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A NASA satellite image of the Thar Desert, with the India-Pakistan border superimposed.

The Thar Desert (Hindi: था�र मरुधर) , a.k.a the Great Indian Desert, is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. With an area of more than 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq. mi.),[1] it is the world's 9th largest subtropical desert.[2]

It lies mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan, and extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Cholistan Desert adjoins the Thar desert spreading into Pakistani Punjab province.

Contents

[hide] 1 Extent of Thar desert 2 Origin 3 Thar in ancient literature 4 Physiography and geology 5 Biodiversity 6 Natural vegetation

o 6.1 Tree species o 6.2 Small trees and shrubs o 6.3 Herbs and grasses o 6.4 Greening desert

7 Desert economy o 7.1 Agriculture o 7.2 Livestock o 7.3 Agro-forestry o 7.4 Ecotourism o 7.5 Industry o 7.6 Salt water lakes

8 People 9 Water and housing in the desert 10 Desert for recreation 11 See also 12 Gallery of plants of Thar desert 13 References

14 Further reading 15 Credits

16 External links

[edit] Extent of Thar desert

In India the thar desert extends from the Sutlej River, surrounded by the Aravalli Range on the east, on the south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kutch (parts of which are sometimes included in the Thar), and on the west by the Indus River. Its boundary to the large thorny steppe to the north is ill-defined. Depending on what areas are included or excluded, the nominal size of the Thar can vary significantly. The Thar desert occupies the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana in India and covers an area of 208,110 km2. The maximum area is covered in Rajasthan, about 3/5th of the total geographical area of the state. Of the total desert in India, 61% falls in Rajasthan, 20% in Gujarat and 9% in Punjab/Haryana. The Indian desert is now said to be expanding at a rate of 1/2 km per year towards Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and M.P.[3] The Thar desert covers 9 districts of Rajasthan: Bikaner, Churu, Sriganganagar, Pali, Jalore, Barmer, Nagaur, jaisalmer and Jodhpur.[2]

In Pakistan, the desert covers the eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Tharparkar District is one of the major parts of the desert area. Tharparkar consists of two words, Thar means ‘desert’ while Parkar stands for ‘the other side’. Years back, it was known as Thar and Parkar but subsequently became just one word ‘Tharparkar’ for the two distinct parts of Sindh province. On the western side, Parkar is the irrigated area whereas Thar, the eastern part, is known as the largest desert of Pakistan. The Parkar area has been formed by the alluvial deposits of river Indus while Thar mostly consists of barren tracts of sand dunes covered with thorny bushes. The only hills of the district, named Karon-Jhar, are in the extreme south-east corner of Nagar Parkar Taluka, a part of Thar. These hills are spread over about 20 kilometers in length and attains a height of 300 meters. Covered with sparse jungle and pasturage, they give rise to two perennial springs as well as streams caused after rain.[4]

[edit] Origin

The origin of the Thar Desert is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 1,000,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier. Another theory states that area turned to desert relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert. It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.

Most of the studies did not share the opinion that the palaeochannels of the Sarasvati coincide with the bed of present day Ghaggar and believe that the Sutlej along with the

Yamuna once flowed into the present Ghaggar riverbed. It has been postulated that the Sutlej was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that subsequently the tectonic movements might have forced the Sutlej westwards, the Yamuna eastwards and thus dried up the Ghaggar.

The studies about Kalibanga in the desert region by Robert Raikes[5] indicate that Kalibangan was abandoned because the river dried up. Prof. B. B. Lal (retd. Director General of Archaeological Survey of India) supports this view by asserting: "Radiocarbon dating indicates that the Mature Harappan settlement at Kalibangan had to be abandoned around 2000-1900 BCE. And, as the hydrological evidence indicates, this abandonment took place on account of the drying up of the Sarasvati (Ghaggar). This latter part is duly established by the work of Raikes, an Italian hydrologist, and of his Indian collaborators".[6]

[edit] Thar in ancient literature

The position of Thar desert (orange colour) in Iron Age Vedic India.

The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean). Ramayana mentions about Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to driup sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.[7]

According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean).

Course of Sarasvati river through Thar desert

The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.

Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.

There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar river.

Mahabharata mentions about Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River. It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert,[8] near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganga and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River. There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).

In Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati.[9] Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī same river.[8]

The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.[10]

The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old. Some fossils of Dinosaurs of 6 million years old have also been found in the area.[7]

[edit] Physiography and geology

The region surrounding Aravalli hills near Ranthambore, Rajasthan, India.

There are three principal landforms in the desert region — the predominantly sand covered Thar, the plains with hills including the central dune free country and the semi-arid area surrounding the Aravalli range.

It is a desolate country where sand is piled up into huge wind blown dunes (known as an erg). The sand dunes are of three types viz., longitudinal parabolic, transverse and barchans. The first type, running NNE-SSW, i.e. parallel to the prevailing winds, occurs to the south and west of the Thar. The transverse dunes, aligned across the wind direction, to the east and south of Thar and barchans, with the concave sides facing the wind in the interior, predominant in Central Thar. On the whole the Thar Desert slopes imperceptibly towards the Indus Plain and surface unevenness is mainly due to sand dunes. The dunes in the south are higher, rising sometimes to 152 m whereas in the north they are lower and rise to 16 m above the ground level.

The Aravalli forms the main landmark to the south-east of Thar Desert. The more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevent the extension of Thar Desert towards the east and the Ganges Valley. In the heart of the sand covered area, the bare, dune free country of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner present an anomaly.[3]

Desert soil - The soils of the Arid Zone are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or gypsum. The pH varies between 7 and 9.5. The soils improve in fertility from west and northwest to east and northeast. Desert soils are Regosols of wind blown sand and sandy fluiratile deposits, derived from the disintegration of rock in the subjacent areas and blown in from the coastal region and the Indus Valley. The desert soils occupy the districts of Jodhpur, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Jalore. The Thar consists mainly of the wind-blown sand. The area is covered not only by sheet of sand but also of rocky projections of low elevations which constitute the older rocks of the country. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, from 30 to 120 m below the ground level.[3]

Some of these soils contain a high percentage of soluble salts in the lower horizons, turning water in the wells poisonous. Being poor in organic matter they show a low loss on ignition. They contain varying amount of calcium carbonate.

[edit] Biodiversity

Indian Gazelle or Chinkara

Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and the Indian

Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor.

Blackbuck male and female

The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer, spread over an area of 3162 km², is an excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert, and its diverse fauna. Great Indian Bustard, Blackbuck, chinkara, desert fox, Bengal fox, wolf, desert cat etc. can be easily seen here. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert. The region is a haven for migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see many eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. Short-toed Eagles (Circaetus gallicus), Tawny Eagles (Aquila rapax), Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga), Laggar Falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels are the commonest of these.

Tal Chhapar Sanctuary is a very small sanctuary in Churu District, 210 km from Jaipur, in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of graceful Blackbuck. Desert Fox and desert cat can also be spotted along with typical avifauna such as partridge and sand grouse.

The Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary in Jalore district (130 km from Jodhpur) is another small sanctuary that is privately owned where a sizeable population of rare and endangered wildlife is present including the Asian-Steppe Wildcat([Ornata]),Leopard, Zird, Desert Fox and herds of Indian Gazelle.

[edit] Natural vegetation

Prosopis cineraria or Khejri

The natural vegetation is classed as Northern Desert Thorn Forest (Champion 1936). These occur in small clumps scattered in a more or less open forms. Density and size of patches increase from West to East following the increase in rainfall. Natural vegetation of Thar Desert is composed of following tree, shrub and herb species.[3]

[edit] Tree species

Acacia jacquemontii, Acacia leucophloea, Acacia senegal, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Anogeissus rotundifolia, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, Tecomella undulata, Tamarix articulata

[edit] Small trees and shrubs

Calligonum polygonoides, Acacia jacquemontii, Balanites roxburghii, Ziziphus zizyphus, Ziziphus nummularia, Calotropis procera, Suaeda fruticosa, Crotalaria burhia, Aerva tomentosa, Clerodendrum multiflorum, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Grewia populifolia, Commiphora mukul, Euphorbia neriifolia, Cordia rothii, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis decidua. Mimosa hamata

[edit] Herbs and grasses

Eleusine compressa, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus hirsutus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale, Dichanthium annulatum, Sporobolus marginatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Erogrostis species, Ergamopagan species, Phragmitis species, Tribulus terrestris, Typha species, Sorghum halepense, Citrullus colocynthis

[edit] Greening desert

Greening desert with plantations of jojoba at Fatehpur, Shekhawati

The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shifting sand dunes within the desert, which bury fences and block roads and railway tracks. Permanent solution to this problem of shifting sand dunes can be provided by fixation of the shifting sand dunes with suitable plant species and planting windbreaks and shelterbelts. They also provide protection from hot or cold and desiccating winds and the invasion of sand.

Checking of shifting sand dunes through plantations of Acacia tortilis near Laxmangarh town

There are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert region and these are slow growing. The introduction of exotic tree species in the desert for plantation has become necessary. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, USA, Russia, Southern Rhodesia, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation and the jojoba is another promising species of economic value found suitable for planting in these areas.

The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas.

[edit] Desert economy

Due to severe weather conditions, there are few highways in the Thar desert. Shown here is a road in Tharparkar District of Sindh, Pakistan.

[edit] Agriculture

The main occupations of people living in the desert are agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area—after the rainy season, at least 33% of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries result in serious land degradation.

Bajra is the main kharif crop in Thar

The agricultural production is mainly from the Kharif crops. The Kharif crops are the crops that are grown in the summer season and are seeded in the months of June and July. These crops are harvested in the months of September and October and include Bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), Pulses, Jowar (Sorghum vulgare), Maize (Zea mays), Sesame and Groundnuts. In past few decades the development of canals, tube wells etc. has changed crop pattern. Now the desert districts in Rajasthan have started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin seed etc. cash crops also.[11]

Thar region of Rajasthan is the main opium producer and consumer area. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The Government of India has started a centrally sponsored scheme under the title of Desert Development Programme based on watershed management with the objective to check spreading of desert and improve the living condition of people in desert.[12]

[edit] Livestock

Camel ride in the Thar desert near Jaisalmer, India.

In the last 15–20 years, the Rajasthan desert has seen many changes, including a manifold increase of both the human and animal population. Animal husbandry has become popular due to the difficult farming conditions. At present, there are ten times more animals per person in Rajasthan than the national average, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climatic and drought conditions.

Cows in Thar desert

A large number of farmers in Thar desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Cow, buffalo, sheep, goats, camel, and ox consists of major cattle population. Barmer district has the highest cattle population out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Some of the best breeds of bullocks such as Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri are from desert region.

Thar region of Rajasthan is the biggest wool-producing area in India. Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal breeds of sheep are found in the region. Of the total wool production in India, 40-50% comes from Rajasthan. The sheep-wool from Rajasthan is considered best for carpet making industry in the world. The wool of Chokla breed of sheep is considered of superior quality. The breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at Suratgarh, Jaitsar and Bikaner. Some important mills for making Woolen thread established in desert area are:Jodhpur Woolen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woolen Mill , Bikaner and India Woolen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi of wool in Asia.[13]

The live stock depends for grazing on common lands in villages. During famine years in the desert the nomadic rebari people move with large herds of sheep and camel to the

forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states like Madhya Pradesh for grazing the cattle.

The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region. Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk-deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district.

[edit] Agro-forestry

Lopping of Khejri tree for fodder and fuel in Harsawa village

Forestry has an important part to play in the amelioration of the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands. If properly planned forestry can make an important contribution to the general welfare of the people living in desert areas. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. They can not afford other fuels like gas, kerosene etc. Fire wood is their main fuel, of the total consumption of wood about 75 percent is firewood. The forest cover in desert is low. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31150 km2. which is about 9% of the geographical area. The forest area is mainly in southern districts of Rajasthan like Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The minimum forest area is in Churu district only 80 km2. Thus the forest is insufficient to fulfill the needs of firewood and grazing in desert districts. This diverts the much needed cattledung from the field to the hearth. This in turn results into the decrease in agricultural production. Agro-forestry model is best suited to the people of desert. Some Institutes have done good work in Agro-forestry.

The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops/fruits, such as Ber trees (like plums) that produce much larger fruits than before (lemon-size) and can thrive with minimal rainfall. These trees have become a profitable option for farmers. One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar (Gola, Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI), using only one hectare of land, yielded 10,000 kg. of Ber and 250 kg. of Guar, which translates into double or even triple profit.[14]

Arid Forest Research Institute, situated at Jodhpur is another national level institute in the region. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ( ICFRE ) working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. The Objective of the Institute is to carry out scientific research in forestry in order to provide technologies to increase the vegetative cover and to conserve the biodiversity in the hot arid and semi arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Dadara & Nagar Haveli union territory.

The most important tree species in terms of providing a livelihood in Thar desert communities is Prosopis cineraria.

Prosopis cineraria provides wood of construction class. It is used for house-building, chiefly as rafters, posts scantlings, doors and windows, and for well construction water pipes, upright posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements and shafts, spokes, fellows and yoke of carts. It can also be used for small turning work and tool-handles. Container manufacturing is another important wood-based industry, which depends heavily on desert-grown trees.

Prosopis cineraria is much valued as a fodder tree. The trees are heavily lopped particularly during winter months when no other green fodder is available in the dry tracts. There is a popular saying that death will not visit a man, even at the time of a famine, if he has a Prosopis cineraria, a goat and a camel, since the three together are some what said to sustain a man even under the most trying condition. The forage yield per tree varies a great deal. On an average, the yield of green forage from a full grown tree is expected to be about 60 kg with complete lopping having only the central leading shoot, 30 kg when the lower two third crown is lopped and 20 kg when the lower one third crown is lopped. The leaves are of high nutritive value. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods have a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock.

Prosopis cineraria is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. Locally it is called Loong. Pods are locally called sangar or sangri. The dried pods locally called Kho-Kha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having

an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 1.4 quintals of pods/ha with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations.

Prosopis cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields.

Tecomella undulata tree in the village of Harsawa

Tecomella undulata is tree species, locally known as Rohida, found in Thar Desert regions of northwest and western India, is another important medium sized tree of great use in Agro-forestry, that produces quality timber and is the main source of timber amongst the indigenous tree species of desert regions. The trade name of the tree species is Desert teak or Marwar teak.

Tecomella undulata is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods.

Tecomella undulata plays an important role in the ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It also acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. Shade of tree crown is shelter for the cattle, goats and sheep during summer days.

Tecomella undulata has medicinal properties as well. The bark obtained from the stem is used as a remedy for syphilis. It is also used in curing urinary disorders, enlargement of spleen, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess.

[edit] Ecotourism

Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for anything from a day to several days. This industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer as well as employment for many camel trekers in the desert villages nearby.

[edit] Industry

Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built from the white marble which was mined from a town called Makrana in Nagaur district. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings, residential buildings, etc. This stone is termed "chittar patthar". Jodhpur has lso got mines of red stone locally known as ghatu patthar used in building work. Sand stone is found in Jodhpur and Naguar districts. Jalore is biggest centre of granite processing units.[13]

Lignite coal deposits are there at places Giral, Kapuradi, Jalipa, Bhadka in Barmer district; Plana, Gudha, Bithnok, Barsinghpur, Mandla Charan, Raneri Hadla in Bikaner district and Kasnau, Merta, Lunsar etc., in Nagaur district. Lignite based Thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. Jindal group is working on 1080 Megawatt power project in private sector at village Bhadaresh in Barmer district. "Neweli Lignite Barsinghpur Project" is under progress to establish two thermal power units of capacity 125 megawatts each at Barsinghpur in Bikaner district. Reliance Energy is working on establishing power generation through underground gasification technique in Barmer district with an outlay of about 3000 crore rupees.[15]

There is large storage of good quality petroleum in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The main places with depsits of petroleum are Baghewal, Kalrewal, and Tawariwal in Jaisalmer district and Gudha Malani area in Barmer district. Barmer district has started petroleum production on commercial scale.[16]

Barmer district is in news due to its large Oil basin. The British exploration company Cairn Energy is going to start the production soon in the year 2009 on large scale. Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya are the major oil fields in the district. This is India's biggest oil discovery in 22 years. This promises to transform the local economy, which has long suffered from the harshness of the desert.

The Government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area,[17] Oil India Limited's discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin.[18] Also known for their fine leather messenger bags made from wild camels native to the area.

The Thar desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from wind power. According to an estimate Rajasthan state has got a potential of 5500 Megawatt wind power generation as such it is in the priority of the state govt. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has established its first wind power based power plant at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district. Some leading companies in the field are working on establishing wind mills in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts. Solar energy also has a great potential in this region as most of the days during a year are cloud free. Solar energy based plant has been established at Bhaleri in Churu district to convert hard water into drinking water.[19]

[edit] Salt water lakes

There are a number of salt water lakes in Thar desert. These are Sambhar, Pachpadra, Tal Chhapar, Falaudi and Lunkaransar where Sodium chloride salt is produced from salt water. The Didwana lake produces Sodium Sulphate salt. Ancient Archaeological evidences of habitations have been recovered from Sambhar and Didwana lakes which shows their antiquity and historical importance.[20]

[edit] People

Huts in the Thar desert

The Indian Desert is mainly inhabited by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. The portion in Pakistan is inhabited by primarily by Sindhis and Kolhis. A colourful culture rich in tradition prevails in the desert. The people have a great passion for music and poetry.

About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan state live in the Thar desert.[2]

The main occupation of the people in desert is agriculture and animal husbandry. In past years there has been a tremendous increase in human population as well as animal population. This has led to improper control of grazing and extensive cultivation resulting into the deterioration of vegetation resources. The increase of human and livestock population in the desert has led to deterioration in the ecosystem resulting in degradation of soil fertility.

The great Derawar Fort located within Bahawalpur, Pakistan

The living standard of the people in the desert is low. The Thar desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2. vs 7 in other deserts.[21]

Jodhpur, the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are located in the desert proper.

A large irrigation and power project has reclaimed areas kaka of the northern and western desert for agriculture. The small population is mostly pastoral, and hide and wool industries are prominent.

A girl from the Gadia Lohars nomadic tribe of Marwar, cooking her food

In Pakistan part of Thar also has a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and castes.

[edit] Water and housing in the desert

Johads are common water sources

Water scarcity plays a vital role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads.[4] Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills.[4] Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are

only available deep underground.[4] Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.[4]

Tanks for drinking water

According to 1980 housing census in Pakistan, there were 241,326 housing units of one or two very small rooms. The degree of crowding was six persons per housing unit and three persons per room.[4] For most of the housing units (approximately 76 per cent), the main construction material of outer walls is unbaked bricks whereas wood is used in 10 per cent and baked bricks or stones with mud bonding in 8 per cent housing units. A large number of families still live in jhugis or huts which are housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks. The wind storm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).[4]

The river Luni is the only natural water source that drains inside a lake in the desert. It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 530 km. The Luni flows through part of Ajmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sirohi districts and Mithavirana Vav Radhanpur region of Banaskantha North Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Guhiya and Sagi from the left, and the Jojari River from the right.

The Ghaggar is another intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of talwara jheel in Rajasthan, this seasonal river feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. It terminates in Hanumangarh district.[22]

The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas. It is world's largest irrigation which is being extended in an attempt to make the desert arable.[23] It runs south-southwest in Punjab and Haryana but mainly in Rajasthan for a total of 650 kilometers and ends near Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan. After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of 6770 km² in Jaisalmer district and 37 km² in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of 3670 km² in Jaisalmer district. The canal has transformed the barren deserts of this district into rich and lush fields. Crops of mustard, cotton, and wheat now flourish in this semi-arid western region replacing the sand there previously.

Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal will supply drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas. As the second stage of work on the canal progresses rapidly, there is hope that it will enhance the living standards of the people of the state.

[edit] Desert for recreation

Desert tribes near Jaisalmer, India

Thar desert provides the recreational value in terms of desert festivals organized every year. Rajasthan desert festivals are celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan can be seen.

Camels are an integral part of the desert life and the camel events during the Desert Festival confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan.

Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.

Festivals of Rajasthan

Elephant Festival - JaipurClubbed together with the festival of Holi in Jaipur, the Elephant festival celebrates the might of this glorious animal and along with its other attractions it also includes the exciting game of Elephant polo.

Pushkar FestivalEasily the most popular of all of Rajasthan's fairs and festivals, the one at Pushkar combines the dual occasions of Karthik Purnima and the ginormous camel fair. Folk songs and music, performers, snake charmers, monkey trainers, fortune tellers, camels, horses and so much more is on display here at the festival.

Gangaur Festival - JaipurCelebrated all over Rajasthan this traditional festival involves women taking out processions of deities amidst a lot of singing, dancing and devotion.

Desert Festival - JaisalmerIn Jaisalmer, in the heart of the desert country and amidst golden dunes, every winter a melee gathers to celebrate this riotous occasion.

Mewar Festival - UdaipurCelebrated with maximum fervour in the beautiful lake city of Udaipur it sees the entire town light up. The whole town also participates to mark the culmination of this 18-day-long festival with a procession of floats on Lake Pichola.

Camel Festival - BikanerHeld in Bikaner every January, this celebration is completely dedicated to the Camel. Punctuated with folk performances the real stars of the show are the camels indeed as they dance and race and regale the guests with their talents.

Royal Rajasthani Turbans

 

The desert state of Rajasthan is popular for its unique culture and lifestyle. This distinctive nature of Rajasthan attracts many tourists from all over the world. The Rajasthani people are identified by the style and color of their Rajasthani turbans, which vary from region to region, and caste to caste. The Rajputs favor the turbans in the Safa style. In Marwar, high turbans are used and the same style is found in Sirohi and Jaisalmer. Bikaner has a special type of turbans known as the 'Khirkia pag'. In the Udaipur region, the style is called Mewari. Turbans come in all shapes, sizes and colours and there are specific turbans for specific occasions as well.

 

There are many variations of the turbans in Rajasthan, and it is said that the style of the turban changes with every 15 km you travel. In some areas, especially in Rajasthan the turban's size may indicate the position of the person in society. 'Royalty' in different parts of India have distinctly different styles of turbans, as do the 'peasants', who often just wear a towel wound around the head. In fact there are about 1,000 different styles and types of turbans in Rajasthan, each denoting the class, caste and region of the wearer. Turbans come in all shapes, sizes and colours; and there are specific turbans for specific occasions as well.

   

Turbans, the headdress of Indian men are known for their beauty and elegance, they are an essential part of Indian traditional outfit. The turbans add color to the man's costume. Some of the turbans are also called by the cloth by which it is tied, like PACHRANGI turban is made of a five different colored chunri cloth and then jari turbans are there made by the cloth of jari and silk, it is generally worn on formal occasions of marriage along with Sherwani or Jodhpuri Suits with heavy beautiful embroidery patterns on them. Pink, Red and green patterns worn for marriage events. Tying the turban is an art in itself and Rajasthani take great pride in perfecting the art. Pagribands are the specialists who master the art of turban-tying in Jodhpur; the multi-colored PANCHRAMYA Pagri comes in color combinations of saffron, white, pink, red and yellow saffron. Brightly

colored striped turbans are known as leheria turbans ('leheria' in Hindi literally means waves).

 

Turban is a very flexible and adaptive kind of clothing accessory, which can be well adjusted and worn according to the situation. While at home turbans are tied in an easygoing manner, which is hassle free to carry and quick to tie. Rajasthani turbans not only protect men from the heat of searing sun but also are indicative of one's class and caste. In Hindi, an Indian language, a turban is called a pagdi. A ‘pagari’ is usually 82 feet long and 8 inches wide. A ‘safa’ is shorter and broader. The common man wears turban of one color, while the elite wear designs and colors according to the occasion.

 

Turbans hold religious significance. Infact in Hindu weddings wearing head turbans for men is a kind of custom where the girl's as well as boy's father are found bedecking their heads with a turban more commonly known as 'Pagari'. It has become an integral part of wedding ceremonies. It's interesting to see Indian men draping their turbans. You'll be amazed to know that color in itself signifies occasion for example dot prints and bright shades in turban are usually attired at the time of birth and marriage. Dull dark colors like dark blue are worn to pray for the departed soul of a family member.

Cuisine of Rajasthan

Popular DishesDal bati choorma, gatte ki sabzi, Bajra Khichdi, Bedmi Puri, Rajasthani Pulaao, Lal maas

Popular SweetsBesanchakki, dilkhushaal, churma, balushahi, motichoor ladoos, ghevar

Common Ingredientspure ghee, gram flour, lentil, Bajra, chilies, corn and mango powder, buttermilk

Jodhpur Specialty Mawa KachoriJaipur Specialty GhevarAjmer Specialty Sohan HalwaPushkar Specialty Malpuas

The place where cooking food is considered an art form one can imagine what a treat is awaiting a man in love with authentic food; Rajasthan is one such state. Every state has region specific food depending upon the vegetable and meat that is available there and the kind of living conditions and climate of the state. Rajasthan too has typical Rajasthani food due to the hot and arid climate and the warring condition of the state in the past. The kinds of dishes that have evolved in Rajasthan are prepared to last the long wars and are the ones which need not be heated over and again. Due to scarcity of water the meals which are cooked here do not require large amount of water. In fact in regions like Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner where water is always short the meals are prepared in milk, ghee and buttermilk.

The dishes of Rajasthan will definitely satisfy your taste buds despite the climatic limitations and lack of several vegetables. Like the majestic lifestyle of the Kings the meals of the royalty were also as majestic. The elaborate meals were prepared by the khansamas or the royal cooks. Many of the delicious recipes of the royal cooks were kept a secret while some were passed on to the succeeding generations. In Rajasthan both vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian dishes are popular. The Rajput Kings in earlier days frequently went on hunting and hence the game was used to be prepared as a meal for the royal party. Some of the communities of Rajasthan are however purely vegetarian like the Bishnois and the Maheshwaris.

The use of pure ghee, gram flour, lentil, Bajra, chilies, corn and mango powder is very common in most of the dishes which are cooked in Rajasthan. While talking about Rajasthani food it s imperative to mention the most popular and common dish of Rajasthan dal (lentil), bati (baked wheat ball) and churma (sweet cereal cooked in ghee). Almost all the regions within Rajasthan have their local flavors to offer while you are on a tour to Rajasthan; ghevar of Jaipur, mawa kachori of Jodhpur, malpuas of Pushkar, sohan halwa of Ajmer are few of the regional delicacies. Sweets are an integral part of

the Rajasthani food which are not merely used as desserts and are consumed before and even along with the meal. Besanchakki, dilkhushaal, churma, balushahi, motichoor ladoos, ghevar are some of the popular sweets of Rajasthan. DRESS

A Symphony Of Colours Against the backdrop of dusty land and sun-soaked skies, Rajasthan is filled with opulent colours, the sparkle of mirror and silver and precious stones, and the sheen of silk and vivid kaleidoscope of cotton. The exotic and vividly colorful state of Rajasthan is synonymous with majestic forts, stately palaces, lakes, sand dunes, camels and people dressed in brightly coloured costumes.

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To add a dash of colour and life to the barren, colorless landscape and the monotonous, cloudless sky, the people of Rajasthan show a distinct preference for bright costumes. From the simple village folk or tribal belle to the royalty, the preferred colours are bright red, dazzling yellow, lively green or brilliant orange, highlighted by a lavish use of sparkling gold and silver 'zari' or 'gota'.

The dyers of Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat were masters of their craft from the dawn of history. Their unsurpassed skill is still evident in the costumes worn by the Rajasthani people, both rich and poor.

The study of the people of Rajasthan is incomplete without the knowledge of costumes and ornaments. The costumes of the present have the reflections of the costumes of the past. Clothes express one's personality and distinguish people of different places from each other.

The Brilliance Of Hues Both males and females dress in the customary dresses fully influenced by climate, economy, status and the profession. The traditional dresses being 'potia', 'dhoti', 'banda', 'angrakha', 'bugatari', 'pachewara', 'khol', 'dhabla', amongst Hindus; and 'tilak', 'burga', 'achkan' amongst Muslims, which are fast changing now with 'bushirt', 'salwar' and 'skirts', saris and pants accordingly.

Turban, the head dress of Rajasthani men, is a differential pattern, of each geographical region designed to suit terrain and climatic influence. All over Rajasthan, the 'bandhni', the tie-and-dye sari and turban reign supreme.

The common dress of the women constitutes (i) sari or 'odhani', (ii) 'kanchli' or 'kunchuki' or 'choli' (iii) 'ghaghra' or 'ghaghri' or 'lahanga'. Besides, the women of high status and ranks wear 'dupatta' and 'patka'.

The use of chappals or sandals or 'jutees' is also common but ladies of high families use

coloured sandals studded with gold threads and stars. The Diverse Attire

Royal Wardrobe The rich and opulent dresses of the royalty were made under the meticulous attention of special departments in charge of royal costumes while the 'Ranghkhana' and the 'Chhapakhana' were departments that took care of dyeing and printing the fabrics respectively. The 'siwankhana' ensured its flawless and articulate tailoring. Two special sections, the 'toshakhanand' and the 'kapaddwadra', took care of the daily wear and formal costumes of the king.

Traditional Textiles Rajasthani daily wear such as saris, 'odhnis' and turbans are often made from textiles using either block printed or tie-and-dye techniques.

Rajput Costumes The Rajput kings, owing their close proximity to the Mughal court dressed up in their colorful and formal best. Richly brocaded material from Banaras and Gujarat, embroidered and woven Kashmiri shawls and delicate cottons from Chanderi and Dhaka were procured at great cost. Women's Attire

Odhni It is 10 feet long and 5 feet wide, One corner is tucked in the skirt while the other end is taken over the head and right shoulder. Colours and motifs are particular to caste, type of costume and occasion. Both Hindu and Muslims women wear 'odhnis'.

Pila An 'odhni' with a yellow background and a central lotus motif in red called a 'pila', is a traditional gift of parent to their daughter on the birth of a son. The vibrant and colorful land of Rajasthan, with hospitable and well-attired men and women add a splash of colour to the otherwise parched landscape.

Men's Attire The turban, variously called 'pagari', 'pencha', 'sela' or 'safa' depending on style, an 'angrakha' or 'achakan' as the upper garment and 'dhoti' or 'pyjama' as the lower garment make up the male outfit.

Turban Styles Varying styles of turban denote region and caste. These variations are known by different names such as 'pagari' and 'safa'. Infact, there are about 1,000 different styles and types of turbans in Rajasthan, each denoting the class, caste and region of the wearer. Turbans come in all shapes, sizes and colours; and there are specific turbans for specific occasions as well. A 'pagari' is usually 82 feet long and 8 inches wide. A 'safa' is shorter and broader. The common man wears turban of one color, while the elite wear designs and colors according to the occasion.

Headgear / Turbans Varying styles of turban denote region and caste. These variations are known by different

names such as 'pagari' and 'safa. Infact, there are about 1,000 different styles and types of turbans in Rajasthan, each denoting the class, caste and region of the wearer. Turbans come in all shapes, sizes and colours; and there are specific turbans for specific occasions as well.

A 'pagari' is usually 82 feet long and 8 inches wide. A 'safa' is shorter and broader. The common man wears turban of one color, while the elite wear designs and colors according to the occasion

Way Of DressingTraditional textiles Rajasthani daily wear such as saris, 'odhnis' and turbans are often made from textiles using either block printed or tie-and-dye techniques.

Rajput Costumes The Rajput kings, owing their close proximity to the Mughal court dressed up in their colorful and formal best. Richly brocaded material from Banaras and Gujarat, embroidered and woven Kashmiri shawls and delicate cottons from Chanderi and Dhaka were procured at great cost.

Colours, Hues & Themes Against the backdrop of dusty land and sun-soaked skies, Rajasthan is filled with opulent colours, the sparkle of mirror and silver and precious stones, and the sheen of silk and vivid kaleidoscope of cotton. The exotic and vividly colorful state of Rajasthan is synonymous with majestic forts, stately palaces, lakes, sand dunes, camels and people dressed in brightly coloured costumes.

To add a dash of colour and life to the barren, colorless landscape and the monotonous, cloudless sky, the people of Rajasthan show a distinct preference for bright costumes.

From the simple village folk or tribal belle to the royalty, the preferred colours are bright red, dazzling yellow, lively green or brilliant orange, highlighted by a lavish use of sparkling gold and silver 'zari' or 'gota'.

The dyers of Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat were masters of their craft from the dawn of history. Their unsurpassed skill is still evident in the costumes worn by the Rajasthani people, both rich and poor.

The study of the people of Rajasthan is incomplete without the knowledge of costumes and ornaments. The costumes of the present have the reflections of the costumes of the past. Clothes express one's personality and distinguish people of different places from each other.

People of RajasthanPeople

In olden days, the profession of the people decided their caste. This system has now been broken. Today, individuals have the freedom to opt for any profession irrespective of caste. The profession based caste system has now been transformed into birth-based caste system. People of various castes and sub-castes reside in Rajasthan.                              The Rajputs, who were the rulers of most of the erstwhile princely states of Rajasthan, form a major group of residents of Rajasthan. Rajputs are generally stoutly built people of good height. The Rajputs generally worshipped the Sun, Shiva, and Vishnu. Vedic religion is still followed by the Rajputs. All the auspicious and inauspicious activities are done in accordance

to the Vedic traditions.                     The other castes found in Rajasthan are as folows: Brahmins : Their main occupation was worshipping and performance of religious rites. Vaishya : These people generally took up business as their source of livelihood. These days they are settled in every nook and corner of the country.                 There is a large group of agricultural castes to be found in Rajasthan.These people depend on Agriculture for thier livelihood. Some of these castes are Jat,Gurjar,Mali, Kalvi etc. Irrespective of the birth-based caste system, each individual is free to follow the profession / occupation as per choice, in modern Rajasthan.                           Many tribes are also found in different parts of Rajasthan. These tribes have their own social systems and customs.Some of the commonly known tribs are Meena, Bhil, Garasia, Kanjar.

Religions The religion and costumes of the tribes vary. They each have their own religion, costumes and profession.The religion followed by Rajasthanis, in general, is the Hindu religion.Various other religions are also prevalent.          Some of these religions are: Jain Religion: the Jains follow the teachings of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara. Mahavira stressed on the practice Non-violence.               Sikh Religion :Over time,there has been a considarable increase in the number of followers of Sikh religion. The sikhs belive in formless God and worship their holy book 'Guru

Granth Sahib'.

                  Some other major religions that are followed are Buddishm, Islam, Chirstianity, Parsi religion.

CostumesThe study of the people of Rajasthan is incomplete without the knowledge of costumes and ornaments. The costumes of the present have the reflections of the costumes of the past. .

Both males and females dress in the customary dresses fully influenced by climate, economy, status and the profession, they are engaged. The traditional dresses being Potia, Dhoti, Banda, Angrakhi, Bugatari, Pachewara, Khol, Dhabla, amongst Hindus; and Tilak, Burga, Achkan amongst Muslims which fast changing now with Bushirt, Salwar and Skirts, Saris and Pants accordingly. Turbans the head dress of Rajasthan is a differential pattern of each geographical region designed to its terrain and climatic influence. Clothes express ones personality

and tell people which village and caste they belong. All  over  Rajasthan   the bandhni, tie-dye sari and turban reign supreme.

The common dress of the women constitutes (i) Sari or Odhani, (ii) Kanchli or Kunchuki or Choli (iii) Ghaghra or Ghaghri or Lahanga Besides, the women of high status and ranks wear dupatta and patka. The use of chappals or sandals or jutees is also common but   ladies    of high families use coloured sandals studded with gold threads and stars.Thus, it is concluded that the costumes of women are very colourful and fascinating.

OrnamentsHe use of ornaments dates back to the prehistoric times with  the passage of time new designs and varieties replace the old ones but still there  are ornaments which were used in the past and are still used in the present.               Both men and women wear ornaments but with the passage of time, men are giving up their use. The ornaments of gold and silver are more prevalent in Rajasthan. There are certain ornaments which are used by men. In daily use the ladies wear normal ornaments of neck, hand, nose and ear but on special occasions and social functions women wear all the ornaments of to look beautiful and attractive.For its exquisite designs and delicacy of art

Rajasthan jewelry is a rage not only for ladies in India but also for women of foreign countires.