be produced for a

small data set, but show a similar male

distribution to the earlier phase; the female

age distribution is more evenly spread

Photographs:

Andy Chopping

/ MoLAS

H

30 31

Publication is rare

In the early days some excavations were published,and more reports found their way into the Londonarchive, now housed at the Museum of London.Since the advent of developer funded archaeology agreat deal more information is generated, but themajority of this ends up as grey literature, is rarelyfurther published and is hardly ever considered in abroader context. This is a major problem facingmodern archaeology and its many sub-disciplines.Without multi-disciplinary and multi-site research itis difficult to move the subject of archaeologyforward. Regional research is an obvious way aheadbut this too is hampered by difficulties in accessingunpublished data. Archaeologists also recognise theneed to reconstruct environments and landscapes ofthe past, in order to understand past humanlifestyles and cultures.

Databases for the environment

Integration of data from environmental research intomainstream excavation reports is essential forreconstructing the past, but attempting to find suchdata without an index is hit and miss. The LondonArchaeological Archive and Research Centre onlinecatalogue allows searches of sites and registeredfinds but not environmental data. A similar problemafflicts the Greater London Sites and MonumentsRecord (GLSMR) – for instance a search on‘environment’ pulled up only 30 records. To addressthis problem, several initiatives are currentlyunderway in Greater London.

Absolute dates

The first of these is a database of all absolute datesestimated for samples from excavations, boreholes,etc from the London region. The database is lodgedon the GLSMR, and draws together over a thousandradiocarbon, archaeomagnetic and opticallystimulated luminescence dates. Dates are not strictlyenvironmental, and will not be discussed furtherhere. A commentary to accompany the database iscurrently moving towards publication.

Pollen

The second project is the creation of a database of allpollen samples examined in Greater London.Significant pollen analysis has been done over the


Archaeological excavation has taken place

in Greater London for hundreds of years.

At first recording and classification of sites

and artefacts was rather erratic and

unscientific, giving rise to many Caesar’s

Camps and fairy thunderbolts. With the

advent of more rigorous practitioners such

as Augustus Pitt-Rivers and Mortimer

Wheeler, collection of archaeological

material improved, with assignment of

provenances and compilation of

assemblages and archives that could actually

be used. At the same time, collection of

environmental information gradually

improved, initially with bones and plant

remains – often samples of wood that fell

apart because they were left unconserved.

EnvironmentalArchaeology andthe GreaterLondon Sites andMonumentsRecordJane Sidell, Yvonne Edwards and

Barry Taylor

Oak

Lycopodium

Lime

Hazel

Grass

Calluna

Alder

Pine

last thirty years, particularly since the advent ofPPG16 which led to an expansion of the arearoutinely examined archaeologically into the wetterand more organically rich parts of London.However, much of this work has not been publishedand may never be so, as it largely based onevaluations of peat-land sites with little physicalarchaeology. Pollen records were obtained from thekey pollen analysts in the region, Rob Scaife andNick Branch, whilst others were tracked downthrough the grey literature and published works.Thus far, 165 reports have been found and added tothe new database on the GLSMR. The recordsinclude the usual location and dating informationbut are split by period, starting with pre-Devensianand going through to the early modern period.Records are subdivided for each period byenvironment type, eg tundra, wet woodland, marshetc. In addition, key species are recorded and keybotanical events, such as the elm decline and therise of cereals. This work was undertaken as part ofa Masters degree at little financial cost. The plan isto make this database available online therebycreating a remarkable research tool for London’svegetation history.

Environmental datasets

The third project concerns the assembly of severalenvironmental datasets. This is currently beingpiloted for several London boroughs. Excavationrecords are sifted for information relating tobotanical, zoological and geological finds, andsubdivided by period and class of material, withadditional fields for levels of preservation andpotential. The information is being transferred todatabases integral to the GLSMR

We now face the task of keeping all of these datasetsup to date. However, the research potential is clearand there is great goodwill from contracting unitsand specialists to let their data be used for broaderresearch. The databases and environmental findsindices will facilitate drawing together of differenttypes of information and allow questions to beanswered which will lead to synthetic research.

Jane SidellYvonne Edwards Barry [email protected]

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

The flora of Roman roads, towns and gardensGill Campbell and Allan Hall

3332

The question of whether a plant was introducedby the Romans as well as whether it was grownhere during the Roman period has long exercisedthe minds of biogeographers and archaeologists.Some, such as dates, black pepper and olives,clearly represent exotic imports while others such as fig and mulberry may have been grown in thiscountry. However, in looking at the overall picture three factors are of importance: trade,creation of new habitats and the acquirement ofnew tastes.

RoadsGodwin, in his History of the British Flora (1975)discussed the effect of long distance transport onthe spread and expansion of arable weed flora inBritain during the Roman period. He pointed outthat building roads and the movement of goodsalong this transport network allowed weeds thatwere locally common to spread into other areas,greatly expanding their distribution. It has beenestimated that the road network provided some6000 acres of bare ground of varying geology,drainage and moisture content over a period of 50years (Salisbury 1961). In addition, importation of

grain and other goods provided a constantintroduction of weeds whose Mediterranean originwould probably have caused them to die out after afew years, due to low frost tolerance. Whilst manyof the weeds regarded as Roman introductions byGodwin, weeds eg Agrostemma githago (corn cockle),Anthemis cotula (stinking mayweed), and Lathyrusnissolia (grass vetchling), have now been recoveredfrom earlier deposits, they become more abundantin assemblages of Roman date.


TownsSites in York, London, and other towns such asSilchester and Colchester have provided most of thearchaeobotanical records for exotic imports.However towns also represent another new habitatand one which seems to support a recognisableflora. Hemlock (Conium maculatum), henbane(Hyoscyamus niger) and weld (Reseda luteola) arefrequently recorded in urban archaeologicaldeposits. Other typical members of this groupinclude Chenopodium ficifolium (fig-leavedgoosefoot), Chenopodium murale (nettle-leavedgoosefoot) and members of the nettle family such asBallota nigra (black horehound). The fact that someof these species are associated with wet ground orbankside vegetation may reflect their originalhabitats but they seem to have flourished inbackyards.

GardensSome plants that have since become naturalised inBritain are Roman garden escapes. Fennel(Foeniculum vulgare) can be considered in thiscategory as can greater celandine (Chelidoniummajus). The first records of that bane of gardeners,ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria), which wasused as a pot herb, also date from this time.

In addition to plants grown in ‘kitchen’ gardens thecreation of formal gardens had an effect on localflora and led to introduction of new species.Remains of box (Buxus sempervirens) leaves, fruitsand twigs are frequently recovered from wells andother waterlogged features. Although this is classedas a native plant, it is clear that box was deliberatelyplanted in Roman settlements, since it is found wellbeyond its present range (Dickson, 1994). It may nothave been grown purely for aesthetic reasons.Leaves are also found in Roman burials, as theywere believed to keep the grave sweet and perhapsserved as a symbol of eternal life.

Spruce (Picea abies) is not recorded again in thiscountry until the 17th century when it appears tohave been reintroduced from Germany, but it hasbeen recorded from two Roman sites. Cones werefound at Aston, in Oxfordshire while leaves, shoots,wood and cones were recorded from pond fills atGodmanchester (Murphy, forthcoming). It seems thatin our climate spruce trees may have been used ingardens as a substitute for Mediterranean cypresses.

Allan Hall is currently updating the ArchaeobotanicalComputer Database (ABCD), Internet Archaeology 1(http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue1/index.html) andwould be interested to hear of any other recent interestingarchaeobotanical records.

An exhibition on Roman plants, The Roman’s GreenInvasion, can be seen at the Museum of FulhamPalace, London SW6 6EA until 9 July 2006. Openingtimes: Wednesday, Saturday, Sunday 2-4pm,admission free.

Gill CampbellHead of Environmental Studies English HeritageFort CumberlandPortsmouth P04 9LDtel: 02392 856780

Allan HallEnglish Heritage Senior Research FellowDepartment of ArchaeologyUniversity of YorkThe King’s ManorYork YO1 7EP

Dickson, C 1994 Macroscopic fossils of gardenplants from British Roman and Medievaldeposits, in D Moe, JH Dickson, PM Jorgensen(eds) Garden History: Garden plants, species, forms& varieties from Pompeii to 1800, Pact 42, 42-7

Murphy, P forthcoming Rectory Farm,Godmanchester, Cambridgshire (Site 432), Plantmacrofossils from Neolithic, Bronze Age, Roman andSaxon contexts (English Heritage Research Report)

Salisbury E, 1961 Weeds and Aliens, London,Collins

Fennel, a Roman

kitchen garden

import now growing

wild on the South

coast. Photograph:

John Vallender

Spruce cones from

Godmanchester

(P Murphy/English

Heritage)

Greater celandine,

another Roman

import, also now

grows wild.

Photograph: John

Vallender

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

34 35

and contractors do, and that is why they areproperly remunerated. In my role of consultant, Ihave unilaterally developed and implemented thisapproach on several projects. It has been a steeplearning curve in which I have made mistakes, tomy financial cost, but the contractors havecommenced knowing that as long as they workedefficiently, they could not lose money. The mostrecent has been an unqualified success: work was

been done well, the contractor has beenremunerated for what was actually encountered andthe client understands fully the link between resultsand costs and is therefore happy.

Anyone interested in making a profit?

Michael [email protected]


The intellectual nature and unpredictabilityinherent in archaeological investigation make thepricing strategies of the construction industryinapplicable to archaeology. This is a myth, born ofignorance and professional immaturity. It preventsus generating the profits necessary for satisfactoryarchaeological research and the technical andprofessional development enjoyed by otherdisciplines. It creates a vicious spiral of ignorance,under-achievement and poverty.

Fixed price problemsCurrently, most excavation projects are based on‘Fixed Price’ quotes (in this article I excludeevaluations, watching briefs etc). The archaeologicalcontractor carries all the risk and invariably has to‘cut his cloth’ to meet the budget. No civilengineering contractor or building contractor wouldundertake a project on this basis. Leaving aside thebenefits they enjoy by virtue of mutually agreedconditions of such as the ICE Conditions of Contractfor Archaeological Investigations, contractors arenormally remunerated on the basis of a ‘measured’comparison between what they have done andwhat they were told they were going to do in a ‘Billof Quantities’ or a ‘Schedule of rates’ against whichthey tendered.

Cost or price?Groundworks, and indeed all ‘measured’construction work, are normally measured usingthe Standard Method of Measurement, now in its7th edition – hence SMM7. To allow for the inherentunpredictability of subsoils, geology, groundwaterand obstacles such as old foundations, SMM7classifies excavation by method, profile anddimension: ie it provides categories to which the QSand contractor will mutually agree the closest fit.Those categories are known at tender stage, so thecontractor prices the work on the basis of thosecategories and the given dimensions of the design.Samples, processing and report preparation in siteinvestigation contracts are all priced as itemisedcosts, the latter based on a given number ofboreholes, trial pits, samples etc. The tendered priceand final ‘out turn’ price are rarely the same, buttheir relationship is transparently based on themethod of measurement, the specification and theconditions of contract. Invariably, the profit marginis explicit as a percentage of the costs: it is thedifference between cost and price. Both partiesexpect the contractor to make a reasonable profit. Itrequires methodological exactitude and scrupulousrecord keeping.

There is no reason why this cannot be applied toexcavations. Clients routinely do not ask for it becausetheir advisors – usually QSs, architects or surveyors –are unaware that we create and archive detailedmetric and qualitative records. Every one of us, whentendering, intuitively estimates the quantities andforms of archaeological deposit, artefacts andenvironmental materials that will be encountered. Our‘Fixed Price’ tenders are based on a nominal ‘Bill ofQuantities’, albeit one of our own making.

Intuitive classificationsCreation of an archaeological Bill of Quantitiesrequires two slight changes to the way most of usoperate, and creates a more demanding role forconsultants. First, evaluation has to be designed andreported more rigorously. Currently, evaluations aredesigned to meet the needs of curators: is thereanything there? How important is it? We also needto know ‘How much’? This requires volumetricanalysis of deposits, artefacts and environmentalmaterials. Secondly, we have to formalise ourintuitive classification of archaeological quantitiesand develop our own SMM. Anyone of us withenough experience of a geographical area andarchaeological period or culture, equipped with agood evaluation report, could quickly arrive at arough classification of, for instance, the types,profiles and dimensions of linear features likely toexist within a given site. For instance, a laterprehistoric settlement in my neck of the woods willprobably have ‘U’ and ‘V’ shaped ditches/gulleysfalling into three broad size categories. It would beunlikely to have broad flat bottomed ditches, asthese are a characteristic of funerary monuments. Itwill also have postholes, pits of two or three types,several cubic metres of buried soils, hearths andhuge quantities of animal bone and worked flint. All these can be measured to acceptable degrees ofaccuracy.

Costing finds and samplesFinds and sample processing are easily costed onthis basis, either by volume, weight or numberdepending on the material. Assessment and analysisare slightly different issues, as they are intellectualtasks that cannot be measured. I suggest they becosted as percentages of the costs arising directlyfrom the quantities of deposits, finds etc. Increasesin actual quantities would automatically lead to anincrease in assessment and analysis budgets.

This might seem onerous, but it’s child’s playcompared to what the construction professionals

Costing the earth…and the finds and the soil samples: alternatives to the ‘fixed price’

Michael Heaton

W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Michael Heaton isstudying buildingsurveying andconstructionmanagement at theUniversity of theWest of Englandwhilst practising asan archaeologicalcontractor andconsultant

BILL OF QUANTITIES

NB:Variation in Site Operations costs will be based on measurement on-site on the basis of the Unit of Quantity, which will form the factor of invoiced sums for each item. Bulk Finds areenumerated by weight because this cannot be affected by fragmentation – the Contractor is advised to consult the evaluation report to assess the degree of fragmentation likely. Variationsin Assessment costs will be proportionate to the increase or decrease in Site Operations costs, subject to sub-sampling where feasible for increases of >20%.

Item Description Unit of quantity Price per Provisional Sumunit quantity

1 Preliminaries 1.1 Public Indemnity and Employers Liability Insurance Lump sum 11.2 Prepare H&S Plan and Programme Lump sum 11.3 Facilities (offices, tea hut, toilet, tool store etc.) Lump sum per month 31.4 Establish survey control for all five sites lump sum 11.5 Submit monthly progress reports and statements Lump sum 121.6 Sub total for Preliminaries

2 Site Operations 2.1 Supervise mechanical excavation of overburden from gabion footings AIFA grade day rate x 1 202.2 Observe and EDM-survey topsoil strip at Sites 2-5 AIFA grade day rate x 2 20

Excavate archaeologically, recover finds and soil samples and record Medieval and RB waster dump materials 0.5 cubic metre 2.3 Excavate archaeologically, recover finds and soil samples and record stratified kilns and related deposits other 0.5 cubic metre 150

than waster dumps.Excavate archaeologically, recover finds and soil samples and record pre-pottery industry (prehistoric) deposits 0.5 cubic metre

2.4 Archaeomagnetic date samples (includes analysis and report costs) Lump sum per context sampled 102.5 Thermoluminescence date sample (site costs only) Specialist day rate 52.6 Assess on-site and discard the ‘un-featured’ pottery and fired clay assemblage. Assume high degree of 24”x32” rubble sack nom. 200

fragmentation (see evaluation report) weight 20kg2.7 Sub total for Site Operations

3 Process retained artefacts and soil samples 3.1 Pottery 1 Kg 2003.2 Animal bone 1 Kg 203.3 Fired clay 1 Kg 103.4 Cu alloy objects 10 13.5 Ferrous objects excl. nails 10 13.6 Nails 10 103.7 Dressed or ‘Foreign’ stone 10 13.8 CBM 1kg 13.9 Flotation samples 10 litre sample 403.10 Sub total for Processing

5 Post-excavation Assessment 5.1 Estimate (now) of post-excavation Assessment costs expressed as a percentage of Site Operation costs Lump sum percentage 15.2 Prepare costed project design for Post-excavation Analysis and Publication lump sum 15.3 Sub total for post-excavation Assessment

6 Post excavation analysis and publication6.1 Estimate (now) of post-excavation Analysis costs expressed as a percentage of Site Operation costs Lump sum percentage 16.2 Sub total for Post-excavation Analysis and Publication

7 Archive costs 7.1 Microfilm archive Lump sum 17.2 ‘Box grant’ to Hampshire Museums Service Lump sum 17.3 Sub total for Archive costs

8 Contract sum (1.6 + 2.7 + 3.10 + 5.3+623+7.3)Day rate for single AIFA-grade excavator/technician plus transport and management support day rate

Page from SMM7 dealing with Class D20 - excavations. This explains how the costed items are categorised and how measurements are made. Prices are not entered in this

format. © RICS and BEC, 1998


English Heritage publishes free guidelines on a range of archaeological practices, a series that is constantly being added to, andrevised editions prepared. The following list includes those currently available, many of which are accessible on the HELMwebsite www.helm.org.uk/. For hard copies contact the English Heritage Customer Services Team at [email protected], or telephone 0870 333 1181, quoting the Product Code. A few are unfortunately at or near the end of their printruns (listed below as ‘out of print’) but it would be worth enquiring at [email protected] in case copies,or photocopies, can still be made available.

Information about all free publications from English Heritage (including a wider range of guideline documents covering thebuilt heritage, planning, information management, conservation principles etc.) can be found at http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.1630;

Select committees are quite a recent politicalinnovation: established in 1979, they allowMPs and peers to scrutinise the work ofGovernment in greater depth than the cutand thrust of political debate permits. Thereare eighteen select committees, one for eachdepartment of state and four that look atcross departmental issues (Public Accounts,Public Administration, Environmental Auditand European Scrutiny). Their remit is toinvestigate expenditure, administration andpolicy of the department they shadow, andwithin this remit to hold inquiries into anysubject they choose. They put out a generalcall for written responses to specific issuesand questions. Anyone can submit evidence,and the committee will then put together alist of witnesses to give oral evidence, whichmight include the relevant Secretary of Stateor Minister.

Oral evidence is almost always held in public andthe public are welcome to attend, but committeediscussions are held in private, away from partypolitical pressure or whips demanding loyalty to theparty line, one reason why select committee reportsare often much more sensible and hard-hitting thanofficial Government reports. Except on the rareoccasion when members cannot agree and thedissenters produce a minority report, the consensusachieved makes a powerful cross-party statement.

The government is expected to reply to the reportand address its recommendations within twomonths of publication, but it often fails to do so.Government’s response is often very bland and

disappointing, which begs the question ‘whybother?’ Quite simply because a good selectcommittee report stimulates public debate andprovides public bodies and pressure groups withrobust data and arguments – perhaps achieving achange of policy later on. A good example is thereport that resulted from the ODPM SelectCommittee inquiry into the ‘Role of HistoricBuildings in Urban Regeneration’ (2004), whichcontains trenchant criticism of developers whosweep away the historic environment as if it weresome form of site contaminant.

Can we expect a similarly trenchant commentary onthe contentious issues in the forthcoming DCMSSelect Committee inquiry on ‘Protecting, preservingand making accessible our nation’s heritage’? Thecommittee has drawn up an exhaustive list of issuesthat it wants to look into, including

• ‘the remit and effectiveness of DCMS, English Heritage and other relevant organisations in representing heritage interests

• the balance between heritage and development needs in planning policy

• the priority placed by planning authorities on conservation

• means of making conservation expertise more accessible to planning officers, councillors and the general public’.

These are all issues of great concern to IFAmembers, some of whom will no doubt be called togive evidence at the oral sessions in February andMarch 2006. The report itself should be published inJuly 2006: further information can be found atwww.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/culture__media_and_sport/cms051115.cfm.

Christopher CatlingEditor, SALON-IFA

P A R L I A M E N TA R Y S E L E C T C O M M I T T E E SChristopher Catling

Archaeological science and survey: guidelines from English Heritage

Guidelines for the Care of Waterlogged ArchaeologicalLeather 1995Out of print (contact [email protected]).

Waterlogged Wood: guidelines on the recording, sampling,conservation, and curation of waterlogged wood ndOut of print (contact [email protected]).

Geophysical survey in archaeological field evaluation 1995Out of print (contact [email protected] see http://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740)(Under revision).

Archaeometallurgy 2001Hard copy (Product Code 50573) orhttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Environmental Archaeology: a guide to the theory andpractice of methods, from sampling and recovery to post-excavation 2002Out of print, but seehttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740 orhttp://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.8962(Under revision).

Human Bones from Archaeological Sites: guidelines forproducing assessment documents and analytical reports 2002Hard copy (Product Code 50723) orhttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

With Alidade and Tape: graphical and plane table survey ofarchaeological earthworks 2002Hard copy (Product Code 50692) orhttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Where on Earth are We? The Geographical PositioningSystem (GPS) in archaeological field survey 2003Out of print, but seehttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Coastal Defence and the Historic Environment 2003Out of print, but seehttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740(Under revision)

Dendrochronology: guidelines on producing and interpretingarchaeological dates 1998Out of print but seehttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Geoarchaeology: using earth sciences to understand thearchaeological record 2004Hard copy (Product Code 50848) orhttp://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Archaeological Science at PPG16 interventions: best Practicefor Curators and Commissioning Archaeologists 2004only at http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/archaeological_science_at_ppg16.pdf

Treatment of Human remains from Christian Burial grounds in England 2005Hard copy (Product Code 51001), or http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.8962

Guidelines on the X-radiography of archaeological metalwork 2006Hard copy (Product Code: 51163)

With the Environment Agency:

Guidance on assessing the risk posed by land contaminationand its remediation on Archaeological Resource ManagementEnvironment Agency Science Report P5-077/SR,http://www.helm.org.uk/server/show/nav.7740

Guidelines in progress

During 2006 we will publish guidance notes on:

Archaeomagnetic Dating

Science for Historic Industries

Storage of waterlogged macroscopic plant remains

Understanding the Archaeology of Landscapes: principles ofgood recording practice.

EDM Traversing

The Historic Environment in Shoreline Management Plan Review(to supplement and amplify Shoreline Management Plans.A guide for coastal defence authorities (Defra, 2006).

Piling and Archaeology

Other Guidelines in preparation include:

Investigative Conservation

Archaeological textiles

Inclusion of archaeological science data in HERs

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Geoarchaeology: using earth sciences

to understand the archaeological

Record

English Heritage 2004 30pp. Free

Over the past two decades important papers andbooks have demonstrated the need forarchaeologists to understand the processes drivinglandscape evolution and rates of geomorphologicalchange in order to interpret patterns of humanactivity and to assess the potential forarchaeological preservation and potential forprospection within contrasting geological terrains.

Geoarchaeology should clearly now be an integralpart of any landscape archaeology study and formthe foundations of project design.

In response, English Heritage has produced a set ofguidelines, following previous guidelines focusedon Environmental Archaeology (Product Code 50691)and Human Bone from Archaeological Sites (ProductCode 50723). These current guidelines are writtenby an experienced team of EH geoarchaeologists,with informal refereeing of the text by practisinggeoarchaeologists, archaeologists and otherspecialists from EH, field archaeology units anduniversities.

The booklet is well structured under clear headings.Section 1 deals with site formation processes anddeposits associated with natural sedimentaryenvironments as well as deposits generated throughhuman activity. Section 2, geological approaches tostratigraphy, considers the description of sediments,stratigraphy, methods of sub-surface investigation,sampling and techniques for describing both thephysical and chemical parameters of sediments. Thenext three sections consider typicalgeoarchaeological questions; project organizationand planning; and how to get help, which isessentially a list of EH Regional Science Advisors.Appendix 1 provides additional information onmethods and Appendix 2 is a glossary of terms.

The level of detail and quality of the informationprovided throughout is extremely high and Iparticularly like the inset boxes of colour-codedtables, which provide summaries of key pointsand/or additional information. The quality ofprinting and clarity of the figures and plates areexcellent. Gaps in relevant subject areas, such asconsideration of geophysics and other remotesensing techniques, will form the basis of laterguidelines.

The Exploitation and Cultural Importance of Sea Mammalsedited by Gregory G Monks

Biosphere to LithosphereNew studies in vertebrate taphonomyedited by Terry O’Connor

Diet and Health in Past Animal PopulationsCurrent research and future directionsedited by Jessica Davies, Marian Fabi?, Ingrid Mainland,Mike Richards and Richard Thomas

The First Steps of Animal DomesticationNew Archaeozoological approachesedited by Jean-Denis Vigne, Joris Peters and DanielHelmer

The Zooarchaeology of Fats, Oils, Milk andDairyingedited by Jacqui Mulville and Alan K Outram

ArchaeomalacologyMollusca in former environments of humanbehaviouredited by Daniella E Bar-Yosef

Volumes in press

Integrating Zooarchaeologyedited by Mark Maltby

Beyond ‘affluent-foragers’The development of fisher-hunter-societies intemperate regionsedited by Colin Grier, Jangsuk Kim and Junzo Uchiyama

Equids in Time and Spaceedited by M Mashkour

Recent Advances in Ageing and Sexing AnimalBonesedited by D Ruscillo

Dogs and People in Social, Working, Economic orSymbolic Interactionedited by Lynn Snyder and Elizabeth Moore

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Oxbow Books is presently publishing the largestseries of zooarchaeology books ever produced. The2002 Conference of the International Council ofArchaeozoology (ICAZ) led to the production of 14thematic volumes, nine of which have come outwith five more in press. The publication programmereflects the diversity of the conference themes andincludes contributions not just by zooarchaeologistsbut other researchers involved in associateddisciplines. The series is edited by UmbertoAlbarella, Keith Dobney and Peter Rowley-Conwy,with individual volumes edited by the organisers ofthe respective sessions. Libraries interested in settingup a standing order for the purchase of the wholeseries are entitled to a substantial discount (detailsfrom Oxbow Books).

Behaviour Behind BonesThe zooarchaeology of ritual, religion, status and identityedited by Sharyn Jones O’Day, Wim Van Neer andAnton Ervynck

Colonisation, Migration and Marginal AreasA zooarchaeological approachedited by Mariana Mondini, Sebastián Muñozand Stephen Wickler

The Future from the PastArchaeozoology in wildlifeconservation and heritagemanagementedited by Roel CGM Lauwerierand Ina Plug

International Council of Archaeozoology books

Umberto Albarella

T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t40

If I have any reservations it is not with the content.Ironically, it is that they might just be too wellwritten and too comprehensive. The authors stressthroughout that an experienced geoarchaeologistshould be consulted, and really the aim is to informthe non-specialist archaeologist of the potential ofgeoarchaeology and the approaches that might betaken at site level, particularly in a developer–funded context. In these times of competition it maybe too easy to consider that these guidelines are adefinitive textbook which qualify individuals toundertake such specialist work themselves.However, if used correctly as a consultativedocument to inform a project leader and as a vehicle

to seek further specialist help, it is invaluable and Iwould urge all archaeologists in the UK to have acopy on their shelf.

Copies can be order from English Heritage’sCustomer Services Department, Swindon, quotingthe Product Code 50848 ([email protected]).

Andy J HowardInstitute of Archaeology and AntiquityUniversity of BirminghamEdgbaston Birmingham, B15 [email protected]

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ELECTED Member (MIFA)

John Gribble

Stephen Haynes

Jon Henderson

Kathryn Laws

Robert Perrin

John Shepherd

Iain Soden

Kim Stabler

Associate (AIFA)

Diana Blumberg

Kirsty Dingwall

Julian Jansen Van

Rensburg

James Leary

John Russell

Adele Shaw

Jon Sterenberg

Rosemary Wheeler

Practitioner (PIFA)

Nathalie Barrett

Michelle Bullivant

Stephen Burman

Adam Corsini

Carmen Cuenca-

Garcia

Natasha Gaddas

Fiona Lee

Richard Lello

Stephen Thorpe

William Wilcox

Student

Richard Benjamin

Gary Booth

Rebecca Briscoe

Michael Coe

Hannah Cowie

Jacqueline Dennett

Markus Dylewski

Charlotte Faiers

Peter Gane

Christopher Green

Jemma Greenmill

Gareth Griffiths

Lucie Hawkins

Richard Israel

Patricia Jones

Heather Jones

David Marvelley

Kevin Matthews

Laura O’Gorman

Jesse Ransley

Stephanie Spars

Sian Thomas

Richard Walsh

Joanna Wilkins

Affiliate

Simon Best

Margaret Bunyard

Olivia Chalwin

Lindsay Holiday

Peter Whitehouse

Student

Philippa Whitehill

Member (MIFA)

Jim Symonds

Associate (AIFA)

Eliza Gore

Chris Healey

Robert McNaught

Karin Semmelmann

Practitioner (PIFA)

Emma Dwyer

TRANSFERS

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Residential conversion

of Bliss’s Tweed Mill,

Chipping Norton,

Oxfordshire

The Textile Industry of South-West

England: a social archaeology

Marilyn Palmer & Peter Neaverson 2005

Tempus 160pp pb £17.99

The once extensive textile industry of the south-west had an international reputation until the 19thcentury, yet its archaeology is relatively unknown.

The authors, both industrial archaeologists, showhow textile production altered the landscapes andsociety of Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Somerset,Dorset and Devon to a surprising extent. The bookprovides a significant insight into the developmentof domestic and factory-based production andconsumption over six centuries. In addition, itexplores associated economies and topics such asfashion and workers’ housing. The final chapter

concentrates on themills which survivein today’s landscape.

These case studies of conversions and new usesmight benefit conservation and planningprofessionals. Although fewer than in the north, thegradual decline of mills in the south-west hascontributed to their reuse and survival.

The Introduction has useful sections discussing thetheoretical approach to buildings as archaeologyand the complementary role of documentaryresearch. Further details of textile processes may bepursued via the select bibliography. However, moreinformation about the documentary sources andarchive for the book would be useful, perhapsonline.

The Textile Industry of South-West England is anexample of what more archaeological books shouldbe; not simply a methodological approach but, asthe title suggests, what we can actually learn aboutsociety. The well illustrated, clearly writtennarrative successfully integrates the results ofarchaeological and historical study in an accessiblemanner. It is a fascinating book which is highlyreadable in its entirety, as a reference book, orindeed as a guide to the industrial buildings listedin the Index of Places. It should appeal to both theexpert and non-specialist reader, as well as thoseresponsible for deciding the future of industrialbuildings. The book is a fitting tribute to the latePeter Neaverson and his long term collaborationwith Marilyn Palmer.

Catherine Cavanagh

Members news

Royston Clark MIFA has recently moved on fromCPM Environmental Planning and Design to helpset up a new environmental consultancy. TheEnvironmental Dimension Partnership (EDP), basedin Cirencester, covers a broad range ofenvironmental disciplines including archaeologyand cultural heritage, ecology, landscape andrecreation, as well as aiming to have strong linkswith educational and professional organisations.Royston has also been appointed Business OutreachFellow in the School of Historical Studies at theUniversity of Birmingham. The post involvesexploring new opportunities for archaeology andhistorical studies within the educational andcommercial worlds, as well as some teaching inputto MA/MSc courses. [email protected] or [email protected]

Royston Clark

T h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t 43W i n t e r 2 0 0 6 N u m b e r 5 9

Martin Locock MIFA has just completed three yearsas Project Manager at the National Library of Wales,creating Archives Network Wales, a web index toarchive sources in Wales (www.archivesnetwork-wales.info); the website is now live and free to use.In January 2006 he started a new project, CatalogCymru, funded by CyMAL, surveying the backlogof uncatalogued archives held by record offices andother archive services in Wales.

Adrian Olivier MIFA, Strategy Director at EnglishHeritage, has agreed to take on the role of Head ofProfession for Archaeology with immediate effect.Adrian will be the professional focus forarchaeological activity within EH, acting as a focalpoint for enquiries and advice internally and

externally. He will provide a strategic lead for staffthroughout EH on policy and professional issues,foster staff development and training for thediscipline of archaeology, and seek to strengthenlinks with managers and teams working in relatedareas.

John Maloney MIFA, after four years working forEnglish Heritage as Assistant Project Director(Stonehenge Visitor Facilities & Access Scheme), hasrecently joined Halcrow Group Limited as Principal,Archaeology & Cultural Heritage. Halcrow is aninternational engineering company which hasdeveloped a burgeoning Environmental Group withsome 440 staff. John has been a consultant, projectdirector and communicator for some 30 years,worked for AOC Archaeology Group (DeputyManaging Director), Archaeological Aspectsconsultancy (founder) and the Department of UrbanArchaeology, Museum of London (PrincipalExcavations Officer, City). John is also a foundermember of the Institute of Field Archaeologists.

(Where are the women? Please let me have your newstoo! Ed.)

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Dear Editor

Protecting Roman monuments in

towns

Your summer 2005 issue on towns included anarticle on Roman Lincoln, and in particular theposition of Roman monuments in towns. Othercultural resource managers are grappling withanother issue about Roman monuments in towns.In 2005, the German frontier was added to the list ofWorld Heritage Sites and in approving thenomination UNESCO created a new WHS, Frontiersof the Roman Empire. At present, only two frontiersform part of this new WHS, Hadrian’s Wall and theGerman frontier, but it is hoped that in time itmight be extended to include many sections of thefrontier in Europe, the Middle East and northAfrica, all of which help define the Roman empire.

Many parts of the frontier lie below ground inurban environments, and are therefore difficult toprotect. A major challenge for those seeking tocreate this new WHS is to find ways of protectingthese important stretches of the frontier. This hasbecome increasingly important because many of themost important new discoveries about, sayHadrian’s Wall, are being made in urban contexts.Whereas once we might have written off largestretches of the frontier as having been destroyed byurban development, we can now see that 19th- and20th-century buildings have often preservedarchaeological remains which have been destroyedelsewhere through deep ploughing for example.

Furthermore, as part of the process of movingtowards a multi-national WHS, the very concept ofa Roman frontier has to be defined. In this process,

local definitions of the frontier are being challenged.The Hadrian’s Wall WHS, for example, does notinclude the whole of Hadrian’s Wall, but only thoseparts which are scheduled. Thus, the very areaswhich are producing the most exciting andchallenging information about the Wall are not partof the WHS. The way ahead is through more co-operation between central and local government. InScotland we are seeking to create model planningpolicies for the protection of the Antonine Wallthrough Structure Plans supported by a definitionof a corridor containing the Wall which will act as atrigger for consultation in the face of newdevelopments.

Helping define a new World Heritage Site is notonly a challenge for Roman archaeologists, but mayoffer help to other cultural resource managers.

David BreezeHistoric Scotland

L E T T E R S

John Maloney

Martin Locock

Built over but not destroyed: excavation by Tyne and

Wear Museum Service in advance of re-development

on Shields Road, Byker, just east of Newcastle upon

Tyne, revealed not only that the lowest courses of

Hadrian’s Wall survived but that there were three

rows of pits between the Wall and ditch. Photograph

© Tyne and Wear Museums Archaeology

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INSTITUTE OF FIELD ARCHAEOLOGISTSTel: 0118 378 6446 Fax: 0118 378 6448

Email: [email protected] www.archaeologists.net

Annual Conference for Archaeologists

11–13 April 2006

at the University of Edinburgh

Sessions include:

• Live debate on big issues in the historic environment • Archaeology of buildings • British rock art • Mobility and diet in the British early bronze age • Approaches to maritime archaeology around Britain• Highlights of British Archaeology • Roman archaeology• Archaeology and civil engineering • Digital archaeology• Where is the IFA going?

Events:

• Conference dinner, wine reception, party, excursions

Sponsored by:R | B | P | M

Dear Editor

Re: Archaeological finds: a guide to

identification by Norena Shopland

I am writing to you as Chair of the Institute ofConservation Archaeology Group to emphasise themany significant problems with this book. Theadvice that the author gives on the conservation ofarchaeological finds is in many places confusing,misinformed and detrimental to the long-termsurvival of objects. The introduction suggests thatthe author was ‘left alone’ to process finds from aLondon archaeological site, but there are numerousconservators and experienced finds processorsworking in London, able and willing to share theirknowledge. First Aid for Finds is a useful guide oncare of finds, widely known and inexpensive whichcould have provided all she needed to. ConservationAdvice Notes recently published for the PortableAntiquities Scheme is also a good guide.

The impression of this book is that the collectionscare advice has been cobbled from other sources,mixed with personal observations, and that noadvice has been taken from other professionals inspecialist areas. This is disappointing and a missedopportunity. Of particular concern is the impressionthat conservation can be undertaken by anyone,anytime, with no training or special facilities.

There are also numerous misunderstandings,inaccuracies and lack of clarity such as the referenceto ‘pack as normal’, that PEG replaces the cells inwood or the idea that leather is particularly difficultto conserve. There is confusing advice given aboutpreventing iron corrosion. The advice thatarchaeological potash glass is less affected thansoda glass when immersed in water will certainlybe damaging and is plain wrong.

There are also significant omissions, for example theuse of radiography for corroded metals is absent,bar a reference that it may be used for identification.Especially when combined with the advice toremove copper alloy corrosion with a brush, theresults could be damaging to metal surfaces. Thereis no reference to archaeological shale while a

section on jet is included – materials that look verysimilar but can behave quite differently afterexcavation.

ICON-AG is the archaeological section of theInstitute of Conservation - the lead voice for theconservation of cultural heritage in the UK.

Kirsten Suenson-TaylorChair, Institute of Conservation Archaeology Group

Dear Alison,

Re: Archaeological finds: a guide to

identification by Norena Shopland

Following Nicola Powell’s review of the above bookin TA 58, we would like to support her comments,and add the following.

The usefulness of this book is seriously hamperedby its numerous errors (ranging from the dates ofthe early and late Neolithic to the chronology ofpost-Medieval ceramics) and generalisations (suchas p10 ‘bulk finds are often power sprayed’; p81‘most local pottery would be too bulky and heavyto move so tends to have a limited distributionarea’; p179 ‘most Roman brooches date to the 1stand 2nd centuries AD when brooches werefashionable’). Illustrations and images appear onmost pages, but many are unreferenced and lackscale. There is no index. The bibliography containsvery few texts post late-1980s. The author makesscant reference to any of our leading thinkers in thestudy of British artefacts. Many spelling mistakesbetray lack of editing. The advice to dry-brush leadobjects, or to use pink/blue silica gel, represents asignificant health hazard.

There is understandable and considerable anxietyamongst various sections of the finds communitythat such misinformation will become ‘truth’.

Nicola Hembrey, Kayt Brown, Sarah JenningsFinds Specialists

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Documents

Transcript of The Archaeologist 59